Activities of RNA Polymerase •sequence specific DNA binding -promoters •melts DNA to reveal the template strand •selects ribonucleotide (not deoxynucleotides) that anneals to template strand •polymerizes RNA strand •translocates on DNA template, during which it must: -unwind DNA in front of polymerase -unwinds RNA:DNA hybrid -rewinds DNA behind polymerase •recognize termination signals in the nascent transcript (or on the DNA template) •In addition, the polymerase must be processive (have a high probability of reaching the end of the gene)
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Activities of RNA Polymerase sequence specific DNA binding -promoters melts DNA to reveal the template strand selects ribonucleotide (not deoxynucleotides)
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Activities of RNA Polymerase
•sequence specific DNA binding
-promoters
•melts DNA to reveal the template strand
•selects ribonucleotide (not deoxynucleotides) that anneals to template strand
•polymerizes RNA strand
•translocates on DNA template, during which it must:
-unwind DNA in front of polymerase
-unwinds RNA:DNA hybrid
-rewinds DNA behind polymerase
•recognize termination signals in the nascent transcript (or on the DNA template)
•In addition, the polymerase must be processive (have a high probability of reaching the end of the gene)
Modular Organization of Regulatory Information via Multiple Enhancers
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stripes of ftz and eve expression in a Drosophila embryo
fragments of eve regulatory were inserted upstream of a -Gal reporter and inserted into flies. different regulatory elements gave distinct patterns of -Gal (dark staining) expression. Normal eve expression is shown in red.
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Open complex formation
Abortive initiation
Promoter clearance
Promoter binding
Elongation
Stages of Transcription
[closed complex]
[open complex]
Robert Roeder
collecting sea urchin embryos 1968
today
Keys to Successful Protein Purification
-an abundant source of material
-a quantitative assay-must be able determine yield and purity
-a strategy for separation-charge-size-hydrophobicity-stability-affinity reagents
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Roeder’s Assay, Incorporation of 32P-labeled UTP into RNA
note that the phosphate is incorporated into the RNA
he could measure the amount of radioactivity incorporated into RNA (vs that that remained associated with the UTP)
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Three Different RNA Polymerases in Eukaryotes(Roeder and Rutter, 1969)
DEAE-SephadexQuickTime™ and a
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protein(measured by UV light absorbance in a spectrophotometer)
contain 12-16 subunits- some conserved across evolution
’ - like (~200,000 D)- like (~140,000 D)- like (~40,000 D)
- some shared among all 3 polymerases - some unique
Eukaryotic Nuclear RNA Polymerases
Three Classes of Transcription in Eukaryotes
RNA polymerase I (pol I)
ribosomal RNAs (5.8S, 18S, 28S rRNA)
RNA polymerase II (pol II)
mRNAs some small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs)non-coding RNAs (mostly of unknown function)
RNA polymerase III (pol III)
tRNAs 5S RNA some snRNAs small cytoplasmic RNAs (scRNAs)
RNA Polymerase II Underlies the Central
Dogma of Molecular Biology
Pol I
Pol II
Pol III
45S rRNA
tRNA5S rRNA
RibosomeDNA mRNA Protein
this explains our emphasis on the mechanisms of Pol II transcription
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Roger Kornberg (1947)
(With wife and sons, Stockholm Dec. 2006)
Important things to know about Pol II
• The general architecture of the polymerase, including the arrangement of nucleic acids in the active site
• That nucleotides likely enter through the “funnel”
• That the polymerase is a catalyst that specifically accelerates the rate at which the correctly paired ribonucleotide is added to a growing RNA chain (the exact details of the proposed reaction mechanism are not important to know)
– Review, but don’t feel obligated to memorize the exact details of the role of the trigger loop in facilitating catalysis and substrate (I.e. nucleotide) selection
• That the polymerase must be able to translocate on the DNA template after it has added a nucleotide to the RNA
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Crystal Structure of Yeast RNA Polymerase II at 2.8 Å Resolution (Cramer et al, 2001)
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RNAP (T. aquaticus) RNA Pol II (S. cerevisiae)
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Rpb2
Rpb1
What is Required for Promoter Function?
