Academic Writing

ACADEMIC WRITINGLDB 1042

2 credit hours (2-hour lecture per week)

ASSESSMENTStudents assessment will be based on the following components:COURSEWORK(60%)

Test 1 (In-text citation, Summarizing & Paraphrasing)Test 2 (Synthesizing)

Academic Paper20%

10%

30%

FINAL EXAMINATION (40%)

COURSE SYNOPSIS:This course emphasizes on the theory and practice of academic writing. Students will be introduced to the writing process and writing supporting details using facts, quotations and citations. They will also be exposed to summarizing, paraphrasing, synthesizing and analyzing texts. In addition, accurate use of grammar and mechanics of English will also be emphasized. Students will also be introduced to parts of reports commonly produced by students at tertiary level.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:By the end of this course, students should be able to:

apply the process of writing when producing written texts. produce coherent and cohesive written texts. use English accurately and effectively in producing written texts

ATTENDANCE:

Please take note that under University regulations, you are required to attend 90% of the course to qualify for the Final Examination. Failure to meet this requirement will result in barring.

ACADEMIC WRITING

WEEKTOPICACTIVITY

WEEK 118/5-22/5INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC WRITING Class Activity: Formal and Informal articles on Mozarts music Assignment (formal & informal letters)

WEEK 225/5-29/5DOCUMENTING SOURCES WITHIN THE TEXT (In-text citation)Class Activity: Identifying errors.Author in subject position and Information or Research given prominence.

WEEK 31/6 5/6REFERENCING

Class Activity: Referencing exercise

WEEK 48/5 12/5SUMMARIZING AND PARAPHRASING

Class Activity: Rural Tourism

WEEK 515/6-19/6SYNTHESIZING

TEST 1 (20%)-IN-TEXT CITATION/REFERENCING-SUMMARIZING -PARAPHRASING

WEEK 622/6 -26/6SYNTHESIZINGIntroduce Research theme

Class Activity: Books & NanotechnologyHomework Assignment - Malaria

WEEK 729/6 -3/7SYNTHESIZING

Class Activity: Discuss on Assignment - Malaria

WEEK 86/7 10/7INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH DISCUSSION ON STUDENTS PROPOSED TOPIC AND IDENTIFIED ARTICLES

WEEK 913/7-17/7SYNTHESIZING TEXTS 3-5 Articles (2 Journal Articles and Other Academic Articles): Title, Introduction, Lit Review, Discussion, Conclusion

Concept Matrix

WEEK 1020/7-24/7

PRESENTATION OF CONCEPT MATRIX

Each presentation 5 mins

WEEK 1127/7-31/7PRESENTATION OF CONCEPT MATRIX

Each presentation 5 mins

WEEK 123/8-7/8WRITING ACADEMIC PAPER - Draft 1

TEST 2(10%)SYNTHESIZING

WEEK 1310/8-14/8WRITING ACADEMIC PAPER- Draft 2

WEEK 1417/8-21/8FINALISING DRAFT AND SUBMISSION OF ACADEMIC PAPER

ACADEMIC PAPER (30%)

FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERSTake home assignment 1Here are two jumbled letters. One is written to a hotel, and the other to a friend. Decide which sentences go with which letter, and put them in the right order.

a. I would like a single room with a shower.b. Im writing to ask you a favor.c. I dont mind where you put me. Ill sleep anywhere!d. I have a further request.e. I would like to make a reservation for the nights of 22nd, 23rd, and 24th January.f. I hope the above is convenient.g. Write soon and let me know.h. Im coming down to London at the end of the month to go to a conference.i. Could I have a bite to eat when I arrive?j. I hope you are all well, and that youve recovered from the busy Christmas period.k. I would be extremely grateful.l. Could I possibly have a room at the back, as I find front rooms rather noisy?m. Could you put me up for a few days?n. Just a sandwich will do.o. I look forward to your reply.p. Its the 22nd-24th January.q. As I will be arriving quite late, could you possibly put a cold buffet in my room on the 22nd?r. I hope thats all right.s. Theres something else Id like to ask you.

