Acculturation, Enculturation, Ethnic Identity, and Conscientiousness as Predictors of Latino Boys' and Girls' Career Decision Self-Efficacy

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2011 2012 39: 208 originally published online 22 SeptemberJournal of Career Development

Khan and Jennifer LeighLizette Ojeda, Brandy Piña-Watson, Linda G. Castillo, Rosalinda Castillo, Noshaba

Predictors of Latino Boys' and Girls' Career Decision Self-EfficacyAcculturation, Enculturation, Ethnic Identity, and Conscientiousness as

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Acculturation,Enculturation,Ethnic Identity, andConscientiousness asPredictors of Latino Boys’and Girls’ CareerDecision Self-Efficacy

Lizette Ojeda1, Brandy Pina-Watson1,Linda G. Castillo1, Rosalinda Castillo1,Noshaba Khan1, and Jennifer Leigh1

AbstractThis study examined the role of culture and personality on the career decisionself-efficacy of 338 Latino seventh-grade public middle school students. Specifically,we examined the role of acculturation, enculturation, ethnic identity, and conscien-tiousness on career decision self-efficacy. Findings indicated Latina girls were moreacculturated and enculturated than Latino boys. For Latino boys and Latina girls,respectively, 34% and 25% of the variance in career decision self-efficacy wasaccounted for by the predictors. Acculturation, ethnic identity, and conscientious-ness significantly predicted career decision self-efficacy for girls. For boys, however,only ethnic identity and conscientiousness were unique significant predictors. Asexpected, enculturation did not significantly predict career decision self-efficacy foreither boys or girls. An interaction effect between acculturation and enculturationdid not significantly predict career decision self-efficacy for boys or girls. Implicationsfor practice and future research are discussed.

1 Texas A&M University

Corresponding Author:

Lizette Ojeda, Texas A&M University, 710 Harrington Tower MS 4225, College Station, TX 77843, USA

Email: [email protected]

Journal of Career Development39(2) 208-228

ª Curators of the Universityof Missouri 2012

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KeywordsLatinos, acculturation, enculturation, ethnic identity, conscientiousness, careerdecision self-efficacy

Latinos1 are the largest ethnic minority group in the United States (U.S. Census

Bureau, 2004). In fact, the 24% Latino population growth rate is almost four times the

general U.S. population’s growth rate of 6% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Due to the

increasing Latino population in the United States, scholars predict Latinos will have a

larger impact on the workforce than any other demographic group (Lucero-Miller &

Newman, 1999). Over time, the changing demographics of increasing racial/ethnic

minorities will force employers, educators, and helping professionals to rethink their

practices and policies (Leong, 1991).

Despite the growth of Latinos in the United States, there continues to be a discre-

pancy between Latino academic achievement rates compared to other racial/ethnic

groups. For instance, Latino middle school students scored lower on school curricu-

lum compared to Whites and Asian Americans (Farkas, Sheehan, & Grobe, 1990).

Furthermore, Latino adolescents drop out of secondary education at 28% compared

to 13% among African Americans and 7% among Whites (National Center for

Education Statistics, 2001). Dropout rates in Texas, where the current study took

place, show rates for Latinos are higher than for the general population (14.4%vs. 10.5%; Texas Education Agency, 2008). Similar discrepancies continue into the

college years, with only 33% of Latinos compared to 42% of the general population

enrolled in college (Pew Hispanic Center, 2009). In fact, among 25–29-year-olds

who completed high school, only 16% of Latinos obtained bachelors degrees com-

pared to 21% of African Americans and 37% of Whites.

Educational achievement disparities could be due to cultural differences

between Latinos and the school system (Pew Hispanic Center, 2009). For example,

cultural differences could be accounted for by a person’s level of acculturation,

enculturation, and the salience of their ethnic identity. Individual differences, such

as conscientiousness, have also predicted academic achievement. One study

related conscientiousness, one of the Big Five personality traits (John, Donahue,

& Kentle, 1991), to school success among ethnically diverse college students

(Kaufman, Agars, & Lopez-Wagner, 2008). In turn, academic success has been

linked to a person’s confidence in their ability to make future career decisions.

To address this issue, we examined the role of culture (acculturation, encultura-

tion, ethnic identity) and personality (conscientiousness) on Latino middle school

students’ career decision self-efficacy.

Career Decision Self-Efficacy

Career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) is the belief that one can complete specific

tasks related to making a career decision (Betz & Luzzo, 1996). The CDSE is an

Ojeda et al. 209



important construct to examine among Latino middle school students because of its

role on career development variables such as interests, outcome expectations, and

intentions (Fouad & Smith, 1996). Further highlighting the role of self-efficacy in

career-related outcomes among Latino students, one study found Mexican American

middle school students’ math and science self-efficacy predicted outcome expecta-

tions, interests, and goal intentions in math and science (Navarro, Flores, &

Worthington, 2007). In addition, lack of confidence in one’s ability to choose a

career could have negative effects on other career outcomes such as overlooking a

postsecondary education (McWhirter, Rasheed, & Crothers, 2000) and having

low-educational goals (Flores, Ojeda, Huang, Gee, & Lee, 2006). Research has

shown racial/ethnic minority college students had lower CDSE than did White stu-

dents (Gloria & Hird, 1999). One possible explanation for Latino students’ lower

CDSE may be due to psychological factors such as acculturation and ethnic identity.

