Aburr ValleyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(Redirected
from Aburra Valley)
Political division of the Aburr Valley (in dark gray, the urban
areas of the The Metropolitan Area of the Aburr Valley).
Topographic map of the Aburr Valley.Aburr Valley (in Spanish
Valle de Aburr), is the natural basin of the Medelln River and one
of the most populous valleys of Colombia in its Andean Region with
near 3 million inhabitants in its biggest urban agglomeration: The
Metropolitan Area of the Aburr Valley. The valley is located on the
Central Range, over the Antioquian Mountain just between the
Magdalena and Cauca valleys from east to west. The name "Aburr"
comes from an ancient language spoken in the place by the
"Aburreans" (Aburraes) before the Spaniards settled the place
during the 16th century.The valley is oriented from south to north
being the south the highest level and the north the low level. The
altitudes of the mountains around the valley (west and east
mountains), can reach up to 2,800 meters above the sea level. The
lowest level is 1,300 meters above the sea level. From its north
natural limit to its southern part, the valley is 60 kilometers
long, while there are several varieties in its wide, being the
wider part the one that corresponds to the municipality of Medelln
with 80 to 90 kilometers and the narrowest the part that
corresponds to the municipality of Copacabana with 30
kilometers.
A northern views of the Aburr Valley from Barrio Buenos Aires,
Medelln.Contents 1 History 1.1 Aborigins 1.2 The Spaniard
discovering of the Valley 1.3 The development of Medelln 2 The
Aburraen cities 3 Description 4 References 5 External
linksHistoryAboriginsThere are archaeological evidences of human
settlements in the Aburr Valley since 10,500 years by hunters and
collectors. The Spaniard conquers of the Valley found groups like
Aburr, Yames, Pequ, Ebejico, Norisco and Man that were in the
Valley since about the 5th century. The Aburr people gave the name
to the Valley. They lived from agriculture (maize, beans and
cotton), textile weaving and decoration, commercialization of salt
and goldsmith. Under the Spaniard rule they lost the possession of
the land and were located in mines and feudalist systems. Sickness
brought by the Europeans, the heavy work and mistreatments caused
their extinction, at least from the Valley. Descendants and peoples
related to the Aburr Valley ancient ancestors could be found today
in other regions of the Antioquia State like Urab and the West and
South regions.The Spaniard discovering of the Valley
Marshal Jorge Robledo.In August 1541 Marshal Jorge Robledo was
in what is today Heliconia, when he saw at the distant what he
thought was a valley. He sent Jernimo Luis Tejelo to explore the
territory and Tejelo arrived during the night of August 23 to a
plain field. The Spaniards gave the name of Valley of Saint
Bartholomew that was to be changed for the Aboriginal one of Aburr
that is translated as the "Painters" due to the textile decorations
of the natives.[1] However, the conquerors did not feel attracted
by the valley due to the lack of wealth and the bellicosity of the
aborigines.In 1574 Gaspar de Rodas asked to the Antioquia's Cabildo
four miles of land to establish herds and food stays in the valley.
The Cabildo granted three miles.[2]In 1616 the Colonial Visitor
Francisco de Herrera y Campuzano founded a settlement with 80
aborigines naming it "Poblado de San Lorenzo" in what is today "El
Poblado Square". In 1646 a racist Colonial law ordered the
separation of aborigines from mestizos and mulattos and for this
reason the colonial administration began the construction of a new
town in An, where is today the Berrio Square and where it was built
a place called Nuestra Seora de la Candelaria de An (Our Lady of
Candelaria of An). Three years after they started the construction
of the Minor Basilica of Our Lady of Candelaria, rebuilt at the end
of the 18th century.[2]The development of MedellnIn 1674 Medelln
became the provincial capital of Antioquia. The new provincial
capital would become during the next years the hub of development
in the valley. The new city was located until the 19th century in
what was known as El Sitio de An (nowadays the Berrio Square along
the Santa Elena Creek and the Medelln River. Places like El
Poblado, Barrio La Amrica, Barrio Robledo, Barrio Manrique, were
just rural townships. Other towns like Envigado and Bello were very
small villages.During the first part of the 20th century Medelln
would start its industrial revolution attracting a great number of
farmers from different regions of Antioquia. The small provincial
capital became an overpopulated city by the 1960s with more than 1
million inhabitants. This had a direct effect over the other
villages in the Aburr Valley: many of them were integrated in the
growing city like Robledo, La Amrica, La Floresta, El Poblado,
Manrique and others became themselves cities to be a part of the
The Metropolitan Area of the Aburr Valley by the 1970s.The Aburraen
citiesThe Aburr Valley has ten cities within its mountains:
Barbosa, located in the lowest level of the Valley. Bello, the
second most populous city after Medelln. Caldas, located in the
highest level of the valley. Copacabana, the narrowest part of the
valley. Girardota Envigado Itag Sabaneta Medelln, the flattest,
widest and most populous part of the valley. La
EstrellaDescription
The Aburr Valley from the Quitasol Mountain in Bello.All the
flat areas of the valley are completely populated. The majority of
the people live in Medelln and the density is less toward the south
and toward the north. The Central Range makes two branches to form
the valley and it is crossed by the Medelln River that has its
beginning in Caldas and ends in the Porce River.References1.
