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corporAte And Business lAw
(ENgLIsh)
Paper
F4
ACCA QuAlifiCAtionCourse notes
June 2011 examinations
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F1 Accountant in Business
F2 Management Accounting
F3 Finanticial Accounting
F4 Corporate & Business Law
F5 Performance Management
F6 Taxation (UK)
F7 Financial Reporting
F8 Audit and Assurance
F9 Financial Management
P1 Governance, Risk & Ethics
P2 Corporate Reporting
P3 Business Analysis
P4 Advanced Financial Management
P5 Advanced Performance Management
P6 Advanced Taxation (UK)
P7 Advanced Audit & Assurance
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June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Contents
1 Structure of The Legal System 1
2 Courts 7
3 Statute Law 11
4 Contract Law 17
5 Common Law 35
6 Law of Tort 37
7 Employment Law 43
8 Agency Law 51
9 Partnership 53
10 Company Law 59
11 Company Law: Directors and Officers 77
12 Company Law: Meetings and Resolutions 91
13 Company Law: Loan Capital 99
14 Company Law: Liquidations 103
15 Company Law: Corporate Governance 109
16 Company Law: Illegalities 113
17 Capital Maintenance 117
18 Cases 123
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Chapter 1
StruCture of the LegaL SyStem
Civil Law
• Privatelaw
• Tosettledisputesbetweenindividuals
• Noconceptofpunishment
• Objectiveistocompensatethewrongedparty
• Needtoprove‘onthebalanceofprobability’
• Suedincourt
• Ifliable,thencompensationpayable
• Plaintiffanddefendant
• Personalactionbroughtbytheaggrievedparty
• Courtmayawarddamagesoranequitableremedyifdamagesareinappropriate
1June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
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Criminal Law
• Publiclaw
• Awrongdoerhasbrokenthelaw
• Awrongdonetosociety
• Prosecutedincourt
• Ifguilty,thenpunished
• Communityservice,fine,imprisonment
• Prosecutorandaccused
• Needtoprove‘beyondreasonabledoubt’
• Policedecidewhethertoprosecute
• ThisdecisionisreviewedbytheCrownProsecutionService
June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
StructurE of thE LEgaL SyStEm chapter 1 2
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Common Law
• Developmentstartedwitheffectfrom1066
• King’srepresentativesattendedlocalcourts
• ThenmetinLondononaregularbasistodiscuss
• Overaperiodof200years,lawwascommonised–“CommonLaw”
• CornerstoneofCommonLawisjudicialprecedent
• Ratiodecidendiandobiterdicta
• Withcommonisationcamerecognitionofdeficiencies
• Highlightedtheneedforalternativeremedies–Equity
• CommonLawremedyis‘damages’–amonetaryaward
• CommonLawcourtswereseparatefromcourtofequityuntilthelatenineteenthcentury
3June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
StructurE of thE LEgaL SyStEm chapter 1
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Equity Law
• GrewfromtherecognitionofdeficienciesofCommonLaw
• Ifamonetaryawardofdamageswasnotappropriate,therewasnothingelsetooffer
• Infourteenthcentury,Aequitas
• Chancellor’scourt
• Earlyseventeenthcentury,EarlofOxford’scase
• Equityshallprevail
• Confirmedby1873–1875JudicatureActs
• Mainremedies:
• Specificperformance
• Injunction
• Rescission
• Rectification
• RemediesaregivenatCourt’sdiscretion
• Onlygivenifdamagesisinappropriate
June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
StructurE of thE LEgaL SyStEm chapter 1 4
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Ratio Decidendi
• Ratiois‘thereasonforthedecision’
• Ratioisbindingonfuturejudgesinsimilarcases
• Reversing–highercourtreverseslowercourtdecisioninsamecase
• Overruling–highercourtoverruleslowercourtdecisionindifferentcase
• Distinguishing–courtavoidsearlierprecedentbydistinguishingthefacts
• Rationotbindingiftooobscure
• Rationotbindingifmadewithoutcare(perincuriam)
• Rationotbindingifinconflictwithabasicprincipleoflaw
• RationotbindingifinconflictwithEuropeanlaw
• Rationotbindingiftoowide
• Rationotbindingifmadeininferiorcourt
5June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
StructurE of thE LEgaL SyStEm chapter 1
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Human Rights Act
• Rightsto:
• life
• freeassembly
• personalprivacy
• respectforprivateandfamilylife
• bodilyintegrity
• personalliberty
• participateingovernment
• protectionofthelaw
• toownproperty
• Freedomofexpressionandconscience
• Freedomofassociation
• Noarbitrarysearchesorseizures
• Economicandsocialrights
• Genderrecognition
• FromEUlaw,freedom...
• ofmovementbetweenEUmemberstates
• ofprovidingservices
• ofmovingcapital
• ofmovinggoods
June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
StructurE of thE LEgaL SyStEm chapter 1 6
Page 11
Chapter 2
Courts
Hierarchy of the Courts
• EuropeanCourtofJustice(ECJ)
• BindsallEnglishcourts
• Notboundbyanyone,notevenitself
• SupremeCourt(judicialcapacity)(SC)
• BindsallEnglishcourts,butnotitself
• BoundbyECJ
• CourtofAppeal(CofA)
• Bindsalllowercourts
• BoundbyECJ,SCanditself……..
• ……..unless
• …..unless
• Twosimilardecisionsconflict–mustthendecidewhichtofollow
• EarlierdecisionconflictswithalaterSCdecision
• Earlierdecisionmadeperincuriam
7June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Hierarchy of the Courts continued
• HighCourt(HC)
• 3divisions
• Bindsalllowercourts
• Boundbyallhighercourts
• Anditself
• CrownCourt(CrownC)
• Criminalcases
• Bindsno-one,notevenitself
• Boundbyallhighercourts
• CountyCourt(CountyC)
• Civilcases
• Bindsno-one,notevenitself
• Boundbyallhighercourts
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
Courts Chapter 2 8
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Hierarchy of the Courts continued
• MagistratesCourts(MC)
• Bindsno-one,notevenitself
• Boundbyallhighercourts
• Tribunals(egEmploymentTribunal)
• Lessformalprocedures
• Quicker
• Hearsdisputesbetweenemployeesandemployers
• Canappealto….
• EmploymentAppealTribunal(EAT)
• EqualstatusasHC
• CanfurtherappealtoCofA
• Butonlyonapointoflaw,notonamatteroffact
9June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
Courts Chapter 2
Page 14
Tracking
• 3typesoftracking:-smallclaims,fast,multi
• Smallclaimstrack
• <£5,000
• Quick
• Informal
• Noneedforlegalrepresentation
• FastTrack
• £5,000<£15,000
• Trialwilllast<1day
• Lessformalcourtprocedures
• Claimwillbedeterminedwithin30weeks
• MultiTrack
• £15,000
• Fullcourthearing,butmanagementconferenceheldtoencouragealternativedisputeresolution
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
Courts Chapter 2 10
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Chapter 3
Statute Law
Statute Law
• Parliamentpasseslaws(statutes),andonlyparliamentcanchange/repealthoselaws
• Greenpaper –aproposalfornewlaw
• Whitepaper –aftercommentsreceived,adraftforthenewlaw
• Firstreading –introductiontotheHouse
• Secondreading –debateaboutthemeritsoftheproposedlegislation
• Committeestage–all-partycommitteediscussandamendthedraft
• Reportstage –theamendeddraftthenpresentedtotheHouseforapproval
• Thirdreading –finalapprovalbytheHouse
• SameprocedureintheotherHouse
• RoyalAssent
11June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Statutory Interpretation Rules
• Literalrule–ordinaryeverydaymeaning,unless….
• Goldenrule….wouldleadtoanabsurdity
• reSigsworth
• WhitelyvChappell
• Mischiefrule-whatisthestatutetryingtocontrol
• GardnervSevenoaks
• GorrisvScott
• Ejusdemgeneris
• EvansvCross
• Expressiouniusestexclusioalterius
• Nosciturasociis
• Inparimateria
• Purposiveapproach,forexample,civilpartnerships
• CannotinterpretstatutewhichwouldleadtoconflictwithEuropeanLaw
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
StatutE Law Chapter 3 12
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Statutory Interpretation Presumptions
• Aswellasbeingboundbyrules,judgesarealsoboundbypresumptions
• Statuteisnottoalterexistingcommonlaw
• Wherestatutedeprivesapersonofhisproperty…
• Statutedoesnotoperateretrospectively
• StatutedoesnotbindtheCrown
• Statuteisnottodepriveapersonoftheirliberty
• StatuteoperatesthroughouttheUK…
• …butnotinconflictwithEurope
• Unlessperfectlyclear,statuteisnottocreateanoffenceofabsoluteliability
• Statuteisnottoconflictwithexistingstatute
13June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
StatutE Law Chapter 3
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Aids to Interpretation
• 2types:Intrinsicandextrinsic
• Intrinsic
• Thetitleofthestatutemaygiveanindicationofitsobjective
• EgAnzac(RestrictiononTradeUseofWord)Act1916
• Thepreamble–theintroductiontothestatuteatthestartofthedocument
• Interpretationsectionwithinthestatute
• Marginnotes
• Extrinsic
• Reportsofcommittees
• Hansard
• Dictionary
• Booksofauthority
• InterpretationAct1987
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
StatutE Law Chapter 3 14
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Delegated Legislation
• Statutoryinstruments(responsibleministers)
• Bye–laws(Burnley)
• RulesofCourt(madebyjudiciary)
• Professionalregulations(egGeneralMedicalCouncil)
• OrdersinCouncil(privycouncil–veryrare)
• ADvAntAgeS / ImPoRtAnce
• Savesparliamentarytime
• Greaterflexibility
• Allowsgeneralprinciplestobewrittenintostatute,withfinedetailaddedlaterbyminister
• Allowsveryquickpassingofstatuteincasesofegnationalemergency
• Preventsparliamentfrombeingoverwhelmedwithexcessivework-load
15June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
StatutE Law Chapter 3
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Page 21
Chapter 4
ContraCt Law
• Acontractisanagreement,supportedbyconsideration,madewithintentiontocreatelegalrelations.