For instance, Gloria and Hird (1999) found ethnic identity significantly and posi-

tively predicted CDSE among racial/ethnic minority. These findings support the

author’s assertion that ethnic identity development is a vocational task used by racial

and ethnic minorities. They report that ethnic identity may be necessary for this

group to incorporate their self-concept into their career identity as well as to be effi-

cacious in their abilities to make career decisions. The relationship between these

two variables deserves further consideration.

Surprisingly, few studies have specifically examined CDSE among Latino

middle school students. Understanding Latinos’ CDSE at an early stage in career

development such as during adolescence could impact Latinos’ future career

avenues. For instance, Latino immigrants in particular are overrepresented in

low-skilled, labor-intensive ‘‘brown-collar’’ jobs (Catanzarite, 2002). Perhaps

increasing their CDSE during youth could encourage them to pursue occupations

with higher financial compensation. In essence, it is important to consider CDSE

during adolescence in preparation for entering the future workforce to ensure

Latinos do not lag behind in their potential to impact the U.S. labor force.

Acculturation and Enculturation

Acculturation refers to the multidimensional processes of adapting to the host

majority culture (Berry, 1980). Within the acculturation process, a member of

one cultural group changes his or her behaviors, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes

to become more in-line with the norms of another culture. Enculturation, a

related construct, refers to maintaining aspects of one’s culture of origin while

living within another culture (Gonzales, Knight, Morgan-Lopez, Saenz, &

Sirolli, 2002)

Berry (1980) developed classification systems for ethnic minority individuals,

which incorporate both the individual’s acculturation and enculturation level. Four

categories are proposed: integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization.

Integration occurs when a person is high on both acculturation and enculturation.

210 Journal of Career Development 39(2)



An integrated individual has an interest in both maintaining his or her culture of

origin while simultaneously successfully interacting with the mainstream culture.

This individual is considered bicultural in that he or she integrates two cultures into

his or her identity. Assimilation occurs when the individual does not maintain his or

her culture of origin. Instead, this individual seeks to become part of the dominant

culture at the expense of his or her culture of origin. This individual would score

high on acculturation and low on enculturation. An individual in the separation cate-

gory avoids interaction with other cultures while keeping a strong connection with

his or her culture of origin. This individual would score high on enculturation and

low on acculturation. Finally, an individual who is in the marginalization category

has no interest in either his or her culture of origin or other cultures. This individual

would score low on acculturation and enculturation.

Limited research and mixed findings exist on the role of acculturation and

enculturation on educational and career development. Some researchers found

acculturated Latino youth are more likely to attend college (Hurtado & Gauvain,

1997). Other studies indicated negative outcomes associated with acculturation

that put youth at risk of negative mental health and academic outcomes (Bernal,

Saenz, & Knight, 1991; Berry, 1988). These youth experience internal conflict

because they find themselves in unfamiliar situations and struggle to make deci-

sions about how to behave in such scenarios (Gonzales, Knight, Birman, & Sirolli,

2004). Additionally, internal conflict can impact adolescents’ self-concept, iden-

tity formation, and mental health (Ethier & Deaux, 1994). To complicate findings

further, a study on Mexican American middle school students concluded no indi-

rect effect between acculturation, enculturation, and math/science self-efficacy

(Navarro et al., 2007).

Nonetheless, enculturation and a strong ethnic identity serve as protective

factors for ethnic minorities (Parra & Guarnaccia, 1998; Phinney & Chavira,

1995; Zimmerman, Ramirez, Washienko, Walt, & Dyer, 1998). Individuals who

feel proud of their heritage and have a strong ethnic identity may have improved

well-being and a greater resilience against stressful life circumstances because of

the social support and sense of belonging provided by their extended families

(Gonzales et al., 2004). Gonzales and colleagues stated individuals who have a

strong ethnic identity and who feel pride in their heritage may have greater self-

esteem, which in turn can increase confidence in making future career decisions.

In contrast, however, research has found enculturation and CDSE are not signifi-

cantly correlated (Flores et al., 2006). Given the mixed findings on acculturation

and enculturation, we explored how these variables contributed to the CDSE of

Latino youth.