(Soars and Soars 1987:53)

Article ATHE MOZART EFFECT: HOW MUSIC MAKES YOU SMARTER

Have you ever noticed how your favorite music can make you feel better? Well, new research studies now show how music can make you smarter too!Scientists at Stanford University, in California, have recently revealed a molecular basis for the Mozart Effect, but not other music. Dr. Rauscher and her colleague H. Li, a geneticist, have discovered that rats, like humans, perform better on learning and memory tests after listening to a specific Mozarts Sonata. Recently, a new book called The Mozard Effect by Don Campbell, has condensed the worlds research on all the beneficial effects of certain types of music.

Some of the hundreds of benefits are:

Improves test scores Cuts learning time Calms hyperactive children and adults Reduces errors Improves creativity and clarity Heals the body faster Integrates both sides of the brain for more efficient learning Raises IQ scores 9 points (research done at University of California, Irvine)

In 1996, the College Entrance Exam Board Service conducted a study on all students taking their SAT exams. Students who sang or played a musical instrument scored 51 points higher on the verbal portion of the test and an average of 39 points higher on math. Major corporations such as Shell, IBM, and Dupont, along with hundreds of schools and universities use music, such as certain Baroque pieces, to cut learning time in half and increase retention of the new materials.In my teacher and parent training seminars, I have been using music for years as a strategy to reduce learning time and increase students memory of the material. Music activates the whole brain and makes you feel more energetic.

Listen to these tapes when you study, work or drive in the car to receive the tremendous benefits. This is the music of such composers as Mozart, Vivaldi, Pachabel, Handel and Bach. I use these tapes every day and found them to be extraordinarily effective.

Each CD or tape has specially selected music to enhance learning, spatial intelligence, creativity and body awareness.Copyright @ 2011 The Center For New Discoveries in Learning, Inc.Article BThe influence of Mozarts music on brain activity in the process of learningJausovec N., Jausovec K, and Gerlic I.Department of Education, Universza v Mariboru. Pedagoska fakulteta, Koroska 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia. [email protected] study investigated the influence Mozarts music has on brain activity in the process of learning. A second objective was to test priming explanation of the Mozart effect.METHODSIn Experiment 1 individuals were first trained in how to solve spatial rotation tasks and then solved similar tasks. Fifty-six students were divided into 4 groups: a control oneCG who prior to and after taining relaxed, and three experimental groups. MMwho prior to and after training listened to music; MSwho prior to training listened to music and subsequently relaxed; and SMwho prior to training relaxed and afterward listened to music. The music used was the first movement of Mozarts sonata (K.448). In Experiment 2, thirty-six respondents were divided into three groups: CG, MM (same procedure as in Experiment 1), and BMwho prior to and after training listened to Brahms Hungarian dance No. 5. In both experiments the EEG data collected during problem solving were analyzed using the methods of event-related desynchronization/synchronization (ERD/ERS) and approximated entropy (ApEn).RESULTSIn the first experiment the respondents of the MM, MS, and SM groups showed a better task-performance than did the respondents of the CG group. Individuals of the MM group displayed less complex EEG patterns and more alpha band synchronization than did respondents of the other three groups. In Experiment 2, individuals who listened to Mozart showed a better task performance than did the respondents of the CG and BM groups. They displayed less complex EEG patterns and more lower-1 alpha and gamma band synchronization than did the respondents of the BM group.CONCLUSIONSMozarts music, by activating task-relevant brain areas, enhances the learning of spatio-temporal rotation tasks.SIGNIFICANCEThe results support priming explanation of the Mozart effect.FORMALITY AND INFORMALITY: DIFFERENCES IN ARTICLESRead the two articles on Mozarts music and describe the features for each in the table below:ARTICLE AARTICLE B