Invitations, offers and acceptance
• Aninvitationmustbedistinguishedfromanoffer
• Aninvitationisnotcapableofacceptance
• Aninvitationisinvitinganotherpersontomakeanoffer
• Goodsinasupermarketareinvitations(Boots)
• Goodsinashopwindowareinvitations(Bells)
• Advertsarenormallyinvitations(Birds)
• Veryoccasionally,advertsmaybetakentobeoffers(Balls)
• Mailcataloguesareinvitations(GraingervGough)
• Theprocessofanauctionsaleconstitutestheauctioneerinvitingofferstobemade
• Anadvertofferingarewardisanoffer,notaninvitation(WilliamsvCarwardine,RvClark,CarlillvCarbolic)
17June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Termination of Offer
• Mayberevokedatanytimebeforeacceptance
• Revocationmustbecommunicatedtotheofferee
• Postalruledoesnotapply
• Lapseoftime(RamsgateVictoriaHotelvMontefiori)
• Rejection(HydevWrench)
• Death(personalservices)
• Notificationofdeath(non-personalservices)(BradburyvMorgan)
• Failureofaconditionprecedent
• Noticeofrevocationmaybecommunicatedthroughareliablethirdparty(DickinsonvDodds)
• Counteroffer
• Acceptance
• Refusal
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 18
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Offers
• Halfofthe‘agreement’
• Anexpressionofwillingnesstobeboundonspecificterms
• Mustbecertain(GunthingvLynn)
• Muststillexistwhen‘accepted’
• Mustbedistinguishedfrominvitations
• Mustbedistinguishedfromstatementsofintent(HarrisvNickerson)
• Aresponsetoarequestforinformationisnotanoffer(HarveyvFacey)
• Arequestforinformationisnotacounteroffer(StevensonvMcLean)
• Revocationmustactuallybecommunicatedtotheofferee(ByrnevVanTienhoven)
• Maybemadetotheworldatlarge(RvClark,WilliamsvCarwardine,CarlillvCarbolic)
19June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
Page 24
Acceptance
• Theotherhalfofthe‘agreement’
• Acceptancemustbecompleteandunconditional
• Acceptance cannot vary the original offer.Thatwould be a counter-offer ( Northland Airlines v DennisFerrantiMeters)
• Theoffermuststillbe‘open’atthetimeofacceptance(HydevWrench)
• Acceptancemust be communicated to the offeror, but offerormaywaive the right of communication(CarlillvCarbolic)
• Itmaybecommunicatedbyareliablethirdparty(PowellvLee)
• Silencecannotbeacceptance(FelthousevBindley)
• Acceptancemaybeby conductonce you’ve started ( Brogden vMetropolitanRailways ) ( Errington vErrington)
• Postalruleapplies(HouseholdFireInsuranceCovGrant)
• Acceptancemustbemadewithinareasonabletime(RamsgateVictoriaHotelvMontefiori)
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 20
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Consideration
• Everycontractmustbesupportedbyconsiderationexceptspecialty
• Considerationisatwo-waythinginsimple/parolcontracts(onlyonewayisnecessaryinspecialtycontracts/deeds)
• CurrievMisa
• DunlopvSelfridges
• Executed–anactinexchangeforapromise
• Executory–apromiseinexchangeforapromise(oranact)
• Pastconsiderationisnoconsideration(reMcArdle),(RoscorlavThomas)
• Considerationmustbelegalandpossible
• Considerationmustmovefromthepromisee(privityofcontract)
• Courtsmayimplyanimpliedpromisetopayareasonablesum(LampleighvBraithwait)
21June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
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Consideration – Sufficient Not Necessarily Adequate
• Courtswillnotlookattheadequacyofagreedconsideration
• Considerationmusthavesomevalue(sufficient)(ChappellvNestle)
• Notsufficientifinaccordancewithanaturaldutyalreadyowed(WhitevBluett)
• Notsufficientifinaccordancewithalegaldutyalreadyowed(CollinsvGodefroy)
• Notsufficientifinaccordancewithacontractualdutyalreadyowed(StilkvMyrick)
• Ifoverandaboveanaturalduty,OK(WardvByham)
• Ifoverandabovealegalduty,OK(GlasbrookvGlamorgan)
• Ifoverandaboveacontractualduty,OK(HartleyvPonsonby)
• WilliamsvRoffey
• ThomasvThomas
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 22
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Privity of Contract
• Onlyapartytoacontractmaysuetoenforceit,butthereareexceptions
• Apersonentitledtobenefitunderthirdpartymotorinsurancecansuetheinsurer
• Aprincipalmaysuetoenforceacontractenteredintobyhisagent
• Aholder-in-due-courseofabillofexchangecansueallpriorparties
• Whereaspecialrelationshipexists;forexample,anexecutormaysuetoenforceacontractenteredintobythedeceased(BeswickvBeswick)
• Abeneficiarymaysueatrustee(KeechvSandford)(ShamiavJoory)
• Amanufacturerofgoodsmaybesuedbytheultimateconsumer(DonohuevStevenson)
• Anemployermaybesuedforthenegligentacts ( tort,notcontract )of itsemployees(MerseyDocksvCoggins)
• Restrictivecovenantsonlandapplytosubsequentowners(TulkvMoxhay)
• Incollateralcontracts,aninjuredpartycansueeventhoughtheotherpartyisnotapartytothecontract(ShanklinPiervDetelProducts)
23June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
Page 28
Pinnell and its Exceptions
• Generalprinciple–partpaymentofadebtdoesnotachievefullsettlement(Pinnell’scase)
• IllustratedbyFoakesvBeer,butthereareexceptions
• Receivingsomethingdifferenttowhichyouwerenotalreadyentitled
• Goodsinsteadofcash
• Settlementbeforetheduedate
• Arrangementwithcreditorsgenerallythatcollectivelytheyagreetoacceptonlypartpayment
• Paymentbysomeoneotherthanthedebtor(WelbyvDrake)
• Paymentatadifferentlocationthanoriginallyagreed
• Doctrineofpromissoryestoppel
• CentralLondonPropertyTrustvHighTreesHouse
• CombevCombe
• D&CBuildersvRees
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 24
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Intention to Create Legal Relations
• Maybeexpressorimplied
• Presumedunlessrebutted
• Domesticarrangements,husbandandwife,livingtogether
• BalfourvBalfour
• SpellmanvSpellman
• Domesticarrangements,husbandandwife,livingapart
• MerrittvMerritt
• Domesticarrangements,otherthanhusbandandwife
• SimpkinvPays
• JonesvPadavatton
• ParkervClark
• Commercialagreements
• Rose&FrankvCrompton
• Expressexclusions–bindinginhonouronly
• JonesvVernonPools
• ApplesonvLittlewoods
• Presumptions–assumeduntilprovedotherwise
• Rebuttal–disprovingapresumption
• CarlillvCarbolic–paymentof£1,000intobankaccount
25June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
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Representations
• Nottermsofacontract
• Pre-contractualstatementsofsomeknownorprovablefactmadewiththeintentionofinducinganotherpersontoenteracontract
• Notastatementoflaw
• Nororopinion,unless...