Ethnic Identity

According to Erikson’s (1968) identity development theory, a person enters a stage

of identity versus identity confusion during adolescence. The major task for

Ojeda et al. 211



adolescents during this identity stage is to learn academic, social, physical, and

practical skills needed to navigate the adult world including their choices in future

career decisions. Ethnic identity is an important contributor to a person’s overall

identity. Ethnic identity is the part of an individual’s self-concept that derives from

his or her knowledge of membership in a social group together with the value and

emotional significance attached to that membership (Tajfel, 1981).

A few studies have examined the relation between ethnic identity and career

decision making. Rollins and Valdez (2006) found that among a sample of Latino

and African American adolescent females, career decision self-efficacy mediated

the relation between ethnic identity and gender traditionality in career choice goals.

Among predominantly ethnic minority adolescents, ethnic identity related to math

self-efficacy (O’Brien, Martinez-Pons, & Kopala, 1999). Duffy and Klingaman

(2009) found importance of ethnic identity for African American and Asian

American students related to confidence in making decisions about future careers.

In Gushue and Whitson’s (2006) study on the relation between ethnic identity and

CDSE among African American and Latina girls, they suggested self-efficacy might

be improved through a person’s integration of self. They proposed a positive salient

ethnic identity may give girls more confidence to deal with racism and sexism as

they explore career options.

Conscientiousness

Social cognitive career theory (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994) suggests person

inputs such as personality are related to self-efficacy beliefs through its relation to

learning experiences. Nevertheless, vocational researchers have just recently begun

to examine the role of personality on career outcomes (Jin, Watkins, & Yuen,

2009; Reed, Bruch, & Haase, 2004). For instance, many of the Big Five personality

constructs are associated with career decidedness, career choice, career interests, and

career commitment (Jin et al., 2009; Lounsbury, Tatum, Chambers, Owens, & Gibson,

1999; Newman, Gray, & Fuqua, 1999; Shafer, 2000). Of the five personality variables,

conscientiousness has been the most consistently associated with career-related vari-

ables (Wolfe & Johnson, 1995).

Conscientiousness reflects persistence, responsibility, and a need for achieve-

ment. Conscientious individuals typically demonstrate thinking and reasoning, and

thus are able to fully establish goals, be motivated, be sociable, and be adaptive

(Costa & McCrae, 1992). Among college students, conscientiousness has been

related to career decidedness (Lounsbury et al., 1999). Adolescents who scored

high on career decidedness were more orderly, rule following, dutiful, reliable, and

structured (Lounsbury, Hutchers, & Loveland, 2005). Despite these findings there

is limited research focused on conscientiousness and career development in early

adolescence. Perhaps, this is because adolescence is the time when young people

are developing their identities and experiencing changes that lead to consistent

personality traits (McCrae et al., 2002).




Purpose of the Study

Most career development research has focused on high school and college stu-

dents whereas research with middle school populations is sparse, especially with

racial/ethnic minorities. In response to a call for more career research with early

adolescents (Fouad & Smith, 1996), the current study focuses on Latino middle

school students’ CDSE. Given the growing impact Latinos have on the work-

force, as well as the impact CDSE can have on their progression toward a career,

the cultural variables of ethnic identity, acculturation, and enculturation were

explored to determine their relation to Latino youth’s CDSE. Using Berry’s

(1980) acculturation classification system, we also examined if varying accul-

turation strategies through an interaction effect between acculturation and encul-

turation predict CDSE. Additionally, given the role of conscientiousness on

career selection and progression, conscientiousness was investigated to deter-

mine its role on CDSE among Latino youth while controlling for culture. We

chose to explore the effect of conscientiousness on CDSE above and beyond the

effect of culture to determine the unique contribution of personality despite

cultural factors.

The present study tested four hypotheses. First, we hypothesized acculturation

and ethnic identity would positively predict CDSE. We also hypothesized an

interaction effect between acculturation and enculturation would significantly

predict CDSE. Third, we hypothesized conscientiousness would contribute to the

variance accounted for in CDSE above and beyond the cultural variables. Finally,

we hypothesized enculturation would not significantly predict CDSE.

Method

Participants

Participants were 338 Latino seventh-grade public middle school students in a mid-

sized, urban city in central Texas. This sample was 54% female and 46% male. Par-

ticipant’s ages ranged from 12 to 15 years (M ¼ 12.72 years; SD ¼ .68 years). All

participants were from low-income families as defined by eligibility for free or

reduced-price meals under the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) National

School Lunch Program (USDA, 2008).

All participants indicated they were Latino. No further information was col-

lected to determine specific Latino subgroup membership. The Latino population

in this region is 28% of the total population. More specifically, 80.7% is Mexican

American, 0.6% is Puerto Rican, 0.3% is Cuban American, and 18.3% is classified

as ‘‘Other Hispanic or Latino’’ (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). A similar breakdown

for this study can be extrapolated from the region’s demographics. Within the

school district’s middle schools that participated in this study, 47% of the students

were Latino.