Audience

Tone

Vocabulary

Style

Language

Content

Organization

IN-TEXT CITATIONSThere are errors in the in-text citation in this Introduction adapted from an article. Identify the errors and rewrite the complete text with the correct in-text citations using the APA format or Numbering format: Student retention has attracted steady attention from scholars and practitioners in the higher education community (Austin 1993, Bean 1980, Cabrera et al. 1993 & Braxton 2000, Tinto 1993). As such, the literature on college student retention is full with scholarship advancing our knowledge of what contributes to a students ability or inability to complete college. Researchers have evaluated retention from a student perspective and shown that high school academic achievement, socioeconomic status, gender, commitment to earning a degree, and social academic involvement all influence degree completion (Austin 1993; Cabrera and Nora 1996; Tinto 1993). In particular, we know that students who are socially disadvantaged, academically less prepared, and who experience a lack of resources and support from significant others, are less likely to stay in college (Austin 1993; Seidman 2005; Braxton 2000). We also know that those who feel isolated or lack a sense-of-belonging during their early years of college are more likely to leave (Hurtado and carter 1997; Hausmann et al., 2007). We have a wealth of research available to explain college student retention from an individual, student perspective.From an institutional perspective, according to (Oseguera 2005; Sjoberg 1999) while there is information on institutional context factors and their effect on degree completion, organizational analyses are limited by the fact that they mainly tend to evaluate the influence of structural aspects of an institution and until recently, the organizational culture of an institution. For example, size, control, and interactions influence persistence behavior but know less about these groups collective influence on persistence decisions. What is lacking then is institutional analyses of degree completion is an attendant emphasis on peer and faculty climates as suggested by (Berger 2000 & 2001; Braxton 2000 and Kuh 2001). In other words, what affects do peer and faculty attitudes and behaviors in the aggregate (i.e. institutional climates) have on student degree completion?

Source: The influence of institutional retention climates on student persistence to degree completion: A multilevel approach by Leticia Oseguera and Byung Shik Rhee in Research in Higher Education journal and was published in 2009, volume 50, pages 546-569.Paraphrase this information in 2 ways:1. Where the researchers are given prominence i.e. subject position1. Where the research or information is considered more important

Authors: Malcolm Smith, Noorlaila Ghaali and Siti Faitimah Noor MinhadThere were 1,409 candidates in the program on that date and a sample of around 20 per cent of the student body was contemplated in order to provide a sufficient number for statistical comparisons. 80.4 per cent of the respondents acknowledged the source of information in the reference list of the assignment, but the majority of these (1`30) made no specific citation of authorship elsewhere in the assignment.Most seriously 27 students (9.4 per cent of the total) did not state their source of information anywhere in the assignment, even in the reference list, the incidence of plagiarism among this group of undergraduate accounting students was perceived as significant

Authors: Niall Hayes and Lucas C.IntronaCarroll (2002) has suggested that as most students are unsure what plagiarism is, they do not plagiarise with the intent to deceive.Fear of failure generally, especially when students are funded by their family, their government, or a particular company, also places considerable pressure on the students to do well.Yet there are some students who feel they cannot improve upon what is already written and prefer to use the original text rather than their own.Most students from exam-oriented learning cultures plagiarize intentionally and unintentionally due to their lack of experience in essay writing as they are still used to relying exclusively on exams.There is also a lack of clarity across the university about what constitutes plagiarism and a discrepancy in the way plagiarism is detected and enforced.