• ...itisclearlynotagenuineopinion(BissetvWilkinson)
• Notastatementofintent
• iftherepresentationisfalse,that’samisrepresentation
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 26
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Contractual Terms
• Conditionsandwarranties
• Atermwhichisaconditionisfundamentaltothecontract
• Breachofatermwhichisaconditionallowstheinjuredpartytotreatthecontractasdischargedandsuefordamages
• PoussardvSpiersandPond
• Awarrantyissuperficialtothecontract
• Breachofwarrantyallowstheinjuredpartytoclaimdamages
• Butthecontractisnotdischarged
• BettinivGye
• Innominatetermsarethosewhereitisnotclear,untilbreached,whethertheyarefundamentalormerelysuperficial
• UniversalFurnitureProductsvMapleFlockCompany
27June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
Page 32
Contractual Terms
• Maybeexpressorimplied
• Expresstermsarethoseagreedbythepartiesandmaybewrittenintothecontractorsimplyagreedorally
• Impliedtermsmaybejudiciallyorstatutorilyimplied
• Judiciallyimpliedterms-businessefficacy(TheMoorcock)(ExpressNewspapersvSilverstone)
• Judiciallyimpliedterms–tradecustom(HuttonvWarren)
• Judiciallyimpliedterms–courseoftrade(HillasvArcos)
• StatutorilyimpliedtermsegSaleofGoodslegislation
• Title
• Satisfactoryquality
• Fitforpurpose(BrownvCraiks)
• Sample
• Description
• Limitedabilitytoexcludestatutorilyimpliedterms
• TermretitlecannotbeexcludedinANYcontract
• OthersfromSaleofGoodslegislationcannotbeexcludedinaconsumercontract
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 28
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Exclusion Clauses
• Usedincontractsinanattempttoeliminateorlimittheextentofabreachingparty’sliability
• Mustbecommunicatedtotheotherpartyatthetimethecontractisenteredinto(OlleyvMarlboroughCourtHotel)(ThorntonvShoeLaneParking)
• Shouldbebroughttotheattentionoftheotherparty(ChapeltonvBarryUDC)(ThompsonvLMSRailway)
• Whereadocumentapparentlyhasalegalaffect,shouldmakesurebeforeyousignit(L’EstrangevGraucob)
• Oralstatementsbyanemployeecandestroytheeffectivenessofanexclusionclause(CurtisvChemicalCleaningCo)
• Wherepartieshaveahistoryoftrade,otherpartymaybedeemedtobeawareoftheexclusionclause(SpurlingvBradshaw)
• Butthiscourseoftradeshouldbemorethan3or4occasionsintheprevious5years(HolliervRamblerMotors)
• HardwickvSuffolk–morethan100timesina3yearperiod
• Anyambiguitywillbereadstrictlyagainstthepartyseekingtorelyonit(AndrewsvSinger)
• Possibletoexcludeliabilityforfundamentalbreach(PhotoProductionsvSecuricor)
29June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
Page 34
Unfair Terms Legislation
• UnfairContractTermsAct1977andUnfairTermsinConsumerContractRegulations1999
• Restrictorlimitextentofliabilityfornegligenceinconsumercontracts
• Somearevoid,othersaresubjecttoatestofreasonableness
• Cannotexcludeliabilityfornegligenceresultingindeathorpersonalinjury
• Cannotexcludeliabilityforpartialorincompleteperformancebytheseller
• Cannothaveatermwhichbindstheconsumerbutallowssellertoavoidthecontract
• Reasonable?S11UCTA77takesaccountof:
• Relativebargainingpower
• Anyinducementoffered,ornormaltradecustom
• Specialorderedgoods
• Fairandequitabletreatmentoftheconsumerbytheseller
• Extentofabilitytocoverbyinsurance
• Regulationsapplytotermswhichhavenotbeenseparatelynegotiated
• Aconsumerisa‘naturalpersonwhoisactingforpurposesoutsidehisbusiness’
• Anunfairtermis“anytermwhichcausesasignificantimbalanceintheparties’rightsandobligationstothedetrimentoftheconsumer”
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 30
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Breach of Contract
• Maybe‘during’or‘anticipatory’
• ‘During’–onepartyrefusestocontinue
• injuredpartymaytreatthecontractasdischarged(ifabreachofcondition)andsuefordamagesimmediately
• ‘Anticipatory’-onepartygivesnotice,beforethecontractstartdate,thattheywillnotgoaheadwiththeirobligations
• injuredpartymaysueimmediately(HochstervDeLaTour)
• orignore,goaheadwiththeirobligations,andthensue(WhiteandCarterCouncilsvMacGregor)
• orwait,andhopetheotherpartywillchangetheirminds
• butiftheychoosetowait,theycouldlosetheirrighttosue(AveryvBowden)
• tobeabletoachievefullcompensation,theinjuredpartymusthavebeeninapositiontocompletetheirobligationatthedatethecontractwasduetostart
• TheMihalisAngelos
31June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
Page 36
Damages
• 2partsto‘damages’-remotenessandmeasurement
• Anawardofdamagesisthemaincommonlawremedy
• Intendedtobeanawardofmonetarycompensation
• Itisnotintendedasapunishment
• Remoteness–onlyawardedifthedamagesufferedshouldhavebeeninthereasonablecontemplationoftheordinaryman
• Losssufferedshouldeitherariseasanaturalconsequenceofthebreachor…
• …thebreacherwasawareofthespecialcircumstancesoftheinjuredparty
• HadleyvBaxendale
• VictoriaLaundryvNewmanIndustries
• ReTheHeronII
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4 32
Page 37
Damages – Measurement
• Courtsdeterminehowmuchawardisnecessarytoputtheinjuredpartyintothepositiontheywouldhaveachievediftherehadbeennobreach
• C&PHaulagevMiddleton
• Maytakeaccountofspeculativeloss(ThompsonvRobinson)
• ….butmaynot(AngliaTVvReed)(LazenbyGaragesvWright)
• mayconsidernon-financialloss
• JarvisvSwanTours
• …butmaynot(AlexandervRollsRoyce)
• ifthecostof‘repair’faroutweighsthelosssuffered,courtsmaymakeanawardbasedonlossofamenity
• RuxleyElectronicsvForsyth
• Theinjuredpartyhasadutytomitigatetheirloss
33June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
ContraCt Law Chapter 4
Page 38
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Page 39
Chapter 5
Common Law
Remedies for Breach
• Commonlawandequity
• Damages(CL)
• Actionforprice(CL)
• Quantummeruit(CL)HoenigvIsaacs,PlanchevColborn,DeBarnardyvHarding
• Specificperformance(E)
• Injunction(E)
• Rescission(E)
• Rectification(E)
• Marevainjunction(E)
• Liquidateddamages–genuineattempt toquantifypotential loss (DunlopvNewGarage ) ifa‘penalty’,courtswillnotallowit(InterfotovStiletto,FordvArmstrong)
35June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
Page 40
Remedies – Sundry Points
• Equitableremediesarediscretionary
• Cannotbeclaimedasofright
• Willneveractinpersonamagainstthebreacher(WarnerBrosvNelson)
• Delaydefeatsequity(DoctrineofLaches)
• Willnotbeawardedifthecontracthasbeenaffirmed
• Rescissionwillnotbeawarded if it isnotpossible to restore theparties to theiroriginalpre-contractualposition
• Equitableremedieswillnotbeawardediftheinjuredpartyhasnotactedfairly(cleanhands)
• Equitableremedieswillnotbeawardedifsomeinnocentthirdpartywouldbeadverselyaffected
• LimitationAct–6years(specialtycontracts–12years)
• ….6yearsfromthedatethebreachcouldhavebeendiscovered(LynnvBamber)
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
Common Law Chapter 5 36
Page 41
Chapter 6
Law of TorT
Types of Tort
• Trespassagainsttheperson
• Battery –intentionalbringingamaterialobjectintocontactwithanotherperson
–doesnotnecessarilyinvolveviolence(NashvSheen)
• Assault –intentionalbringinganotherpersonintoreasonablefearofbattery
• Falseimprisonment–deprivingapersonoftheirliberty
• Trespass(land)–entering,remainingorplacingobjectsonanotherperson’sland
• Nuisance–causingdistresstoanotherby,egnoiseorsmell
• Defamation–libel–ridiculeofanotherinpermanentform(crime)
• Defamation–slander–ridiculeofanotherinoral(notpermanent)form(civilwrong)
• Deceit–deliberatelymisleadinganotherintoadetrimentalposition
• Passing-off–useofasimilarnameinasimilarbusinesssuchthatconfusionresultsinthemindsofthepublic
• Negligence-carelessnessorrecklessness.Moreofthislater
37June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
Page 42
Negligence Generally
• 3thingstoestablish
• Dutyofcareexists
• Breachofthatduty
• Consequentialloss,damageorinjurytoanotherparty
• Wealloweadutyofcaretoourlegalneighbours
• Thosepeoplesodirectlyaffectedbyouractsthatweshouldhavetheminmindaslikelytobeaffectedwhenwecommitthoseacts(DonohuevStevenson)
• Nowdevelopedintoa3stagetest
• Reasonableforeseeability
• Proximity(legalneighbour)
• Fair,justandreasonabletoimposeadutyofcare
June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
Law of TorT Chapter 6 38
Page 43
Negligence Generally continued
• 2ndthingtoestablishisbreachoftheduty
• Agreaterdegreeofcareisneededifriskofinjuryishigh
• GlasgowvTaylor
• Takeintoaccounttheseriousnessoftherisk(ParisvStepney)
• Takeintoaccountthepracticalityandcostofriskavoidance(LatimervAEC)
• Takeintoaccountstandardpractice
• Takeintoaccountthesocialbenefitegaccidentcausedbyemergencyambulance
• Professions(e.gthemedicalprofession)establishtheirownlevelsofcare
• Resipsaloquitar–RichleyvFould
• MahonvOsborne
39June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
Law of TorT Chapter 6
Page 44
Negligence Generally continued
• 3rdthingtoestablishiscausalityandpossibilityof‘breakingthechain’
• The‘butfor’test(BarnettvChelseaandKensingtonHospital)(WilshervEssex)
• Multi-causes(FairchildvGlenhaven)
• Novusactusinterveniens
• Actsoftheinjuredpartywereunreasonable(McKewvHolland)
• Actsofathirdpartyincreasedthedamage(LambvCamden)
• ActofGod(CarslogievNorway)
• Remotenessofforeseeability(TheWagonMound)(JolleyvSutton)
• Defences
• Contributorynegligence(SayersvHarlow)
• Volentinonfitinjuria(ICIvShatwell)
June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
Law of TorT Chapter 6 40
Page 45
Negligence – Accountants
• UltramaresvTouche
• HedleyByrnevHeller
• JEBFastenersvMarksBloom
• CaparovDickman
• ADTvBDO
• NRGvEY
• BaringsvCoopers
• BCCIvEY
• Incorporate
• Limitedliabilitypartnership
41June 2011 Examinations Paper f4
Law of TorT Chapter 6
Page 46
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Page 47
Chapter 7
EmploymEnt law
Employment Law
• Necessarytodistinguishbetweenacontractofserviceandacontractforservices
• Courtsapply3tests
• Controltest(MerseyDocksvCoggins)
• Integrationtest(CassidyvMinistryofHealth)
• Economicrealitytest(ReadymixConcrete)
• Differenceisimportantbecause:-
• Taxandsocialsecuritycontributions
• Salestax
• Employmentprotectionprovisions
• Vicariousliability
• Liquidation
43June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Page 48
Employment Law
• Indicatorsthataworkerisself-employed
• Owntoolsandequipment
• Abilitytodelegate
• Abilitytochoosewhichhourstowork
• Abilitytoacceptorrefusework
• Abilitytotakeholidayswithoutrestrictions
• Paidfortheproject
• Workfordifferentorganisations
• Butnoindividualindicatorisnormallysufficient
• Courtswillconsiderallthecircumstances
• Anditdoesn’tmatterwhatthe‘employer’/’worker’haveagreedbetweenthem–it’stheeconomicrealitywhichisimportant
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
EmploymEnt law Chapter 7 44
Page 49
Dismissal
• 4types
• Summary–seriousbreachofcontractbyemployee
• Constructive
• Reductioninpayrate
• Changeinthenatureofthejob
• Failuretofollowproperdisciplinaryprocedures
• Failuretoprovideappropriateworkingenvironment
• Failuretoprovidesuitablework
• Wrongful
• Unfair
45June 2011 Examinations paper F4
EmploymEnt law Chapter 7
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Wrongful Dismissal
• Notwrongifjustified.Ifwrong,remedyisdamages–lostearnings
• Justifiedif:-
• Disobedience
• Dishonesty
• Incompetence/negligence
• Immorality
• Drunkenness
• Misconduct
- Acceptingmoney
- Assault
- Disclosureofinformation
Page 51
Unfair Dismissal
• Automaticallyunfair
• Completedprisonsentence
• Dismissedontransferofownership
• Exercisingrightsrelengthofworkingday
• Insistenceonminimumwage
• RefusingtoworkonSundays
• Takingstepstoensurehealthandsafety
• Tradeunionmembershiporactivities
• Whistleblowing
47June 2011 Examinations paper F4
EmploymEnt law Chapter 7
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Unfair Dismissal
• Notalldismissalsareunfair–somearefair
• Automaticallyfair
• Unofficialstrikeaction
• Actionsthreateningnationalsecurity
• Potentiallyfair
• Incapable
• Notcompetenttodotheworkforwhichemployeeisqualified
• Redundancy,seelater
• Legalreasonseglosingdriver’slicencewhenemployedasachauffeur
• Losingqualifications–egbecomingdisqualifiedasadoctor
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
EmploymEnt law Chapter 7 48
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Redundancy
• Aformofdismissalfromemploymentcausedbytheemployerneedingtoreducetheworkforce
• Reasonsinclude:-
• newtechnologyoranewsystemmakesyourjobunnecessary
• thejobnolongerexists
• theneedtoreducethelabourcostsmeansstaffnumbersmustbereduced
• thebusinessisclosingdownorre-locating
• if20orfeweraretobemaderedundant,thisrequiresindividualconsultation
• thisinvolvesdirectconsultationand...