Ojeda et al. 213



InstrumentsCareer decision self-efficacy. The Middle School Self-Efficacy Scale (Fouad &

Smith, 1997) is a modified version of Taylor and Betz’s (1983) CDSE Scale.

Modifications included having fewer items and more understandable wording for

children in middle school. This 12-item scale measures adolescents’ confidence in

the ability to make career-related decisions. A sample item includes ‘‘I resist

attempts of parents or friends to push me into a career I believe is beyond my abil-

ities or not for me.’’ Responses were recorded using a Likert-type scale ranging from

strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Mean scores were derived, with higher

scores indicating more confidence in ability to make decisions about a future career.

In a validity study of the CDSE measure with middle school students, Fouad and

Smith (1997) found this modified scale was valid and reliable with this group.

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) conducted with a similar population as this

study’s (i.e., middle school students, low socioeconomic status [SES], and

predominately Hispanic) demonstrated good model fit (w2/df¼ 1.96, p < .001, AGFI

¼ .91, RMR¼ .05). Fouad and Smith (1997) also reported a reliability coefficient of

a ¼ .79. For the present study, the scale resulted in an a coefficient of .74.

Acculturation and enculturation. A revised, shortened 12-item version (Brief

ARSMA-II; Bauman, 2005) of the 30-item Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican

Americans-II (ARSMA-II; Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995) was used to mea-

sure acculturation and enculturation. It contains two subscales: a 6-item Mexican

Oriented Scale (MOS) measures enculturation and a 6-item Anglo Oriented Scale

(AOS) measures acculturation. Sample MOS and AOS items include: ‘‘My thinking

is done in the Spanish language,’’ and ‘‘My thinking is done in the English lan-

guage,’’ respectively. Responses are recorded on a Likert-type scale ranging from

1 (not at all) to 5 (almost always/extremely often).

The Brief ARSMA-II is significantly correlated with the ARSMA-II (r ¼ .89;

Cuellar et al., 1995). The MOS and AOS were positively correlated with the following

Stephenson Multigroup Acculturation Scale (SMAS; Stephenson, 2000) subscales:

ethnic society immersion (ESI) and the dominant society immersion (DSI), respec-

tively. ESI was positively correlated with MOS (r¼ .87, p < .01) and DSI was positively

correlated with AOS (r ¼ .49, p < .01). Bauman (2005) surveyed two samples with

the Brief ARSMA-II and the following coefficient as were obtained: for Sample 1,

on the MOS scale,a¼ .93; for the AOS scale,a¼ .69; for Sample 2,a¼ .84 for the MOS

scale anda¼ .75 for the AOS scale. For the present study,a¼ .91 for the MOS subscale

and a ¼ .75 for the AOS subscale.

Ethnic identity. The revised, shortened 6-item Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-

Revised (MEIM-R; Phinney & Ong, 2007) is a revised version of the 14-item MEIM

(Phinney, 1992). This scale measures ethnic identity on a Likert-type scale ranging

from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). A sample item includes




‘‘I understand pretty well what my ethnic group membership means to me.’’ Mean

scores are computed, with higher scores indicating greater salience of ethnic identity

within an individual. An open-ended question was given to inquire about the child’s

self-labeled ethnic identification as part of the MEIM-R. This question was omitted

from the analysis due to a large proportion of missing data and participant confusion

about the question.

Results of a confirmatory factor analysis conducted by Phinney and Ong (2007)

indicated an excellent model fit (w2/df ¼ 1.91, p < .001, AGFI ¼ .96, CFI ¼ .98,

RMSEA ¼ .04). The MEIM-R used in their study resulted in a coefficient a of .81.

For the present study, the coefficient a was .80.

Conscientiousness. The conscientiousness subscale is taken from a larger scale, the

Big Five Inventory, which measures five personality traits: openness to experience,

conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (John et al., 1991).

This 9-item scale is measured on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly dis-

agree) to 5 (agree strongly). Negatively worded items are inversely scored. A sample

item includes ‘‘I am someone who perseveres until the task is finished.’’ All items

are summed to determine total score. A higher total score on this scale indicates

higher levels of conscientiousness traits within the individual. A study by Benet-

Martınez and John (1998) found the scale yielded a ¼ .82. For the present study, the

coefficient a was .74.

Demographic questionnaire. A questionnaire was used to gather demographic infor-

mation about age, grade level, gender, and race/ethnicity.

Procedure

Data for this study were taken from an evaluation of a local independent school

district Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs

(GEAR UP). GEAR UP is a federally funded discretionary grant program designed

to prepare low-income students for college. Participants were required to have an

informed consent signed by a parent. Permission of the Institutional Review Board

at a major Southwestern university was obtained to conduct the evaluation. Approx-

imately 1,050 low-income seventh-grade students from four middle schools in cen-

tral Texas participated in the GEAR UP project. Since the focus of this study was on

Latino students, our sample was reduced to 345 based on demographic information.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

The data met statistical assumptions for multivariate normality, linearity, and multi-

collinearity. In analyzing multivariate outliers, we detected three outliers based on

Mahalanobis Distance scores. Listwise deletion procedures were used to omit four

Ojeda et al. 215



cases with missing data. Only cases with complete data were retained for this study

(Pigott, 2001). Therefore, only 338 of the original 345 participants were included in

further analyses.