REFERENCING PRACTICE USING THE APA FORMAT AND NUMBERING FORMAT

1. It was written by Abraham Pais, it is called Subtle is the Lord.,the Science and the life of Albert Einstein. It was published in New York by Oxford University Press in 1982

2. It was written by Herman Bondi and called Relativity and Common Sense: A New Approach to Einstein. It was published in Mineola, N.Y., By Dover Publishing in 1980

3. The book is called Introducing Einsteins Relativity and was written by R.A. DInverno. It was published by Oxford University Press in New York, N.Y., in 1992

4. The article was called Einstein in Love and written by Dennis Overbye. It was published in Time magazine on April 30,1990 on page 108

5. The article was written by Martin C. Gutzwiller called Einstein and published in Scientific American, volume 266 number 1 on pages 78 to 85 in 1992

6. The article, called A Challenge to Einstein was written by T. Bethell. It was published in National Review on November 5th 1990 on pages 69-71

7. It was written by Ronald W. Clark and called Einstein:The Life and Times It was published in 1971 by Avon Books in New York 8. Entitled Closing in on Einsteins Special Relativity Theory, the paper was written by Robert Pool and published in Science in 1990. It can be found in volume 250, edition number 4985 pp 1207-1209

SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING

Summarize and paraphrase the following short article

Selling a product successfully in another country often requires changes in the original product. Dominos Pizza offers mayonnaise and potato pizza in Tokyo and pickled ginger pizza in India. Heinz varies its ketchup recipe to satisfy the needs of specific markets. In Belgium and Holland, for example, the ketchup is not as sweet as it is in the United States. When Haagen-Dazs served up one of its most popular American flavors, Chocolate Chip Cookie Dough, to British customers, they left it sitting in supermarket freezers. What the premium ice-cream maker learned is that chocolate chip cookies are not popular in Great Britain, and children do not have a history of snatching raw dough from the bowl. For this reason, the company had to develop flavours that would sell in Great Britain. Because dairy products are not part of Chinese diets, Frito- lay took the cheese out of Chee-tos in China. Instead, the company sells Seafood Chee-tos. Without a doubt, these products were so successful in these foreign lands only because the company realized that it was wise to do market research and make the fundamental changes in the products.

Source: BLUEPRINTS COMPOSITION SKILLS FOR ACADEMIC WRITINGAuthors: Keith S Folse, M Kathleen Mahnke, Elena Vestri Solomon, Lorraine WilliamsYear of publication: 2003Publisher: Thomson HeinlePage: 208-209

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING

Good Summary (31 words)Comments

Companies must adapt their products if they want to do well in foreign markets. Many well-known companies, including Dominos Heinz, Haagen-Daz, and Frito-Lay, have altered their products and proved this point.1. It covers the main ideas.2. It is a true summary, not an exact repetition of the specific examples.3. It includes some new grammar, for example:

Original text: often requires changesSummary: modal is used: companies must adapt

4. It includes some new vocabulary, for example: Original text: Specific country namesSummary: many well-known companies

Poor Summary (174 words)Comments

Changes in a product are important if a company wants to sell it successfully in another country. For example, Dominos Pizza offers mayonnaise and potato pizza in Tokyo and pickled ginger pizza in India. In addition, Heinz has changed its ketchup recipe to satisfy the needs of specific markets. In Belgium and Holland the ketchup is less sweet. When Haagen- Dazs served up one of its most popular Chocolate Chip Cookie Dough, to British customers, the British customers left it sitting in supermarket freezers. The luxury ice-cream maker learned that chocolate chip cookies are not popular in Great Britain, and children do not take uncooked dough from the bowl. For this reason, the company developed flovors to sell in Great Britain. Since dairy products are not usually eaten in China, Frito-Lay removed the cheese from Chee-tos in China. In its place, the company has Seafood Chee-tos. Certainly, these items were so successful in these countries only because the company was smart enough to do market research and implement fundamental changes in the products.