• ...lookingatanyalternativetoredundancy
• ifnoconsultationtakesplace,anyredundancymaybeunfairdismissal
• ifmorethan20aretobemaderedundant,thisisknownascollectiveredundancy
• colecctiveredundancyrequirestheemployertoconsultwithemployees’representative
• ifnoconsultationtakesplace,aclaimtoanEmploymentTribunalcouldresultincompensationofupto90days’pay
• Selectionofredundantworkersshouldbefairandobjective
• Ifnotfairandobjective,dismissalwillbeautomaticallyunfair
49June 2011 Examinations paper F4
EmploymEnt law Chapter 7
Page 54
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Chapter 8
AgenCy LAw
Formation and Authority
• Formationmaybe:-
• Express(orallyorinwriting)
• Implied
• Bysubsequentratification
• Byestoppel(Freeman&LockyervBuckhurstParkProperties)
• Bynecessity(GNRvSwaffield)
• Authoritymaybe:-
• Express
• Implied(WatteauvFenwick)(Hely–HutchinsonvBrayhead)
• Apparent/ostensible(Freeman&Lockyer)
51June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
Page 56
Termination and Liability
• Terminationofagencyagreementmaybebyagreementorbyoperationoflaw:-
• Principaloragentdies
• Principaloragentbecomesinsane
• Principal(orsometimesagent)becomesbankrupt
• Liability
• Solongasactingwithinauthority,agenthasnoliabilityundercontract,norcanheenforceacontract
• But,sometimes,agentmaybeheldpersonallyliable
- Whereagententersacontractwithoutdisclosinghispositionasanagent
- Whereagentisactingonhisownbehalf,eventhoughclaimingtoactonbehalfoftheprincipal
- Whereusualtradecustomhasestablishedliabilityoftheagent
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Chapter 9
PartnershiP
Partnership Law
• A partnership is defined as“the relationship which subsists between two or more people carrying onbusinessincommonwithaviewtoprofit”
• Muchofpresent-daypartnershiplawiscontainedinthePartnershipAct1890
• Partnersmayagreeamongstthemselveshowtheirfirmistooperate,solongastheirarrangementislegal(EvertvWilliams)
• Thebusinessmustbebeing“carriedon“.Itshouldbemorethanaone-offtransaction,andmustbecontinuing
• Itmustbe“withaviewtoprofit”andismorethanthesimplesharingofgrossrevenues
• Ifabusiness relationshipsatisfiesthedefinition, thecourtsmaywelldeterminethatapartnershipexists,regardlessofanywrittendocumentation(orintentionoftheparties)tothecontrary
• Asageneralrule,partnersinafirmarejointlyandseverallyliableforpartnershipdebts
• Everypartnerisanagentofthefirmandtheotherpartnersforthepurposeofthebusinessofthefirm
• Theactsofeverypartnerdoneinthecourseofthefirm’sbusinessbindthefirmandthepartnersunlessthepartnerwasexceedinghisauthorityand……
• ...theotherpartyknewthatfact,orwasnotawarethatthepersonwasapartner
53June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
Page 58
The Agreement
• Partnershipsareformedbyagreement,andtheinternalarrangementsareamatterforagreementamongstthepartners
• Typicalmatterstobeagreeduponinclude:-
• A
• D
• D
• C
• I
• S
• C
• G
• T
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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1890 ActIntheeventthatpartnersfailtomakeanarrangementaboutsomematterwhichislaterdisputed,thenthe1890Actestablisheswhatshouldhappen.Themainprovisionsare:-
• M
• E
• D
• I
• C
• S
• I
• N
• B
• E
• D
55June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Dissolution Grounds – Automatic and By Court Order
• D
• I
• S
• S
• O
• L
• U
• T
• I
• O
• N
• S
Page 61
LPA 1907 and LLPA 2000
• LimitedPartnershipsAct1907mainfeaturesare:-
• Atleastonegeneralpartner(withunlimitedliability)andonelimitedpartner(withlimitedliability)
• Mustberegisteredwiththeregistrarofcompanies
• Limitedpartnershouldtakenopartinthemanagementofthefirm
• Ifthefirmbecomesbankrupt,onlythegeneralpartnersareliableforthefirm’sdebts
• LimitedLiabilityPartnershipsAct2000mainfeaturesare:-
• Combinationoftheadvantagesofapartnershipwiththoseofalimitedcompany
• Mustberegisteredwiththeregistrarofcompanies
• Mustfilefinancialstatementsandbeaudited
• Asaseparatelegalentity,thepartnersarenotliableforthefirm’sdebts,therebyprotectingthemselvesfrompersonaldisasters.However,theprovisionsrelatingtowrongfulandfraudulenttradingapply.
57June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
PartnErshiP Chapter 9
Page 62
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Chapter 10
Company Law
Types of Corporation and Ways of Formation
• Corporationsole–apublicofficeoccupiedbyanaturalperson.Deathofthepersondoesnotaffectthecontinuingsurvivalofthecorporation.TheMayorofLondonisacorporationsole.
• Corporationaggregate–acollectionoflike-mindedpeoplewhocombinetoformanartificialperson–thecorporationaggregate.Deathofindividualmembershasnoeffectontheexistenceofthecorporation.
• Formationmaybebyanyof3ways
• RoyalCharter –egEastIndiaTeaCompany,manyUKuniversities
–Veryrareinmoderntimes
• Statute –equally(ifnotmore)rare
–EgBritishWaterways
• Registration –byfarthemostcommonmethod
–EgTescoplc,Small&CoLtd.
• Since2004anewformofcompany,theCommunityInterestCompany(CIC)isavailablefororganisationscreatedforthebenefitofthecommunity/societyratherthanforthepursuitofprofit
59June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Page 64
Types of Company
• Publicquoted
• Sharepricequotedonarecognisedstockexchange
• Mustbelimitedbyshares
• Publicunquoted
• Againlimitedbyshares,butnotquoted
• Private–unlimited
• Private–limitedbyshares
• Private–limitedbyguarantee,andhavingasharecapital
• Private–limitedbyguaranteebutwithnosharecapital
• Communityinterestcompanies
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Public Companies
• Acompanyisapubliccompanyifitsatisfiesthedefinition
• Itisacompanywhichislimitedbyshares
• Hasatleast2members
• Theconstitutionstatesthatitispublic
• Thenameendswiththewords“publiclimitedcompany“or“plc”
• Ithasanallottedsharecapitalnotlessthan£50,000…
• …ofwhichnotlessthan25%iscreditedaspaidup…..