Restrepo Uribe, Jorge: Medelln, su Origen, Progreso y Desarrollo
(tr. "Medelln, Its Origin, Progress and Development"), Ed.
Servigrficas, Medelln, 1981. ISBN 84-300-3286-X.McIntyre Bluff
View of McIntyre Bluff from Highway 97. Okanagan Highland
Okanagan Lake Okanagan River Osoyoos Lake Shuswap River Skaha Lake
Swan Lake Thompson Plateau Tuc-el-nuit Lake Vaseux Lake Wood
LakeMajor highways Highway 97 (Okanagan Highway) Highway 3
(Crowsnest Highway) Highway 97C (Okanagan Connector) Highway 33
Highway 6 Highway 97AAdjacent regions Thompson Country - Northwest
Shuswap Country - North Boundary Country, Arrow Lakes, Slocan
Valley and West Kootenay - East Similkameen Country and Nicola
Country - West Okanogan County, Washington, USA -
SouthCommunitiesAll statistical figures are based on the Canada
2011 Census and British Columbia Ministry of Communities, Sport and
Cultural Development.[5][6]MunicipalitiesMunicipalities in the
Okanagan
NameTypeRegional districtPopulation(2011)Area (2011)Density
(2011)(Pop./km2)Incorporated
ArmstrongCityNorth Okanagan4,8155.24km2 (2.0sqmi)9201913
ColdstreamDistrictNorth Okanagan10,31467.25km2
(26.0sqmi)155.61906
EnderbyCityNorth Okanagan2,9324.26km2 (1.6sqmi)6901905
KelownaCityCentral Okanagan117,312211.82km2
(81.8sqmi)553.81905
Lake CountryDistrictCentral Okanagan11,708122.19km2
(47.2sqmi)95.81995
LumbyVillageNorth Okanagan1,7315.27km2 (2.0sqmi)301.61955
OliverTownOkanagan-Similkameen4,8244.88km2 (1.9sqmi)9901945
OsoyoosTownOkanagan-Similkameen4,8458.76km2
(3.4sqmi)553.11946
PeachlandDistrictCentr
and large-sized glaciers carve wide, deep incised
valleys.Examples of U-shaped valleys are found in every mountainous
region that has experienced glaciation, usually during the
Pleistocene ice ages. Most present U-shaped valleys started as
V-shaped before glaciation. The glaciers carved it out wider and
deeper, simultaneously changing the shape. This proceeds through
the glacial erosion processes of glaciation and abrasion, which
results in large rocky material (glacial till) being carried in the
glacier. A material called boulder clay is deposited on the floor
of the valley. As the ice melts and retreats, the valley is left
with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. A river or stream may
remain in the valley. This replaces the original stream or river
and is known as a misfit stream because it is smaller than one
would expect given the size of its valley.Other interesting
glacially carved valleys include: Yosemite Valley (USA) Side
valleys of the Austrian river Salzach for their parallel directions
and hanging mouths. Some Scottish glens full with bushes and
flowers. That of the St. Mary River in Glacier National Park in
Montana, USA.Tunnel valleyMain article: Tunnel valleyA tunnel
valley is a large, long, U-shaped valley originally cut under the
glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that
now covering Antarctica and formerly covering portions of all
continents during past glacial ages.[1]A tunnel valley can be up to
100km (62mi) long, 4km (2.5mi) wide, and 400 m (1,300ft) deep (its
depth may vary along its length).Tunnel valleys were formed by
subglacial erosion by water. They served as subglacial drainage
pathways carrying large volumes of melt water. Their cross-sections
exhibit steep-sided flanks similar to fjord walls, and their flat
bottoms are typical of subglacial glacial erosion.Meltwater
valleyMain article: UrstromtalIn northern Central Europe, the
Scandinavian ice sheet during the various ice ages advanced
slightly uphill against the lie of the land. As a result its
meltwaters flowed parallel to the ice margin to reach the North Sea
basin, forming huge, flat valleys known as Urstromtler. Unlike the
other forms of glacial valley, these were formed by glacial
meltwaters.Transition forms and valley shoulders
Look from Paria View to a valley in Bryce Canyon, Utah, with
very striking shouldersDepending on the topography, the rock types
and the climate, a lot of transitional forms between V-, U- and
plain valleys exist. Their bottoms can be broad or narrow, but
characteristic is also the type of valley shoulder. The broader a
mountain valley, the lower its shoulders are located in most cases.