1. It is almost as long as the original and, therefore, not really a summary.2. It includes almost the same vocabulary, for example:

Original text: the premium ice-cream makerSummary: the luxury ice-cream maker (this is plagiarism)

3. It includes almost the same grammar, for example:

Original text: For this reason, the company had to develop flavours that would sell in Great Britain.Summary: For this reason, the company developed flavours to sell in Great Britain. (this is plagiarism)

SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING Read the passage below on Rural Tourism, then summarize / paraphrase the advantages and disadvantages in two sentences Rural Tourism: For and AgainstJohnson (1971) has listed two major advantages of tourism in rural areas. The first is economic: tourism creates employment. The jobs are mainly in the travel industry, hotels, guest houses, restaurants and cafes. However, visitors spend their money in a variety of ways which affect other jobs indirectly. For example, by buying local souvenirs and gifts, tourists help to support local shops. The second advantage of tourism is the support that the income provides for local services and amenities. As large numbers of visitors use the local buses etc. it makes it possible to keep these buses running for local people.As well as advantages there are also three main disadvantages of tourism (Walker, 1982). The first is erosion of the countryside by so many people: paths, grass and other areas of vegetation and woodland get worn away. In addition, tourist traffic causes congestion and obstruction and delays local people doing their work. Finally, an influx of tourists causes pollution problems in many areas. The pollution can take many forms but the main ones are the exhaust fumes of vehicles which pollute the atmosphere, and the litter that people leave behind, such as tin cans, plastic and paper, and bottles.Author:R.R.JordanSource:Academic Writing Coursed: Study Skills in English (3rd Edition)Year:1999Publisher:Longman, London

SYNTHESISING 1

Anna-Marie Nasrallah Make Time for Reading Perseus Books, Cambridge MA 2007People save their books to use them as reference materials. People whose job training includes studying a lot of textbook material may save some of these books for future reference. A doctor, for instance, may keep his Grays Anatomy and his pharmacology books: an English teacher will hold on to The Norton Anthology of English Literature and other anthologies and novels for reference: a lawyer usually keeps her case books. But it isnt only the professionals who save their books. Those interested in electronic equipment hold onto their books about stereo, computers, videotape machines, and the like. Many families keep encyclopedias and almanacs handy for their children to use for school. Having your own reference book available is so much more convenient than running to the library every time you want to check a fact.Elizabeth Johnson, Franco San Giorgio, Katrine Schengen, Alaister MacDonald Libraries Viking Press, Edinburgh 2003 Some people save books to make a good impression. Some think that a library full of the literary classics, dictionaries, and books about art, science, and history makes them look well read and therefore, sophisticated. Of course, this impression may be inaccurate. Some have never bothered to read the majority of those books at all! In fact, a few people even have libraries with fake books. Also, some people like to reveal to visitors their wide range of tastes and interests. They can subtly reveal their interests in economics, art, politics, philosophy, or animals without saying a word.Muhammad Ahmed Al-Khoury The Enchantment of the Literary World Penguin Books, London 2008People who enjoy reading have discovered the magic of books. Each book has transported the reader to another place. Therefore, each book really represents an experience from which the reader may have grown or learned something. When I sit in my study, I am surrounded by my whole adult life. The Standard First Aid and Personal Safety manual, in addition to providing information, reminds me of the first-aid course I took and how more assured I felt as a result. Bullfinchs Mythology brings the oral history of Western civilization to my fingertips, reminding me of my link with other times and people. Of course, all of the novels have become part of the mosaic of my life. In short, saving books makes me feel secure as I hold on to what they have given me.