• ….togetherwiththewholeofthesharepremium
• Anycompanywhichdoesnotsatisfythedefinitionisaprivatecompany
• Althoughapubliccompanyexistsfromthedateonitscertificateofincorporation,itcannotcommencetotradeuntilitacquiresatradingcertificate
61June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Trading Certificates
• Publiccompaniescannotcommencetotradeuntilaftertheyhavereceivedatradingcertificate
• Thisisissuedbytheregistrarfollowinganapplicationmadebythecompany
• Theapplicationstates
• Thatthenominalvalueofallottedsharesisnotlessthan£50,000
• Thepreliminary/formationexpenses
• Andtowhomthesehavebeenpaid(orarestillpayable)
• Theapplicationmustbeaccompaniedbyastatementofcompliance
• Ifapubliccompanydoesinfactcommencetradingbeforethereceiptofthetradingcertificate,aninnocentthirdpartyisprotected
• Butthecompany,andanyofficerindefault,isliabletoafine
• Ifapubliccompany fails toobtaina tradingcertificatewithin12monthsof incorporation, thecourtonapplicationmaygrantaliquidationorderagainstthecompany
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Advantages of Being a Company as Distinct From a Partnership
• Separatelegalpersonality(SalomonvSalomon)(AdamsvCapeIndustries)
• Limitedliability
• Perpetualexistence
• Raisingfinance
•
•
• Ownershipofproperty
• Numberofmembers
• Transferofinterest
• BUT there are disadvantages
• Legalimplications
• Expense
• Publicityanddisclosure
63June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Disadvantages ( Expanded )
• Legalimplications
• Formation
• Audit
• Shareissues
• Meetingsandresolutions
• Liquidation
• “Properaccountingrecords“
• Expense
• Publicity
• Detailsofdirectorsandtheirremuneration
• Businessdetails
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Lifting the Veil
• Thecourtwill lookbehindtheveilof incorporationwherejusticerequiresittopreventfraud, illegalityoroppression:-
• GilfordMotorCovHorne
• DaimlervContinentalTyreandRubber
• EbrahimivWestbourneGalleries
• RvOll
• ReFGFilms
• DHNvTowerHamlets
• Theveilwillalsobeliftedundertheprovisionsofstatute:-
• Fraudulenttrading
• Wrongfultrading
• Commencingtotradewithoutatradingcertificate
• Abuseofcompanyname
• Othersituations:-
• Preparationofgroupaccounts
• Taxlaw
• Personalguarantees
65June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Page 70
Formation
• Formedbypromoters(seenext)
• Preincorporationcontracts(KelnervBaxter)
• Documentstobefiled:-
• Applicationforregistration
• Memorandum
• Articles
• Statementofcompliance
• Statementofcapitalandinitialshareholders
• Registrationfee
• Certifiedtranslation
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Formation - role and duties of promoters
• Roles
• act,underinstruction,toformacompany
• thisinvolves:
- finding people who will sign the memorandum and articles of association, and act as thecompany’sfirstdirectors
- selectasuitablenameforthecompany
- determinetheformandamountofthecompany’ssharecapital
- determinetherightstobeattachedtothedifferentclassesofsharecapital
- preparetheconstitutionofthecompany
- submitallthenecessaryformstotheregistrarofcompanies
- payallthepreliminaryandformationexpensesofthecompany
• Duties
• actwithreasonableskillandcare
• discloseanyprofitorpotentialconflictofinterest
- eithertothefirstindependentboardofdirectors
- ortothecompany’sexistingorintendedshareholders
• breach of duty - ie non-disclosure - allows the company to rescind the contract and recover thepurchaseprice(ErlangervNewSombreroPhosphateMiningCo)
• the company may require the promoter to pay over to the company any undisclosed profits(GlucksteinvBarnes)(WhaleyBridgevGreen)
• thecompanymaysuethepromoterandclaimdamagesforbreachoffiduciaryduty(LeedsvHarley)
67June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Formation ( continued )
• Theapplicationforregistrationdetails:-
• Proposedname
• Registeredoffice(EnglandandWales)
• Proposedpostaladdressofregisteredoffice
• Limitationofmembersliability(sharesorguarantee)
• Publicorprivate
• Certificateofincorporation
• Ifeverythingisinorder,registrarwillissueacertificateofincorporation
• Thedateonthecertificateisconclusiveproof
• JubileeCottonMillsvLewes
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Memorandum and the Constitution
• Historicallyamajordocument
• Since2006,nowjustamatterofrecord
• Statesthatthesubscribers
• Wishtoformacompany
• Agreetobecomemembers
• Agreetotakeatleastoneshareeach
• Company’sconstitutioncomprises
• Articles
• Resolutions(affectingthearticles)
• Agreements(affectingthearticles)
69June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Articles – Contractual Force
• Whenapersonbecomesamemberofacompany,itisasthoughtheyhaveseparatelyenteredacontractwiththecompanyandwithalltheothermembersindividually
• Thetermsofthatcontractarecontainedwithinthearticles
• Theeffectistobindthememberstothecompany
• HickmanvKentorRomneyMarshSheepbreedersAssociation
• …..andthecompanytothemembers
• PendervLushington
• ….andthememberstothemembers
• ClarkevDunraven
• Butthearticlesdonotcreateacontractbetweenthecompanyandthirdparties
• EleyvPositiveGovernmentLifeAssuranceCo.
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Articles – Alterability
• Basicrule–canonlyalterifforthebenefitofthecompanyasawhole
• Individualhypotheticalmemberofthefuture
• GreenhalghvArderneCinemas
• Nooutsidecontractshallpreventachange,butcompanymaybecomeliableforbreachofthatcontract(SouthernFoundriesvShirlaw)
• Evenifproposedalterationadverselyaffectsonlyonemember,itmaystillbevalid(AllenvGoldReefsofWestAfrica)
• Alterationsallowingcompulsorypurchaseofminority’sshareswillbe(normally)disallowed(DafenTinplatevLlanelliSteel)
• Allowingexpulsionofdefraudingdirector–OK(ShuttleworthvCoxBrothers)
• Allowingexpulsionofcompetingmembers–OK(SidebottomvKershawLeese)
• Possibletopreventalterationbyweightedvotingrights
• BushellvFaith
71June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Articles – Procedure for Alteration
• Specialresolution
• 75%majority
• 14daysnotice
• copyofresolutiontoregistrarwithin15days
• copyofamendedarticlestoregistrar
• alterationisbindingonallmembers
• articlesmaysaythat,forameetingproposinganalteration,theaffectedmembermustbepresent
• soaffectedmembercanpreventalterationbynotattending
• articlesmayrequireagreatermajoritythan75%
• …butcanneverbedraftedtopreventamendment
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Page 77
Company Names
• Basicrule–companycanhaveanynameselectedbypromoters
• Buttherearerestrictions
• Registrarmayrefusetoregisteracompanywithanamewhichismisleadingoroffensive
• Connectionwithroyalty,banks…..
• Namemayberestrictedbystatute
• ANZAC
• Namewillnotbeallowedifthesameasanexistingcompany
• Namemaybedisallowedasatort(passing-off)
• EwingvButtercupMargarine
• Theword‘limited’(orplc)shallnotappearanywhereexceptattheendofthename
73June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Page 78
Name Change
• Compulsoryorvoluntary
• Mayberequiredtochangebyorderfromtheregistrar
• ….within12monthsifthecompanyhasbeen,bymistake,registeredwithanametoosimilartoanexistingcompany
• ….within5yearsifmisleadinginformationwassupplied
• Atanytimeiftheuseofthenameislikelytocauseharmtothepublic
• Specialresolution
• 75%majority
• 14daysnotice
• Copyofresolutionandamendedconstitutiontoregistrarwithin15days
• Registrarissuesnewcertificateofincorporation
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Company Law Chapter 10 74
Page 79
Objects
• Companycandoanythingsolongasitislegal
• Sosince2006,onlyreasontomentionobjectsinthearticlesisrestrictively
• Ifcompanytriestoignoretherestriction,ultravires
• Membercanobject(AshburyRailwayvRiche)
• “Thevalidityofatransactionshallnotbecalledintoquestiononthegroundsoflackofcapacity”
• “In favourofa thirdpartyacting ingoodfaith, thepowerof thedirectors tobindthecompanyshallbedeemedtobefreeofanylimitationunderthecompany’sconstitution”
• Theseapplyonlytothirdparties,nottomembers
• Goodfaith–butthisispresumedunlessshownotherwise
• Norequirementforthirdpartytomakeenquiries
• Sothirdpartiesareprotected,butcompanycannotsuetoenforceanultravirestransaction
75June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Company Law Chapter 10
Page 80
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Page 81
Chapter 11
Company Law: DireCtors anD offiCers
General Points
• Adirectorisanyonewhooccupiesthepositionof...
• Ashadowdirectorisapersoninaccordancewithwhoseinstructionsthedirectorsareaccustomedtoact
• Defactodirector–apersonwhopurportstoactasthoughtheywereadirector
• Alternatedirector–apersonappointedbyadirectorwhoisunabletoattendaboardmeeting
• Executivedirectors–moreonthesenext
• Non–executivedirectors
• Integralelementofcorporategovernance
• Bringanindependentview
• Helpinprovidingeffectiveleadership
• Helptoestablishandmaintainfinancialprobity
• Keepawatchfuleyeontheeffectivenessoftheexecutivedirectors
77June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Number and Eligibility
• Privatecompany–atleastone
• Publiccompany–atleasttwo
• Anyonemaybeadirector(butsomerestrictions)
• Mustbeover16
• Maybeanon-naturalperson
• MustnotbedisqualifiedunderCDDA(seelater)
• Mustnotbebankrupt
• Mustnotbeofunsoundmind
• Shouldnotbeabsent,withoutpermission,fromboardmeetingsforaperiodinexcessof6months
June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Page 83
Company Directors Disqualification Act
• OnapplicationtotheCourt,adirectormaybedisqualifiedbycourtorderonanumberofgrounds:
• for an offence committed in the promotion, formation,management, liquidation or striking off acompany
• wherepersistentlyindefault(3offencesin5years)offilingreturns
• whenfoundguiltyoffraudulentorwrongfultrading
• wheninvolvedinacompanyinsolventliquidation
• followingaDepartmentofTradeinvestigation
• ingeneral,thedisqualificationperiodis“upto15years”
• breakingthedisqualificationorder upto2yearsinprison
79June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Page 84
Directors Appointment
• Firstdirectors–namedindocumentssenttoregistrarbeforeincorporation
• Subsequentdirectorsmaybeappointedby:-
• Membersingeneralmeeting
• Otherdirectors–tofillacasualvacancy
• Thecourt(rare)
• Alender(ifpartoftheloanagreement)
• Administrator–underanadministrationorder
• 1/3rotationprocedure
• FTSEtop350company?Alldirectorsretireeveryyear
• Appointedbyordinaryresolution
• Registrarnotified
June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Page 85
Directors Removal
• Ordinaryresolution
• Specialnotice
• 28daysnoticetocompany
• 21daysnoticetomembers
• Opportunitytomakewrittenrepresentationsofreasonablelengthandnotdefamatoryinnature
• Reasonablelength
• Mustalsosatisfylegalrestrictions–100membersholding≥£100sharecapitalonaverage
• Noticetoregistrar
• Weightedvotingrightscanmakeremovalimpossible
• BushellvFaith
• Companymayhavetopaysubstantialcompensationtoaremoveddirector(SouthernFoundriesvShirlaw)
81June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Directors - Statutory Duties
• 2006Actputintostatutemanyoftheestablishedcommonlawprinciples
• 7duties
• Actwithintheirpowers
• Performtheirdutieswithreasonableskill,careanddiligence
• Promotesuccessofcompany(seenext)
• Independentjudgement
• Avoidconflictsofinterest
• Nobenefitsfromthirdparties
• Declareinterestintransactions/contracts
• Commonlawcaseswhichthecourtswillfollowininterpretingthesestatutorydutiesfollow
June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Directors’ Duties – Common Law Cases
• ReCityEquitableFireInsurance
• ReBrazilianRubberPlantationsandEstates
• DorchesterFinanceCovStebbing
• CookvDeeks
• IDCvCooley
• Regal(Hastings)vGulliver
• PesoSilverMinesvCropper
• HowardSmithvAmpolPetroleum
• BamfordvBamford
• HoggvCramphorn
• ClemensvClemens
83June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Directors – Promoting Success
• Statutetryingtoencouragelong-termapproachbydirectors
• Directorstohaveregardforallstake-holders
• Non-exhaustivelistofmattersfordirectorstoconsider:
• Long-termconsequencesoftheirdecisions
• Employees’interests
• Goodrelationshipswithcustomersandsuppliers
• Localcommunityandenvironmentalimpact
• Highstandardsofbusinessconduct
• Goodreputation
• Fairtreatmentforallmembers
June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Directors – Controls
• Servicecontracts≥2yearsrequireapprovalbymembers
• Acquisitionofnon-cashassetsneedmembers’approvalif≥10%ofcompany’sassets
• ….butnotlessthan£5,000
• …andalwaysif>£100,000
• Nocompanymaylendmoney,providesecuritynorguaranteealoantoadirectorofitself,norofitsholdingcompanyunlessapprovedbymembers
• Relevantcompaniescannotquasi-lend(unless<£5,000)
• ...relevantcompaniescannotapprovecredittransactions(unless<£10,000)unlessapprovedbymembers
• Anycompanymaylendupto£5,000
• Loansbymoneylendingcompaniesallowedforpurchaseorimprovementofmainoronlyresidenceupto£100,000
• Relevantcompanyrestrictionsapplyalsotoconnectedpersons
85June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Directors – Remedies
• Makethemaccountforpersonalgain(Regal(Hastings)vGulliver)
• Makethemindemnifythecompanyagainstlosscausedbytheirnegligence(seebelow)
• Rescindthecontractwheredirectorhasaconflictofinterest
• Askthecourttodeclareatransactionisultravires
• Directorsarenotliablefortheactsofotherdirectors
• Maybeheldliablebythecourtlookingbehindtheveilofincorporation
• Maybeheldliablebythecourtforfraudulentorwrongfultrading
• Liablefornegligence?