To examine potential gender differences, a one-way multivariate analyses of var-

iance (MANOVA) was conducted. Findings revealed significant gender differences

across the variables, Wilks L ¼ .94, F(5, 331) ¼ 4.18, p < .001. Specifically, there

were gender differences in acculturation, F(1, 335) ¼ 10.40, p < .0001, and encul-

turation, F(1, 335) ¼ 3.87, p < .05. These results indicated Latina girls were more

acculturated and enculturated than Latino boys. Given the Wilks L demonstrated

significant gender differences in the variables taken together, we conducted the

remaining analyses separate by gender. The means, standard deviations, and univari-

ate analysis of variance (ANOVA) results for each measured variable by gender are

presented in Table 1. See Table 2 for means, standard deviations, and partial corre-

lations for the full sample.

Main Analyses

Two hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine the role of accul-

turation, enculturation, ethnic identity, and conscientiousness on career decision

self-efficacy for Latino middle school boys and girls separately. We also tested for

a possible interaction effect between acculturation and enculturation on CDSE. In

the first step, the three cultural variables were entered. For the second step, we added

the interaction variable to determine whether CDSE would differ among the four

acculturation strategies (assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization).

Both acculturation and enculturation were centered before the interaction effect was

computed. Finally, we entered conscientiousness in the final step to determine the

extent to which conscientiousness accounts for variance in CDSE above and beyond

the cultural predictors.

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Univariate Analyses of Variance by Gender

Girls (n ¼ 183) Boys (n ¼ 155)

Variable M SD M SD F(1, 335)

Acculturationa 3.21 .68 2.96 .71 10.40**Enculturationa 2.36 1.18 2.11 1.11 3.87*Ethnic identity 2.97 .59 2.91 .57 1.08Conscientiousness 3.41 .49 3.34 .40 1.86CDSE 3.10 .39 3.07 .40 0.53

Note: Variables with subscripts indicate means differed significantly between girls and boys. CDSE ¼Career decision self-efficacy.*p < .05.**p < .001.




For Latino boys, 34% of the variance in CDSE was accounted for by the predictor

variables, F(5, 154) ¼ 15.18, p < .001. Table 3 reveals that the cultural variables

accounted for 28% of the variance in CDSE for boys, with ethnic identity being the

only statistically significant predictor (b ¼ .51, p < .005). The addition of the interac-

tion between acculturation and enculturation in Step 2 did not account for a statisti-

cally significant increase in variance (DR2 < .02, p > .05). Finally, as predicted,

conscientiousness accounted for an additional 4% of variance (p < .001) in CDSE

above and beyond the cultural variables and their interaction. In this final step,

there were only two significant predictors; ethnic identity was the strongest predictor

(b ¼ .44, p < .001) followed by conscientiousness (b ¼ .22, p < .005).

For Latino girls, 25% of the variance in CDSE was accounted for by the predic-

tor variables, F(5, 181) ¼ 11.86, p < .001. Table 3 reveals that the cultural vari-

ables accounted for 21% of the variance in CDSE for girls, with ethnic identity

and acculturation being significant predictors (b ¼ .40, p < .001 and b ¼ .21,

p < .005, respectively). The addition of the interaction between acculturation and

enculturation in Step 2 did not account for a statistically significant increase in var-

iance (DR2 < .01, p > .05). Finally, as predicted, conscientiousness accounted for

an additional 3.5% of variance (p < .01) in CDSE above and beyond the cultural

variables and their interaction. In this final step, ethnic identity was the strongest

predictor (b¼ .33, p < .001) followed by acculturation (b¼ .22, p < .005) and con-

scientiousness (b ¼ .20, p < .01).

Discussion

The adolescent years are a time when identity development (Erikson, 1968) and

career development become salient in an individual’s life (Fouad & Smith, 1996).

As such, this study contributes to the career development literature by examining the

Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, Alpha Coefficients, and Partial Correlations Among theMeasured Variables Controlling for Gender

Variable 1 2 3 4 5

1. Acculturation —2. Enculturation �.32* —3. Ethnic identity .05 .24* —4. Conscientiousness .09 .08 .34* —5. CDSE .21* .02 .45* .35* —a .75 .91 .80 .74 .74M 3.10 2.25 2.95 3.09 1.46SD 0.70 1.16 0.58 0.40 0.50

Note: CDSE ¼ Career decision self-efficacy.*p < .001.