SYNTHESISING 2Below are THREE (3) articles about nanotechnology. Write an informative balanced report of at least FIVE (5) paragraphs, stating the issues raised for someone with little knowledge of the subject. Your review should include: a title, a thesis statement and supporting information from the articles, FIVE (5) proper in-text references for information obtained from the articles using the APA method of documentation and, an APA reference list for the information you have cited at the end of the review.Cosmetics companies are taking insufficient steps to ensure face creams and other products that contain nanoparticles are safe, according to a report by leading consumer magazine Which? The report, responding to advice from nanotechnology experts, warns that untested particles, which can be 1,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair, are being used in products without sufficient safety testing.Nanoparticles are used in sun screens to block ultraviolet radiation, in emulsions to contain vitamins in face creams, and in other moisturizers to kill off bacteria. However, of the 67 firms approached by Which? only eight submitted information on the use of nanotechnology in their products.Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating matter on the molecular level, generally raises no new safety issues, but the tiny particles can behave in unusual ways, in some instances becoming toxic. Existing safety rules do not take into account materials posing risks at the nano scale. A common use of nanotechnology is the addition of titanium oxide or zinc oxide particles to sun screens, and European experts have demanded more safety tests to investigate the effects of these lotions on damaged skin.Source: The GuardianDate of Publication: 5 November 2008Author: Ian Sample, Science CorrespondentTitle: Use of nanoparticles in cosmetics questionedPage: 16While there are some published studies that suggest that solid lipid nanoparticles penetrate the skin better than conventional creams, overall it is difficult to find studies showing nano-engineered products are more effective than regular ones or that they are effective at all. The highly competitive world of cosmetics may have something to do with the lack of published studies. Publishing the results of scientific tests requires full disclosure of the method by which the formulation being tested was produced, therefore companies wishing to protect nanotechnology rights are understandably not anxious to do so. The bottom line is that nano-engineered cosmetics may work well, but we do not have easily available proof that they do because large-scale studies of them have not yet been made public.

Some experts have voiced concerns about the safety of nanotechnology. For instance, some sunscreens use nanoparticles of titanium dioxide, and there are experts who have raised the question of whether these substances remaining in the skin can age it prematurely. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, At the present time, the FDA does not have any evidence that ingredients manufactured using nanotechnology, as used in cosmetics, pose a safety risk. However, the FDA and other government agencies are still studying nanotechnology to see if the products produced with it including cosmetics pose health risks. So as of yet, there seem to be no definitive answers.

Source:Nanowerk News http://www.scrippsnews.com/node/25586Date of publication: 24 July 2007Author:Paige Herman and Marie KuechelTitle:Nanotechnology Skin Deep

Nanotechnology is the general term for a large number of different scientific disciplines dealing with the characterisation and development of materials on the nanometer scale 1 nanometre is 1 billionth of a metre. The nanos used in cosmetics differ from nanos used in other industrial sectors in structure; use and environmental interaction. They are nanoemulsions and nanopigments.

Nanoemulsions are widespread in nature, such as milk. In cosmetics, they are macroscopic preparations containing oil and water droplets reduced to nanometric size to increase nutritious oil content while preserving the transparency and lightness of the formulas. Sometimes fragile active ingredients e.g. vitamins are protected from air inside nanometer-sized bubbles which release the ingredient upon contact with the skin. Nanoemulsions therefore do not cross the skin barrier and public health agencies worldwide acknowledge that they are safe. Nanopigments i.e. titanium oxide and zinc oxide, are minerals already present in our environment. They are used in sunscreens for their ability to reflect and scatter UV light, thus protecting the skin against negative effects of UV radiation, including skin cancer.Numerous studies, including those undertaken within NANODERM, the European Union research programme, concluded that nanoparticles do not cross the skin barrier, even when the skin is damaged. Furthermore, recent studies carried out by the US FDA and in Europe, have demonstrated that no adverse effects are observed, even where titanium dioxide nanopigments are injected into the bloodstream.Source: Food and Chemical Toxicology Vol 45, Issue 11 Date of Publication: November 2007Author: B.Hall, S.Tozer, B.Safford, M.Coroama, W.Steiling,M.C.Leneveu-Duchemin, C.McNamara and M.GibneyTitle: European consumer exposure to cosmetic products, a framework for conducting population exposure assessments (abridged) Pages: pp 2097-2108

Take home assignment 2:

1. Below are FOUR (4) articles about Malaria prevention. Write an informative balanced report of at least FIVE (5) paragraphs, stating the issues raised for someone with little knowledge of the subject. For your essay: compose a title, provide a thesis statement and give supporting information from the articles, provide FIVE (5) proper in-text references for information obtained from the articles using the APA method of documentation and, at the end of the essay provide an APA reference list for the information you have cited.Source: DEET Finally Exposed as Neurotoxic (abridged) http://www.naturalnews.com Date of publication: July 5 2010Author: David GutierrezRetrieved: 3 June 2011New research shows that the insect-repelling chemical DEET functions in the same way as deadly nerve gases and dangerous pesticides, by attacking the nervous systems of both insects and mammals. The chemical DEET or N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide, is found in nearly every commonly used mosquito repellent worldwide. Originally developed for jungle warfare in 1946 and made commercially available in 1957, DEET is popular because it effectively repels a variety of medically significant insects over longer periods of time than more natural repellents and can be incorporated into lotions, sprays and liquids. Researchers have long insisted that the chemical is safe, however consumers should use the minimum amount necessary to cover exposed skin and not use on irritated or injured skin. Researchers remain unsure exactly how DEET functions to repel mosquitoes. It has long been believed to affect mosquito behaviour probably by interfering with their sense of smell and their ability to find human prey. However, DEET also inhibits a key central nervous system enzyme, acetylcholinesterase, as researchers found in experiments performed on rats and cockroaches. This is the same mechanism that causes the toxic effects of organophosphate pesticides and chemical weapons e.g. sarin and VX nerve gas. Like nerve gases, organophosphates irreversibly inactivate acetylcholinesterase, leading to excessive salivation and eye watering at low doses and muscle spasms or death at higher doses. In other words, repellents containing DEET are insecticides and could damage the central nervous system.Bahie Abou-Donia of the Duke University Medical Centre said, DEET is a good chemical for protection against insects, but prolonged exposure results in neurological damage. The study maintains mosquito repellents with DEET should not be used by pregnant women and children under six years and Abou-Donia advocates warning labels about DEETs potential to cause neurological harm. The Environmental Protection Agency has a review of DEETs safety planned for 2012.

Source: Plant-based insect repellents: a review of their efficacy, development and testing (abridged) Malaria Journal, Volume 10 Issue 1 pages 1-15Date of publication: 2011Authors: Marta Ferreira, Sarah J. MoorePlant-based repellents such as lemon eucalyptus and citronella, have been used for generations in traditional practice as personal protection against host-seeking mosquitoes. Lemon eucalyptus, extracted from the leaves of the tree, was discovered in the 1960s during mass screenings of plants used in Chinese traditional medicine. It was discovered that the waste distillate remaining after hydro-distillation of the essential oil was much more effective at repelling mosquitoes than the essential oil itself. Citronella, used by the Indian Army to repel mosquitoes at the beginning of the 20th Century, is one of the most widely used natural repellents on the market today. It is used at concentrations of 5-10% which is lower than most other commercial repellents because higher concentrations can cause skin sensitivity.

Many plant extracts and oils repel mosquitoes and are effective for several minutes to several hours after application. Initially, citronella is as effective dose for dose as DEET but the active ingredients are highly volatile and rapidly evaporate, leaving the user unprotected. Citronella-based repellents, for example, only provide protection for about two hours. It is for this reason that the essential oil of lemon eucalyptus does not have EPA or Environmental Protection Agency registration for use as an insect repellent.

Recently, the use of nanotechnology has allowed slower release rates of oils to be achieved, thus prolonging protection time. Volatile plant repellents can also be continuously evaporated e.g. citronella candles are widely sold as outdoor repellents although they do not provide significant protection against mosquito bites. For the time being, travellers to disease endemic areas should not use citronella-based repellents. However, for those communities in India and Africa where more effective chemical-based alternatives are unavailable or prohibitively expensive, the use of citronella to prevent mosquito bites may provide important protection from disease vectors. Furthermore, as many of these plant extracts grow in developing countries, local production would remove the high importation costs of other repellents.