An important exception are canyons where the shoulder almost is
near the top of the valley's slope. In the Alps e.g. the Tyrolean
Inn valley the shoulders are quite low (100200 meters above the
bottom). Many villages are located here (esp. at the sunny side)
because the climate is very mild: even in winter when the valley's
floor is completely filled with fog, these villages are in
sunshine.In some stress-tectonic regions of the Rockies or the Alps
(e.g. Salzburg) the side valleys are parallel to each other, and
additionally they are hanging. The brooks flow into the river in
form of deep canyons or waterfalls. Usually this fact is the result
of a violent erosion of the former valley shoulders. A special
genesis we find also at artes and glacial cirques, at every
Scottish glen, or a northern fjord.Hanging valleys
Bridal Veil Falls in Yosemite National Park flowing from a
hanging valley.A hanging valley is a tributary valley that is
higher than the main valley. They are most commonly associated with
U-shaped valleys when a tributary glacier flows into a glacier of
larger volume. The main glacier erodes a deep U-shaped valley with
nearly vertical sides while the tributary glacier, with a smaller
volume of ice, makes a shallower U-shaped valley. Since the
surfaces of the glaciers were originally at the same elevation, the
shallower valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley.
Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper
valley.[2]Glaciated terrain is not the only site of hanging streams
and valleys. Hanging valleys are also simply the product of varying
rates of erosion of the main valley and the tributary valleys. The
varying rates of erosion are associated with the composition of the
adjacent rocks in the different valley locations. The tributary
valleys are eroded and deepened by glaciers or erosion at a slower
rate than that of the main valley floor, thus the difference in the
two valleys' depth increases over time. The tributary valley
composed of more resistant rock then hangs over the main
valley.[3]Valley floorsUsually the bottom of a main valley is broad
independent of the U or V shape. It typically ranges from about one
to ten kilometers in width and is commonly filled with mountain
sediments. The shape of the floor can be rather horizontal, similar
to a flat cylinder, or terraced.Side valleys are rather V than
U-shaped; near the mouth waterfalls are possible if it is a hanging
valley. The location of the villages depends on the across-valley
profile, on climate and local traditions, and on the danger of
avalanches or landslides. Predominant are places on terraces or
alluvial fans if they exist.Historic siting of villages within the
mainstem valleys, however, have chiefly considered the potential of
flooding.Hollows
Wheat in the Hula Valley, IsraelA hollow (holler) is a small
valley or dry stream bed. This term is commonly used in New
England, Appalachia, Ozarks, Arkansas and Missouri to describe such
geographic features. In rural areas, it may be pronounced as
"holler". Hollows may be formed by river valleys, such as Mansfield
Hollow, or they may be relatively dry clefts with a notch-like
characteristic in that they have a height of land and consequent
water divide in their bases.
River Indus running through Kohistan valley in PakistanFamous
valleys
The Valley of Flowers in Uttarakhand, India
The Harau Valley in West Sumatra, Indonesia
Hell's Gate, British Columbia
A view of Oros, Costa Rica
Gudbrandsdalen in Eastern Norway near Gl Aburra Valley
(Colombia) Barossa Valley (Australia) Cauca Valley (Colombia)
Central Valley (California) (California, United States) Dalen,
Telemark (Telemark, Norway) Danube Valley (Eastern Europe) Death
Valley (California, United States) Fraser Canyon (British Columbia,
Canada) Fraser Valley (British Columbia, Canada) Glen Coe
(Scotland, United Kingdom) Grand Canyon (Arizona, United States)
Great Glen (Scotland, United Kingdom) Gudbrandsdalen (Oppland,
Norway) Hallingdalen (Buskerud, Norway) Hell's Gate (British
Columbia, Canada) Heddal (Telemark, Norway) Hudson Valley (New
York, United States) Hunter Region (Australia) Hunza Valley
(Pakistan) Hutt Valley (New Zealand) Ihlara, Turkey Indus Valley
(Pakistan) Iron Gate (Romania/Serbia) Jordan Valley Kaghan Valley
(Pakistan) Kathmandu (Nepal) Las Vegas Valley (Nevada, United
States) Lauterbrunnen Valley (Bern, Switzerland) Little Cottonwood
Creek Valley (Utah, United States) Loire Valley with its famous
castles (France) Valley of the Moon, San Juan Argentina
Midt-Telemark (Telemark, Norway) Monument Valley (United States)
Nant Ffrancon (Wales, United Kingdom) Napa Valley (California,
United States) Neelum Valley (Pakistan) Nile Valley
(Egypt/Sudan/Ethiopia/Uganda) Numedalen (Buskerud, Norway) Okanagan
Valley (British Columbia, Canada) Ottawa Valley (Ontario/Quebec,
Canada) Palo Duro Canyon (Texas, United States)
Kings of the Akkad DynastyOriginally a cupbearer (Rabshaqe) to a
king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon thus became a
gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation
canals. This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who
also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa,
Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign
conquest.[15] Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan, and he spent
three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to
unite them with Mesopotamia "into a single empire."However, Sargon
took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding
regions to create an empire that reached westward as far as the
Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus (Kaptara); northward as far as
the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian
king Nurdaggal of Burushanda, well into Anatolia); eastward over
Elam; and as far south as Magan (Oman) a region over which he
reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four "year-names"
survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by
replacing the earlier opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad,
his native city where loyalty would thus be ensured.[16] Trade
extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli
mines in Afghanistan, the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of
Magan. This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad
reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia.