Ojeda et al. 217



role of culture and personality on Latino middle school students’ CDSE. Specifically,

we examined the role of acculturation, enculturation, ethnic identity, and conscien-

tiousness on Latino adolescent boys’ and girls’ CDSE. We also examined the role

of Berry’s (1980) four acculturation categories (assimilation, integration, separation,

and marginalization) on CDSE. Gender differences were found in acculturation and

enculturation, with girls scoring higher than boys on both variables. This suggested

Table 3. Hierarchical Regression Results (Change in R2, Unstandardized B Weights, StandardError, and Standardized b Weights) for Career Decision Self-Efficacy

Variable B SE B b R2 DR2

BoysStep 1 .28 .28***

Ethnic identity .36*** .05 .51***Acculturation .08 .04 .14Enculturation �.03 .03 �.08

Step 2 .30 .02Ethnic identity .36*** .05 .51***Acculturation .09* .04 .16*Enculturation �.03 .03 �.08Acculturation � enculturation �.07 .04 �.13

Step 3 .34 .04***Ethnic identity .31*** .05 .44***Acculturation .08 .04 .14Enculturation �.02 .03 �.07Acculturation � enculturation �.06 .04 �.11Conscientiousness .22** .07 .22**

GirlsStep 1 .21 .21***

Ethnic identity .27*** .05 .40***Acculturation .12** .04 .21**Enculturation .00 .02 .00

Step 2 .22 <.01Ethnic identity .27*** .05 .40***Acculturation .13** .04 .23**Enculturation .01 .03 .02

Acculturation � enculturation �.03 .04 �.07Step 3 .25 .03***

Ethnic identity .22*** .05 .33***Acculturation .13** .04 .22**Enculturation .00 .03 .01Acculturation � enculturation �.03 .03 �.07Conscientiousness .16** .06 .20**

*p < .01.**p < .005.***p < .001.




Latina girls were more bicultural than Latino boys. For girls particularly, ‘‘fitting in’’

socially is important during adolescence (Freyberg, 2009). The Latina girls in our

study may have believed that to fit in with their peers at a predominantly White

school they would have to act more like the majority of their peers and thus accul-

turate. At the same time, girls may have been more enculturated than boys because

Latinas may experience more pressure from their family and community to be a

traditional Latina than boys.

In assessing the CDSE of Latino boys, only ethnic identity and conscientiousness

were significant predictors. Among Latina girls, CDSE was predicted by accultura-

tion, ethnic identity, and conscientiousness. For both boys and girls, ethnic identity

was the strongest predictor of CDSE. This finding is consistent with previous research

concluding ethnic identity predicted academic and career self-efficacy among early

adolescents (Phillips Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, & Seay, 1999). Consistent with

our findings, Quintana’s (2007) overview on ethnic identity research demonstrated a

strong relation with positive outcomes such as better mental health and academic suc-

cess. Duffy and Klingaman (2009) noted the relation between ethnic identity and

career development outcomes may be due to a developed self-concept (Fouad &

Arbona, 1994), a task initiated during adolescence (Super, 1990). Because ethnic iden-

tity is an important component of self-concept for ethnic minorities (Quintana, 2007),

adolescents’ secure ethnic identity may yield a stronger self-concept, and in turn lead

to greater career maturity (Duffy & Klingaman, 2009). In essence, when Latino youth

are secure in what their ethnicity means to them they are more secure in their ability to

navigate the career decision-making process.

Conscientiousness significantly predicted CDSE for both Latino boys and girls.

That is, students who were more organized, self-disciplined, and careful were more

confident in their ability to make decisions about their career. This finding is consis-

tent with a study that found conscientiousness predicted college students’ CDSE

(Hartman & Betz, 2007). These researchers suggest conscientious students have

high CDSE because they are able to tap into their self-regulatory resources such

as goal orientation and self-determination. Thus, it seems students who have such

character strengths would know how to be resourceful when making career deci-

sions. Conscientiousness is an important personality trait not only for career out-

comes but also for well-being (Lounsbury et al., 1999). Lent’s (2004) social

cognitive model of well-being, a model partly based on the social cognitive career

theory, suggests personality predicts career outcomes which in turn predict life satis-

faction. Indeed, conscientiousness is an important predictor of Latino youth’s future

career trajectory and overall mental health.

Although acculturation has predicted CDSE for both men and women (Miranda

& Umhoefer, 1998; Patel, Salahuddin, & O’Brien, 2008), this was confirmed for

girls but not boys in our study. Logically, the more students speak, read, and write

in the English language, areas tapped into by the acculturation measure, the more

access they would have to resources useful in helping them make career decisions

(Patel et al., 2008). Perhaps acculturation predicted CDSE for girls but not for boys

Ojeda et al. 219



because Latina girls are traditionally expected to be submissive and sacrifice their

own needs (Castillo, Perez, Castillo, & Ghosheh, 2010) Therefore, less acculturated

Latinas may not feel efficacious about exploring career options and making career

decisions more independently. As they acculturate, however, they become more

individualistic and in turn develop confidence to think about their own career goals

as opposed to succumbing to expectations imposed on them by family. Latino boys

on the other hand, do not necessarily need to be acculturated to feel confident about

their career decision making because they are traditionally socialized to make

decisions for themselves and for their families, a privilege or responsibility that

comes with being male. Given these significant gender differences in the role of

acculturation on CDSE, future research should examine the mediating role of gen-

der roles on this relation.