Source: Genomes of the malaria mosquito and parasite are sequenced.(abridged) Student British Medical Journal Volume 10 Date of publication: November 2002Authors: Phyllida BrownPages: 1188-1190

International teams of scientists have sequenced the genomes of the principal malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, and its mosquito host. But the consensus emerging among researchers is that the greatest barrier to overcoming malaria, the killer of more than a million children a year, is not a lack of knowledge but a severe lack of funding to develop new candidate vaccines and drugs.

Professor Brian Greenwood, a malaria expert at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine warned better knowledge of the parasites proteins will enable immunologists to identify more candidate molecules for vaccines but this will not in itself bring vaccines to the market more quickly. It is not a lack of candidates that is the problem; it is pushing them through the whole system that is so costly and time consuming, Professor Greenwood stated.

About 500 million people suffer from malaria each year. The disease is on the increase in sub-Saharan Africa, where resistance to existing drugs is spreading. Few major pharmaceutical companies currently invest money in malaria vaccines because they doubt that the poor countries worst affected could afford to buy them. The cost of developing a vaccine has been estimated as high as $500m.The World Health Organization has estimated that funding for malaria control alone needs to increase to $3.1bn by 2015 to achieve results. This only covers existing measures, including bed nets treated with insecticide and prompt treatment of sick people in endemic areas. If new drugs and vaccines are added the bill will be higher. Currently the worlds spending on malaria research and control is only about $200m.

The sequencing of the two genomes is in itself a huge technical feat. Dr Bart Barrell at the Sanger Institute said P.falciparum had been dreadful to sequence, partly because of its large repeated sequences. The genome shows that the parasites capacity to vary its appearance to the immune system is even greater than previously believed, emphasizing the difficulty of developing effective medicines.

Source: Comparative Efficacy of Insect Repellents Against Mosquito Bites (abridged) New England Medical Journal Volume 347 Number 1Date of publication: July 4 2002Authors: Mark S. Fradin and John F.DayPages: 1188-1195

Mosquitoes transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually and malaria alone kills 3 million persons each year, including one child every 30 seconds. Commercially available insect repellents to protect against mosquito bites can be divided into two categories: synthetic and plant-derived. The best known chemical insect repellent is DEET. We compared the efficacy of 16 readily available repellents in a controlled laboratory environment. These included: 7 botanical repellents; 5 DEET repellents of differing concentrations and the synthetic repellent IR3535; 3 wristbands impregnated with either DEET or citronella; and a moisturizer believed to have repellent effects. The duration of protection provided by each product was tested by means of arm-in-cage studies, in which 15 volunteers inserted their repellent-treated arms into a cage with 10 unfed, disease-free, laboratory-reared Aedes aegypti female mosquitoes. Of the products tested, those containing DEET provided the longest-lasting protection with protection times correlating positively with the concentration of DEET in the repellent. IR3535 fared badly, yielding a protection time that was one-quarter that of the lowest-concentration DEET product tested. Of the non-DEET repellents, only the soybean oil-based repellent was able to provide protection for a period similar to that of the lowest concentration DEET product. Other plant-based insect repellents gave very short protection, ranging from a mean of about 3-20 minutes. While the moisturizer provided a mere 9.6 minutes of protection against Aedes bites, not one of the wristbands provided any protection from bites.Our study shows that certain plant-based repellents may provide short-lived efficacy, but are not recommended for travel to areas with prevalent mosquito-borne disease. Only products containing DEET offer long-lasting protection after a single application, however, it can be washed off by perspiration and rain. Furthermore, its efficacy decreases with rising outdoor temperatures. DEETs safety profile is remarkable after 40 years of use with fewer than 50 cases of serious toxic effects documented, many involving long-term, heavy, frequent, or whole-body application of the repellent. In 1998, The Environmental Protection Agency concluded that normal use of DEET does not present a health concern to the general U.S. population. When applied with common sense, DEET-based repellents can be expected to provide a safe and long-lasting repellent effect. 1 | Page