• Notifhonest(PavlidesvJensen)
• Butifnegligenceresultsinpersonalbenefit?(DanielsvDaniels)
June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Company Secretary
• Everypubliccompanymusthaveone
• Shouldbeappropriatelyqualified
• Duties, determined by the directors, are administrative in nature ( Panorama Developments v FidelisFurnishingFabrics)
• Maintainingcompany’sstatutoryrecords(seelater)
• Filingreturnswiththeregistrar
• Takingminutesofmeetings
• Ensuringthecompanycomplieswithstatutoryrequirements
• Signingdocumentsasrequiredbylaw
• Underprinciplesofcorporategovernanceshouldalso:-
• Advisetheboardongovernancematters
• Arrangetheinductionprocessfornewneds
• Enableeffectivecommunicationbetweenboardanditsvarioussub-committees
87June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Company Secretary: Statutory books
• everycompanymustmaintaincertainrecordsrequiredbystatute–“thestatutorybooks”
• theserecordsmustbekeptatthecompany’sregisteredoffice,unless...
• ...theregisterofmembersismaintainedbyanindependentorganisation–thecompany’sregistrars
• inthissituation,certainotherbooksmaybekeptalsoattheofficesofthecompany’sregistrars
• registersinclude:
• members
• directors
• secretary
• mortgagesandcharges
• debentureholders
• directors’interests
• substantialshareholders
June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Page 93
Auditors
• Required(unless‘small’)
• Appointedby:-
• Directors(firstandcasualvacancies)
• Members(subsequentandcasualvacancies)
• Secretaryofstate(ifno-oneelsedoes)
• Mustbeappropriatelyqualified
• Cannotbe:-
• Directororemployeeofthecompany
• Partneroremployeeoftheabove
• Undischargedbankrupt
• Professionallypreventedfrom
• Owningbeneficialinterest
• Beingcloserelativeofcompanyofficersoremployees
89June 2011 Examinations paper f4
Company Law: DirECtors anD offiCErs Chapter 11
Page 94
Auditors – Rights and Duties
• Rights
• Accesstocompanyrecords
• Informationandexplanations
• Noticeofandattendanceatcompanygeneralmeetings
• Writtenrepresentations(whenproposedforremoval)
• Receivecopiesofproposedwrittenresolutions
• Duties
• Expressanopinionontruthandfairness(andproperpreparation)
• Reportifdirectors’reportisinconsistentormisleading
• (Forquotedcompanies)reportoncertainelementsofthedirectors’remunerationreport
• Auditorsshouldsignanddatetheauditreport
• Report,byexception,ifproperaccountingrecordsnotkept
June 2011 Examinations paper f4
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Chapter 12
Company Law: meetings and ResoLutions
Annual General Meeting
• PubliccompaniesmustholdanAGM
• …everycalendaryear(GibsonvBarton)
• Firstnomorethan18monthsafterincorporation
• Subsequent,nomorethan15monthsafterprevious
• PrivatecompanymemberscanrequestanAGM
• 21daysnotice
• Ordinarybusiness:-
• Formalpresentationofthefinancialstatements
• Reappointmentofdirectors
• Reappointmentofauditors
• Approvalofdividendproposedbydirectors
91June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Page 96
Resolutions
• Ordinary
• simplemajority
• ordinarybusinessand(some)specialbusiness
• 14daysnotice
• Special
• 75%
• 14daysnotice
• Written
• privatecompaniesonly
• anyresolution(ordinaryorspecial)
• …exceptforremovalofauditorordirector
• auditorneedstoapprovethewording
• resolutionpassedonthedaterequiredmajorityisreached
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Resolutions – Special Notice
• Specialnoticeappliesonlytosomeordinaryresolutions
• 28daysnoticeisgiventothecompany
• Thecompanygives21daysnoticetothemembers
• Resolutionsrequiringspecialnotice:-
• toremoveadirector
• toremoveanauditor
• toappointanewauditorotherthantheretiringauditor
• tofillacasualvacancyintheofficeofauditor
• toconfirminappointmentanauditorappointedbythedirectorsinthemid-termtofillacasualvacancy
• overagedirectorforaplc
• Director/auditormaywritewrittenrepresentationsofreasonablelengthandnotdefamatoryinnature
93June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Resolutions
• Normallythedirectorswilldeterminetheagendaforameeting
• Butsometimesmembersmayrequirearesolution
• Membersmustholdatleast5%ofthetotalvotingrights,or...
• ...notlessthan5%innumberofthemembers,or...
• …benotlessthan100membersholdingonaveragenotlessthan£100eachinpaidupsharecapital
• Therequestshouldbeinhardcopyform,orelectronicform
• Therequestmustbedeliverednotlessthan6weeksbeforethegeneralmeeting
• Therequisitionistsmayrequestthatastatementofreasonablelengthbecirculatedtogetherwiththenoticeofthemeeting
• Reasonablelengthis,asusual,notmorethan1,000words
• Therequisitionistswillbeartheincidentalcostsunless….
• ….thecompanyresolvesotherwise
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Proxies
• Aproxyis‘awrittenstatementauthorisinganotherpersontovoteonbehalfofanabsentshareholder’
• Thepersonappointedneednotbeamemberofthecompany–itcanbeanyone
• Theword‘proxy’isusedtodescribeboththeformandthepersonappointedbytheform
• Proxiesmayspeakatthemeeting
• Theymayvoteonapollandonashowofhands
• Theymaydemandapoll
• Companieswillprovide‘two-way’proxyformssothattheabsentmembercanindicatewhichwaytheproxyshouldvote–‘for’or‘against’eachresolution
• Proxyformsshouldbedeliveredtothecompanynotlessthan48hoursbeforethemeeting
• Aproxyappointedbyamemberwhichisacompanyiscalleda‘representative’
• Apersonmaybeappointedbymorethanonememberastheirproxy
95June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Quorum
• Aquorumistheminimumnumberofmemberswhoshallbepresentatameetingbeforethemeetingmayvalidlypassresolutions
• Theminimumnumberisnormallycontainedwithintheconstitution
• Typically,theminimumnumberis2memberspresent,inpersonorbyproxy
• Buttheword‘meeting’impliesthatthereshouldbeatleast2persons
• Soonememberinpersonwhoalsoholdsaproxyforanothermembercannot,normally,beaquorum
• Itis,however,possible!
• Inthesituationofaclassmeeting,whereallthesharesofthatclassareownedbyasingleperson
• Ifthecompanyisaprivatecompanywithonlyonemember
• Ifthecourtdirectsthataquorumshallbeasingleperson
• Ifameetingisinquorateatthescheduledstarttimeitwillnormallybeadjournedto‘sametime,sameplace,nextweek’
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Voting
• Followingdiscussionaboutaresolution,thechairwillcallforavote
• Initially,thiswillbeby‘showofhands’
• Eachmember,nomatterhowmanysharestheyhold,thereforehasonlyonevote
• Butmembersholdingmanysharesmayask,followingashowofhands,foravotecount–apoll
• Pollsmaybedemandedby
• Notlessthan5members
• Membersholdingnotlessthan10%ofthetotalvotingrights
• Membersholdingnotlessthan10%ofpaid-upcapital
• Thechair
• Votesarecounted,whetherbyshowofhandsorbypoll
• Abstentionsarenotcounted,neither‘for’nor‘against’
• Thechair’sdecisionabouttheresultofthevoteisfinal
97June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Page 102
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Page 103
Chapter 13
Company Law: Loan CapitaL
Loan Capital
• Adebentureis‘thewrittenacknowledgementofadebtbyacompany’
• Maybesecuredorunsecured
• Maybeasingledebentureoraseriesofdebentures
• Ifissuedasaseries,debentureholdersrank‘paripassuinterse‘
• Security/thechargemaybefixedorfloating
• Tobevalid,thechargemustberegisteredwithin21daysofitscreation
• Ifthereare2chargesoverthesameproperty,afixedchargewilltakeprecedenceoverafloatingcharge
• Ifthereare2fixedcharges(or2floatingcharges)overthesameproperty,theearlieronewilltakeprecedence
• Theearlieroneistheonewhichisregisteredfirst!