cis (DNA sequences) vs trans (proteins)
identify cis elements by, conservation, mutagenesis and assays of transcription
identify trans factors by biochemical (mainly) and genetic (occasionally) approaches
Assays of Promoter Activity
in vitro- use a specific promoter- mix with NTPs and extract or purified factors- measure RNA (directly, with 32P-labeled NTPs or indirect assays, see Weaver pp 106-111)
in vivo- introduce gene of interest into cells
transformation (yeast and bacteria)transfection (cultured cells)
- fuse promoter to a reporter gene that can be differentiated from normal genes in the recipient cells
“reporter gene”- can collect and measure RNA from cells- can measure activity of reporter gene
beta-Gal, selectable markers
• Deletion mutations
• Linker scanning
• Point mutations
Identifying Promoter Elements
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p o i n t m u t a t i o n s
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l i n k e r i n s e r t i o n m u t a g e n e s i s
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s c a n n i n g d e l e t i o n m u t a g e n e s i s
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d e l e t i o n m u t a g e n e s i s t x n
Class II PromotersSeveral parts:– Core promoter– Upstream promoter
elements– Enhancers, may be
far from core promoters
sequence elements found in many core promoters
gene specific
Core Promoter Elements• In addition to TATA box, core promoters are:
– TFIIB recognition element (BRE)– Initiator (Inr)– Downstream promoter element (DPE)– note: the important thing to remember is the TATA box
• At least one of the four core elements is missing in most promoters• TATA-less promoters tend to have DPEs• Promoters for highly specialized genes tend to have TATA boxes • Promoters for housekeeping genes tend to lack them
Upstream Elements
• Upstream promoter elements are usually found upstream of class II core promoters
• Differ from core promoters in binding to relatively gene-specific transcription factors.examples:– GC boxes bind transcription factor Sp1– CCAAT boxes bind CTF (CCAAT-binding transcription
factor)
• Enhancers, function in a position and orientation independent manner. (sometimes enhancers are considered to be a distinct type of element)
…. polymerases stalled at the 5’ ends of genes appear to be common
...may involve proof-reading (observed in vitro)
...is coupled to DNA repair
Activating domains can be replaced by randomly selected sequences (Ma and Ptashne, 1986)
activator -gal +gal
Gal4 111 1895
Gal4DBD <1 <1
none <1 <1
B17 415 794
B42 542 756
B6 429 588
B9 21 9.3
B15 90 73
beta-gal activity
Q. what are the essential features of activation domains?
Approach: random e. coli sequences cloned downstream of Gal4 DBD and expressed in yeast containing a -gal reporter with Gal4 sites in its promoter
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Activating domains can be replaced by randomly selected sequences (Ma and Ptashne, 1986)
1. random e. coli sequences cloned downstream of the Gal4 DBD and expressed in a yeast strain containing a -gal reporter with Gal4 sites in its promoter
2. ~1% of all the clones activated transcription
3. activating sequences did not resemble known proteins, no catalytic domains etc.
-activation domains unlikely to have enzymatic activity
4. negatively charged residues common
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Overexpression of Gal4 from the strong ADH promoter
inhibits promoters that lack Gal4 binding sites(Gill and Ptashne, 1988)
core
HIS3+1
UASH/core
+12
-Gal
UASG= GAL enhancer (binds Gal4)UASH= HIS3 enhancerUASC= CYC1 enhancer
decreased expression of reporter genes lacking Gal4 binding sites when Gal4 levels are high
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TATA box
activator A
UAS
Activator Interference or ‘Squelching’
activator B
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TATA box
activator A
UAS
Activator Interference or ‘Squelching’
activator B
hypothesis?
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1. Eukaryotic activators do not bind to RNA pol II polymerase and therefore do not directly recruit polymerase to promoters.
2. Activators may, however, indirectly recruit RNA polymerase by recruiting factors (often called co-activators) that serve as a physical bridge between activator and polymerase.
‘TFIID hypothesis’
‘Holoenzyme hypothesis’
What is the Limiting Target of Activators?
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ChIP (Chromatin Immunoprecipitation)
Formaldehyde crosslink
Shear chromatin by sonication
Immunoprecipitation
Reverse crosslinks, PCR
TBP
TBP
TBP
TBP
input control: reverse crosslinks and analyze sample prior to IP
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Extent of TBP binding correlates with promoter activity(Li et al, 1999)
TBP crosslinks to active promoters
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Pol II 12
GTFs TFIID
TFIIB 1 TFIIE 2 TFIIH 9 TFIIF 2 TFIIA 3
Mediator 22
RNA Polymerase II Transcription MachineryNumber of subunits
TBP 1TAFs 12*
*
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The ‘TFIID Hypothesis’
in vitro assays suggest specific activator-TAF contacts
predictions?
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1. TAFs provide surfaces for the interaction
of TFIID with activators. 2. TFIID recruits polymerase
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Activated Transcription in the Absence of TAFIIs
western blot demonstrating depletion of TAFIIs
see p97 of Weaver or p769 of Watson for a description of the Western blot technique
in vitro transcription shows that - transcription is abolished in the TFIID depleted extract- TBP is sufficient to restore activated transction- 4 different activators were tested
Oelgeschlager et al., 1998
no transcription after depletion of TFIID and TAFs 26