As expected, enculturation did not significantly predict CDSE for either Latino

boys or girls. This is consistent with previous research that concluded no relation

between enculturation and educational goals among Mexican American adoles-

cents (Flores et al., 2006). This does not suggest adherence to behaviors of the

Latino culture is detrimental to the career development of Latinos, but to acknowl-

edge behaviors such as reading, writing, and speaking in Spanish may not suffice

in navigating the tasks necessary to feel efficacious in making decisions about

one’s career in the United States where career success often requires knowledge

of the English language.

Our findings also indicated no interaction effects between acculturation and

enculturation and CDSE for Latino boys or girls. That is, confidence in ability

to make career-related decisions did not differ for Latino adolescents categorized

as culturally integrated, assimilated, separated, or marginalized. Although this par-

ticular analysis was primarily exploratory, we expected integration (high accul-

turation and high enculturation), also referred to as biculturalism, to positively

predict CDSE given biculturalism would allow Latino adolescents to navigate

between two cultures (Birman, 1998). It could have also been expected for bicul-

turalism to have a negative effect on CDSE if bicultural stress (stress related to

navigating between two cultures) were present. For instance, if a Latino adolescent

experiences conflict between the mainstream and Latino culture despite familiarity

with both cultures, such stress may trigger career indecision if career goals based

on either culture’s values conflict. No other known studies have examined Berry’s

(1980) four acculturation strategies in the career development research among

Latino adolescents. Thus, more studies that examine the role of these various stra-

tegies on career outcomes are encouraged.

Limitations

The limitations of this study should be addressed. First, the scale used to measure

enculturation and acculturation (ARSMA-II) focuses on behaviors associated with

language development, such as reading books in English or listening to Spanish




music. Although the ARSMA-II is the most frequently used measure of bilinear

acculturation among Latinos in the career development literature (Miller &

Kerlow-Myers, 2009), other scales may be able to measure enculturation and

acculturation by addressing cultural customs, beliefs, values, and attitudes such

as the Latino/a Values Scale (Kim, Soliz, Orellana, & Alamilla, 2009) and the

Multidimensional Measure of Cultural Identity (Felix-Ortiz, Newcomb, & Myers,

1994). Our study also is limited because we did not distinguish between Latino

subgroups in our sample. However, we can assume that the majority of participants

were of Mexican descent given the statistics on Latinos in this region. Thus, gen-

eralizability to other Latino subgroups is limited. Finally, there are a few environ-

mental limitations that may be causes for consideration, such as the classroom

atmosphere, interruptions while completing the surveys and the dynamics of the

students involved during the survey completion.

Future Research

Future studies on factors that affect CDSE might weigh in on gender role adherence.

In particular, it would be interesting to see how Latinos’ gender role expectation,

along with ethnic identity and acculturation affects CDSE. Researchers could

include measures of Latino gender role beliefs such as the Marianismo Belief Scale,

which assesses how strongly Latinas feel they should enculturate into their heritage

culture’s ideals encompassing the construct of marianismo (Castillo et al., 2010) and

the traditional machismo and caballerismo measure (Arciniega, Anderson, Tovar-

Blank, & Tracey, 2008) which assesses behavioral or cognitive aspects of the cul-

tural construct of machismo and caballerismo. Given family unity is an important

component of Latino culture, perhaps students who identify more with their heritage

culture may benefit from Latino cultural values such as familismo/familism. If stu-

dents have strong family values and family support, they may develop skills to feel

confident in their career decision making. Additionally, given the dearth of research

on conscientiousness during early adolescence, and in particular with Latinos,

research should expand on the role of conscientiousness on CDSE for possible solu-

tions on how to identify this type of personality trait in adolescents. Finally, since the

current research did not highlight a significant relationship between Latino boys’

acculturation status on CDSE, it would be worth exploring why acculturation signif-

icantly predicts CDSE for Latina girls but not Latino boys.