• Debentureholdersarecreditorsofthecompany,notmembers
99June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Page 104
Fixed Charges
• Attachestospecificassets
• Companyisnotfreetodeal/disposeofthosechargedassets
• Fixedchargecreatedwithinthe6monthsimmediatelypriortoacompanycommencingliquidationmaybeinvalid
• Aliquidatorwilltrytoproveinvalidity
• Areceivermayprovevalidityif
• Thechargewasgrantedinexchangefornew‘money’or
• Thecompanywassolventatthedateofcreationofthecharge
• Intheeventofaliquidation,thefixedchargedebentureholderranksnumberoneinthesequenceofassetdistribution
• Whereafloatingchargeexistsoveranasset,theremaybeanegativepledgeclause
• Theeffect is toensurethatafloatingchargedebentureholderhas tobenotifiedofanyproposedfixedchargeoverthesameasset
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Floating Charges
• Unlikefixedcharges,floatingchargesdonotattachtospecificassets
• DefinedinthecasereYorkshireWoolcombersas:-
• Achargeonaclassofassetsofacompany,presentandfuture
• Wheretheclasschangesfromtimetotimeintheordinarycourseofbusiness
• Andthecompanymaydealwiththeseassetsuntilthechargecrystallises
• Typicallyappliestothecurrentassetsofinventoryandaccountsreceivable
• Whetherachargeisfixedorfloatingisamatterofcommercialrealityratherthanhowithasbeennamed
• InreTunbridgea‘fixed’chargewasheldbythecourttobefloatingbecauseallthreeYorkshirecriteriaweremet
• InreCimexa‘floating’chargewasheldtobefixedbecausetheassetsdidnotchangefromtimetotimeintheordinarycourseofbusiness
• Afloatingchargewillbeinvalidifcreatedwithinthe12monthsimmediatelypriortothecommencementofaliquidation
101June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Debentures Compared with Shares
• Fixedrateofinterest
• Payableeventhoughnoprofits
• Novotes
• Security(notalways)
• Preferentialentitlementtoreturnofmoney
• Possessionofthechargedasset
• Rightswhencompanydefaults
• Applytocourtforliquidationorder
• Applytocourtforadministrationorder
• Appointareceiver(providednoadministrationorderisineffect)
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Chapter 14
Company Law: Liquidations
Liquidation
• Compulsoryorvoluntary
• Voluntarymaybemembers’orcreditors’
• Essentialdifferenceissolvency
• Courtmayorderliquidationif:-
• Specialresolution
• Numberofmembersfallsbelow2(plcsonly)
• Failuretoobtainatradingcertificatewithin12monthsofincorporation(plcsonly)
• Suspensionofbusinessfor12months(orfailuretocommencebusinesswithin12months)
• Unabletopayitsdebtsastheyfalldue
• Justandequitable
103June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Compulsory Liquidation
• Unabletopayitsdebtsastheyfalldue
• Needtoshowthecourtthatthecompanyhasowedthepetitioningcreditormorethan£750formorethan21days
• Thedebtshouldnotbeindispute
• Justandequitable
• Failureofsubstratum
- ReGermanDateCoffeeCo.
• Deadlockontheboard
- ReYenidjiTobacco
• Quasi-partnershipsituation
- EbrahimivWestbourneGalleries
• Butjustandequitableonlygivenintheabsenceofalternativeremedy(reACompany)
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Administrator Appointed by the Court
• Applicationtothecourtby:-
• Membersordinaryresolution,directorsorbycreditors
• Courtmaygrantif:-
• Companyisunabletopayitsdebts
• Theorder,ifgranted,islikelytoachievethedesiredresult
• Effectofanorder
• Moratoriumoncompany’sdebts
• Powersofmanagementpassedtoadministrator
• Petitionsforwinding-uparedismissed
• Anyadministrativereceiveralreadyinofficemuststepaside
105June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Duties of an Administrator
• Agentofthecompanyandthecreditors
• Sohasfiduciarydutiesaswellaslegal
• Mustsendnoticeofappointmenttocreditors
• Mustobtainalistofcreditors
• Mustsendnoticeofappointmenttoregistrarwithin7days
• Mustrequireastatementofaffairs
• Mustidentifyappointmentonallcompanybusinessletters/correspondence
• Mustprepareproposalsforachievementofadministrationobjectives
• Mustmanagetheaffairsofthecompany
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Advantages of Administration Compared with Liquidation
• Companymaycontinueaftertheprocessiscompleted
• Companyisshelteredfromcreditorsallowingtimetodesignacceptableproposals
• Creditorsarethereforepreventedfromapplyingforaliquidation
• Administratorcanchallengeprevioustransactions
• Creditorsmorelikelytogetsomemoneyback
• Memberswillholdsharesinaviablecompany(possibly)
• Anycreditorcanapplytothecourt
• Floatingchargedebentureholderscanappointwithoutreferencetothecourt
• Creditors(potentially)willhaveacontinuingcustomer
• Directorscouldavoidacquiringthereputationofhavingbeeninvolvedinaninsolventcompany
107June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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End of Administration Period
• Automaticallyends:-
• Whensuccessfullycompleted
• 12monthsafterappointment
• Applicationtocourtbyadministrator
• Applicationtocourtbyacreditor
• Whenoriginalapplicantisdiscoveredtohavehadaninappropriatemotive
• Administratorcanapplytocourt
• Ondeterminingthatadministrationcannotbeeffective
• Thecompanyshouldneverhavebeeninadministration
• (ifappointedbythecourt)theadministrationhasbeensuccessful
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Chapter 15
Company Law: Corporate GovernanCe
Corporate Governance
• Corporategovernanceisthesystembywhichcompaniesaredirectedandcontrolled
• Importantbecause (often ) companies are controlledbypeople (directors )whoarenot theowners (shareholders)
• Butthereareotherpeoplealsointerestedinthecontinuinghealthofacompany–thestakeholders
• Forexample:
• Employees–wishtocontinuetohavetheopportunityofearningasalary
• Taxman–wishestocontinuetoreceiveshareofprofits
• Customers–wishforcontinuityofsupplyofgoods
• Suppliers–wishfortheopportunitytocontinuetosupply
• Society–theultimateconsumers,butalsoaffectedbycompany’senvironmentalfootprint
• Planetearth–weareallaffected,directlyorindirectly,bytheactivitiesofeveryoneelse!
109June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Corporate Governance – Auditors
• Theshareholdersofacompanyneedreassurance
• Thismaybereassuranceconcerningthereliabilityoffinancialinformationor…..
• …concerningthelegalityofacompany’sactivitiesor…..
• …..theappropriatenessoftheinternalcontrolsystemsbeingfollowedwithinthecompany
• Auditors have a statutory duty to report on the truth and fairness of the view shown by the financialstatements
• Thisisprimarilyforthebenefitoftheshareholders
• Butotherstakeholdersalsogainreassurance
• Thereforeimportantthatauditorstakeactivestepstoensuretheircontinuingindependence
• Protectthemselvesagainstanymatterwhichcouldthreatenthatindependenceor…
• ……..beperceivedbyotherstothreatenit
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Corporate Governance – Directors
• Theownersofacompanywilltypicallynotalsobeincontrol
• Directorsareappointedasagentsofthecompanytoruntheentityinanorderlyandefficientmanner
• Maybeexecutivedirectors
• Involvedintheday-to-dayrunningactivities
• Ornon-executive
• Theirroleismoresupervisoryinnature
• Theybringanindependentviewtotheboardmeetings
• Theyhelptheboardtoprovideeffectiveleadership
• Theyassistinthedevelopmentofthegoodreputationofthecompany
• Theycomprisethemajorityorallofthegovernancesub-committeesoftheboard
111June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Corporate Governance – Stakeholders
• Obviousstakeholdersaredirectors,employees,customersetc
• Butacademicresearchhasidentifiedanumberofdifferentwaysofcategorisingstakeholders:-
• Legitimate/illegitimate
• Internal/external
• Active/passive
• Recognised/unrecognised
• Known/unknown
• Primary/secondary
• Voluntary/involuntary
• Narrow/wide
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Chapter 16
Company Law: ILLegaLItIes
Wrongful Trading
• PreviouslawextendedbyInsolvencyAct1986
• Previously,directorscouldonlybeliableforcompany’sdebtswheretheywereguiltyoffraudulenttrading–difficulttoprove
• I.A.1986designedtogivecreditorsincreasedprotection
• Anexampleofliftingtheveil
• Directors(andsometimesotherstoo)maybeheldliablewhen:-
• Companyhascommencedinsolventliquidation
• Theyknew,orshouldhaveknown,thatthiswasprobable
• Theyheldapositionofpower(director)
• Courtmayallocatefinancialpenaltyontheliquidator’sapplication
• Directorsmayescapeliabilityiftheycanshowthecourtthattheytookeverystepnecessarytomitigate/minimisethecreditors’potentialloss
113June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Page 118
Money Laundering
• Aprocesswherebytheproceedsofcriminalactivityareconvertedintoassetsappearingtohavealegitimateorigin
• Usuallyinvolves3distinctphases
• Placementofthefundsintolegitimatebusinessactivity
• Transferofmoneyfrombusinesstobusiness(orplacetoplace)toconcealitsoriginalsource
• Integration–themoneytakesontheappearanceofhavingcomefromalegitimatesource
• ProceedsofCrimeAct2002seekstocontrolmoneylaunderingbythecreationof3categoriesofcriminalactivity
• Laundering(maximum14yearsprisonand/orfine)
• Failuretoreport(maximum5yearsprisonand/orfine)
• Tipping-off(maximum5yearsprisonand/orfine)
• Theoffenceoffailuretoreportrelatesonlyto individualsactinginthecourseofbusiness–forexample,accountants
June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Insider Dealing
• Insider–apersonwhohasabusinessconnectionwithacompanyasaresultofwhichtheymayacquirerelevantinformation
• Dealing–buyingorsellingsharesorsecuritiesinacompany
• Unpublishedprice– sensitive information is informationabout thecompanywhich isnot in thepublicdomain…..
• ….islessthan6monthsold,and……
• ….is,onpublication,likelytohaveamaterialimpactonthemarketpriceofthecompany’sshares
• Aninsiderinpossessionofunpublishedprice–sensitiveinformationshouldnotdeal
• Anoffenceisalsocommittediftheinsiderencouragesanotherpersontodeal
• A person dealing as a result of that encouragement, and believing the source to be an insider, is alsocommittinganoffence
• Disclosureofinsideinformation,otherthaninthepropercourseofemploymenttoanauthorisedperson,isalsoanoffence
• Somedefencesareavailabletobeclaimed
115June 2011 Examinations paper F4
Company Law: ILLEgaLItIEs Chapter 16
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Page 121
Chapter 17
Capital MaintenanCe
Capital Maintenance
• Thememberscontributecapitaltothecompany
• Thisshouldbemaintainedwithinthecompanybywayofnetassets
• Knownasthebufferfund
• Called“shareholders’equity“andcomprisessharecapitalplusundistributablereserves
• Undistributablereservesare:-
• Sharepremiumaccount
• Capitalredemptionreserve
• Accumulatedunrealisedprofitslessaccumulatedunrealisedlosses
• Anyotherreserveidentifiedbythecompany’sconstitutionasundistributable
• Developmentoftheprincipleofcapitalmaintenanceaddressesthreeareas:-
• Restrictionsonthepaymentofdividends
• Restrictionsonthereductionofcapital
• Assistancegiventooutsiderstoacquirethecompany’sshares
117June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Capital Maintenance – Payment of Dividends
• Powertodeclaredividendsisgiventothedirectorsbythecompany’sconstitution
• Membersdonothaveanautomaticrighttoreceiveadividend(theyapproveoneatthecompany’sgeneralmeetingbutcannotvotetoincreasethedividendproposedbythedirectors)
• Dividendsarenormallypaidbasedonthepaid-upcapitalofthecompany
• Dividendsmaybeintheformofacashpayment(normal)orinanotherform(forexample,ascripdividend)
• Adividendisacompanydebtonlyfromthedateitisdeclaredanddueforpayment
• Ifitisdeclaredandunpaid,itisadeferreddebt
• Unclaimeddividendsbecomestatutebarredafter6years
• Dividendsmayonlybedeclaredoutofprofitsavailableforthepurpose
• Thisisdefinedas‘accumulatedrealisedprofitslessaccumulatedrealisedprofits’
• Thereisnodistinctiondrawnbetweencapitalprofitsandrevenueprofits
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Page 123
Capital Maintenance – Reduction of Capital
• Acompanymayreduceitscapital,butonlyunderthestrictestcontrol
• 3authoritiesarerequired
• Specialresolution
• Powerintheconstitution
• Consentofthecourt
• Andforonly3reasons/situations
• Thecompany’scapitalisnolongerrepresentedbyavailableassets(ithasbeensufferinglosses)
• Thecompanywishestoextinguish/canceltheliabilityofaclassofshare-forexamplea£1share,70ppaidcouldbecomea70psharefullypaid
• Thecompanywishestorestructureitscapitalfundingandmay,forinstance,nowwishtoreplacesomeofitssharesbywayofloancapital
• Thecourtisinvolvedbecausecreditors’rightscouldbeadverselyaffected
119June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Share Capital
• Itisillegaltoissuesharesforanamountwhichislowerthanthenominalvalueoftheshare
• Wheresharesareissued,whetherforcashorotherwise,foranamountinexcessoftheirnominalvalue,anamountequaltothatexcessshallbecreditedtotheSharePremiumAccount
• Thesharepremiumaccountisanundistributablereserveandhasverylimiteduses:-
• Financetheissueoffullypaidbonussharestoexistingmembers
• Writeoffpreliminaryandformationexpenses
• Provideforthepremiumpayableontheredemptionofsharesordebentures
• Write off the expenses of, discounts allowed on or commissions paid on any issue of shares ordebentures
• Butthecombinationof‘discountsallowedon’and‘issueofshares’isanillegalcombination
• Despitetheprinciplethatsharesmaynotbeissuedatadiscount,privatecompaniesareabletoissuesharesinconsiderationfornon-cashgoodsorservicesreceived
• Thetrue/fairvalueofthesegoodsorservicescouldbelowerthanthenominalvalueofthesharesissued.Thisisnotillegal–butonlyappliestoprivatecompanies
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Share Capital
• Variationofclassrights
• Rightsattachtoaparticularclassofshareandtypicallyreferto:-
- votingrights
- entitlementtodividends
- returnofcapitalinaliquidation
• Ifthevariationofrightsisspecifiedbytheconstitution,thenfollowtheconstitution
• Ifnotspecifiedbytheconstitution,thenspecialresolutionisneeded
• Note,ifconstitutionprovidesforthevariation,itcouldrequiremerelyanordinaryresolutionorcouldevenrequiresomegreatermajoritythan75%
• Theseprovisionsapplyevenforcompanieswithoutasharecapital,forexampleacompanylimitedbyguarantee
121June 2011 Examinations paper F4
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Chapter 18
Cases
Cases – Same Names
Case name area of law Principle
Errington v Errington
Thomas v Thomas
Beswick v Beswick
Combe v Combe
Balfour v Balfour
Merritt v Merritt
Spellman v Spellman
Salomon v Salomon
Bamford v Bamford
Daniels v Daniels
Clemens v Clemens
123June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Cases – Horses
Case name area of law Principle
Gunthing v Lynn
Felthouse v Bindley
Roscorla v Thomas
Lampleigh v Braithwait
Cases – Directions
Case name area of law Principle
Northland Airlines v Dennis Ferranti Meters
Central London Property Trust v High Trees House
Universal Furniture Products v Maple Flock Company
C & P Haulage v Middleton
Southern Foundries v Shirlaw
Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa
Ebrahimi v Westbourne Galleries
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Cases – Colours
Case name area of law Principle
Whitely v Chappell
White v Bluett
Rose & Frank v Crompton
Express Newspapers v Silverstone
White & Carter Councils v MacGregor
Whaley Bridge v Green
Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas
Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa
Peso Silver Mines v Cropper
125June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Cases – Ships
Case name area of law Principle
Stilk v Myrick
Hartley v Ponsonby
The Moorcock
Avery v Bowden
The Mikalis Angelos
The Wagon Mound
Mersey Docks v Coggins
R v Oll
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Cases – Cars
Case name area of law Principle
Carlill v Carbolic Smokeball
Williams v Carwardine
Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking
Hollier v Rambler Motors
Andrews v Singer
Lazenby Garages v Wright
Alexander v Rolls Royce
Dunlop v Selfridges
Dunlop v New Garage
Ford v Armstrong
Richley v Fould
Carslogie v Norway
Gilford Motor Co v Horne
Daimler v Continental Tyre and Rubber
127June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Case name area of law Principle
Pavlides v Jensen
Merritt v Merritt
Evans v Cross
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Cases – Forenames
Case name area of law Principle
Garrod v Scott
Evans v Cross
R v Clark
Williams v Carwardine
Grainger v Gough
Ramsgate Victoria Hotel v Montefiori
Bradbury v Morgan
Dickinson v Dodds
Gunthing v Lynn
Harris v Nickerson
Harvey v Facey
Stevenson v McLean
Northland Airlines v Dennis Ferranti Meters
Powell v Lee
129June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Case name area of law Principle
Household Fire Insurance Co v Grant
Roscorla v Thomas
Collins v Godefroy
Williams v Roffey
Ward v Byham
Thomas v Thomas
Donohue v Stevenson
Shanklin Pier v Detel Products
D & C Builders v Rees
Parker v Clark
Rose & Frank v Crompton
Jones v Vernon Pools
Bettini v Gye
Hutton v Warren
Olley v Marlborough Court Hotel
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Page 135
Case name area of law Principle
Chapeltown v Barry
Curtis v Chemical Cleaning Company
Andrews v Singer
Victoria Laundry v Newman Industries
Hadley v Baxendale
Lazenby Garages v Wright
Jarvis v Swan Tours
Alexander v Rolls Royce
Hoenig v Isaacs
Warner Bros v Nelson
Lynn v Bamber
Latimer v AEC
Hedley Byrne v Heller
Jeb Fasteners v Marks Bloom
Caparo v Dickman
131June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Case name area of law Principle
Evert v Williams
Adams v Cape Industries
Jubilee Cotton Mills v Lewes
Clarke v Dunraven
Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa
Bushel v Faith
Regal ( Hastings ) v Gulliver
Howard Smith v Ampol Petroleum
Daniels v Daniels
Cases – Builders and Hotels
Case name area of law Principle
Ramsgate Victoria Hotel v Montefiori
Williams v Roffey
D & C Builders v Rees
Olley v Marlborough Court Hotel
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Cases – Superman List
Case name area of law Principle
R v Clark
Parker v Clark
Rescission
Hickman v Kent or Romney Marsh Sheepbreeders Association
Clarke v Dunraven
Household Fire Insurance Co v Grant
Cases – Weapons List
Case name area of law Principle
Gunthing v Lynn
Central London Property Trust v High Trees House
Poussard v Spiers and Pond
Express Newspapers v Silverstone
Avery v Bowden
Thompson v Robinson
Planche v Colburn
133June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
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Cases – Films List
Case name area of law Principle
Gardner v Sevenoaks
Anglia TV v Reed
Warner Bros v Nelson
Photoproductions v Securicor
re F G Films
Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas
Regal ( Hastings ) v Gulliver
June 2011 Examinations Paper F4
CasEs Chapter 18 134