Implications

School counselors, career counselors, and university counselors alike should be

aware of the impact ethnic identity and conscientiousness have on adolescents’

CDSE. Including these variables into the development of intervention programs can

help promote healthy career decision making. For instance, school personnel could

target students low in conscientiousness to teach them career decision-making skills

Ojeda et al. 221



given our findings indicate a negative relation between conscientiousness and

CDSE. When counselors administer career assessments they should also include

instruments that effectively assess for strength of ethnic identity. Our study found

ethnic identity significantly predicted CDSE for both Latino boys and girls. Assess-

ments and dialogue with students would shed light on how comfortable they are with

their ethnicity. This would afford counselors a more complete conceptualization of

students’ career decision-making beliefs and expectations. For students who are

more enculturated and less acculturated, counselors and teachers should invest time

with students’ families, which can prove to have a positive effect on the individual’s

confidence in career decision making, as it is often the case that Latino families’ sup-

port is paramount for decision making (Hernandez, Vargas-Lew, & Martinez, 1994;

Jackson & Healy, 1996).

The present study highlights the importance of a healthy ethnic identity and stu-

dents’ orientation to the mainstream culture. Curricula that include programs such

as dual language programs (not to be confused with bilingual programs) that begin

in elementary school and continue onto middle school are appropriate for enhancing

this type of needed identity development. Dual language programs help foster the

development of additive bilingualism whereby students emerge with high levels of

proficiency in two languages, higher self-esteem, and a positive cross-cultural attitude

(Christian, 1996) with the possible outcome of earning higher levels of academic pro-

ficiency commonly measured by statewide assessments (Lopez Estrada, Gomez, &

Ruiz-Escalante, 2009). Furthermore, research has shown teachers working under this

type of program reported their students had higher academic motivation (Lopez

Estrada et al., 2009). Additionally, English language learners in dual language pro-

grams had greater long-term academic and linguistic success in English than did their

native English-speaking peers educated in monolingual English programs (Thomas &

Collier, 2002). Not only would Latino students be afforded the opportunity to appreci-

ate two cultures, they would also have the added benefit of academic success. School

counselors, teachers, and principals can promote these types of programs to enhance

student identity and academic achievement.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,

and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship,

and/or publication of this article: This study was partially supported by a grant from the U.S.

Department of Education (PR P334A020151).

Note1. The term ‘‘Latino’’ refers to individuals of Latin American descent living in the United

States.




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Bios

Lizette Ojeda is an Assistant Professor in the Texas A&M University Counseling Psychology

program. She received her doctorate from the University of Missouri. Lizette focuses on

issues related to Latino culture, gender, education, career, and mental health. She enjoys salsa

dancing, playing the piano, and photography.

Brandy Pina-Watson is a doctoral student in the Texas A&M University Counseling

Psychology program. Brandy’s research interests include depression, suicide prevention and

intervention, suicide bereavement, acculturation, ethnic identity, cultural values, and gender

Ojeda et al. 227



role issues with Mexican American adolescents and adults. Her practical interests include

community and school mental health counseling with underserved youth and families. Per-

sonal interests include spending time with family and friends, swimming, going to the beach,

movies, live concerts and comedy shows, camping, hiking, fishing, reading, and making arts

and crafts.

Linda G. Castillo received her doctorate in counseling psychology at the University of Utah.

She is an Associate Professor in the Texas A&M University Counseling Psychology program.

Linda’s expertise and research focuses on her professional and personal commitment to

reduce the educational disparities of Mexican Americans. Her current work involves studying

the influence of acculturation and enculturation on educational persistence and mental health

of Mexican American adolescents and college students.

Rosalinda Castillo is a doctoral candidate in the Texas A&M University Counseling Psychol-

ogy program. Her dissertation involves revalidating a Latina gender role assessment on an

international sample in Mexico. Her research interests include Latina gender role beliefs,

career decision-making self-efficacy in Latinos, acculturation and enculturation, as well as

Latino educational gaps. For fun, Rosalinda enjoys spending time with family, exercising, and

reading.

Noshaba Khan is a first-generation Pakistani American. She holds a Masters in Counseling

Psychology from Marquette University and received her Bachelors in Psychology and Mathe-

matics from the University of Texas at Austin. Her research interests include multicultural

counseling; specifically among low-income minority populations, substance abuse among

marginalized populations, psychosocial and health aspects of gay, lesbian, bisexual adoles-

cents, and adults, and HIV/AIDS health preventions and interventions among adolescents and

young adults. Her counseling experience began in 7C’s Clinic in which she counseled home-

less men with cooccurring disorders. She then went on to work with parents and children who

were involved with the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services. When Noshaba

is not working or attending class, she enjoys spending time with family and friends.

Jennifer Leigh graduated in May 2010 with a master’s degree in School Counseling from

Texas A&M University. She lives in Moscow, Russia, and is taking additional graduate

courses to qualify for the Licensed Professional Counselor examination. Her research interests

include career development in secondary education and conduct disorder in adolescents.

Jennifer enjoys traveling with her husband, sailing, downhill skiing, and photography.




Acculturation, Enculturation, Ethnic Identity, and Conscientiousness as Predictors of Latino Boys' and Girls' Career Decision Self-Efficacy

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