The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural system of
northern Mesopotamia (Assyria) and a chain of fortresses was built
to control the imperial wheat production.Images of Sargon were
erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his
victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the
spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the northern part of
Mesopotamia (Assyria/Subartu) were also subjugated, and rebellions
in Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in
the years of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak, king
of Gutium. He also boasted of having subjugated the "four quarters"
the lands surrounding Akkad to the north (Assyria), the south
(Sumer), the east (Elam) and the west (Martu). Some of the earliest
historiographic texts (ABC 19, 20) suggest he rebuilt the city of
Babylon (Bab-ilu) in its new location near Akkad.[17]Sargon,
throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian
deities, particularly Inanna (Ishtar), his patroness, and Zababa,
the warrior god of Kish. He called himself "The anointed priest of
Anu" and "the great ensi of Enlil" and his daughter, Enheduanna,
was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur.Troubles
multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text
states;"In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and
they besieged him in Akkad (the city)"...but "he went forth to
battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their
vast army".It refers to his campaign in "Elam", where he defeated a
coalition army led by the King of Awan, where he forced the
vanquished to become his vassals.[18] Also shortly after, another
revolt had been made;"the Subartu (mountainous tribes of Assyria)
the upper countryin their turn attacked, but they submitted to his
arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them
grievously".Sargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These
difficulties broke out again in the reign of his sons, where
revolts broke out during the 9-year reign, Rimush (22782270 BC),
who fought hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he
was assassinated by some of his own courtiers. Rimush's elder
brother, Manishtushu (22692255 BC) succeeded and reigned for a
period of 15 years. The latter king seems to have fought a sea
battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him and took
control over their country of what is today the United Arab
Emirates and Oman. Despite the success, similarly to his brother,
he seems to have been assassinated in a palace
conspiracy.[19]Naram-Sin
Stele of Naram-Sin,[20] celebrating victory against the Lullubi
from Zagros 2260 BC.He is wearing a horned helmet, a symbol of
divinity, and is also portrayed in a larger scale in comparison to
others to emphasize his superiority.[21] Brought back from Sippar
to Susa as war prize in the 12th century BCManishtushu's son and
successor, Naram-Sin (22542218 BC) (Beloved of Sin), due to vast
military conquests, assumed the imperial title "King Naram-Sin,
king of the four quarters" (Lugal Naram-Sn, ar kibrat 'arbaim"),
the four quarters as a reference to the entire world. He was also
for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as "the god
(Sumerian = DINGIR, Akkadian = ilu) of Agade" (Akkad), in
opposition to the previous religious belief that kings were only
representatives of the people towards the gods.[21][22] He also
faced revolts at the start of his reign,[23] but quickly crushed
them.Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla as well
as Armanum and its king.[24] Armanum location is debated, its
sometimes identified with a Syrian kingdom mentioned in the tablets
of Ebla as Armi, the location of Armi is also debated, historian
Adelheid Otto identify it with the Citadel of Bazi Tall Banat
complex on the Euphrates River between Ebla and Tell Brak,[25][26]
others like Wayne Horowitz identify it with Aleppo,[27] and while
most scholars place Armanum in Syria, Michael C. Astour believes it
to be located north of the Hamrin Mountains in northern Iraq.[28]To
better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a
crossroads at the heart of the Khabur River basin of the Jezirah.
Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted; Naram-Sin,
"marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king",
where he instated garrisons to protect the main roads. The chief
threat seemed to be coming from the northern Zagros Mountains, the
Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi led to the
carving of the famous "Victory Stele of Naram-Suen", now in the
Louvre. Hittite sources claim Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into
Anatolia, battling the Hittite and Hurrian kings Pamba of Hatti,
Zipani of Kanesh, and 15 others. This newfound Akkadian wealth may
have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural
surpluses and the confiscation of the wealth of other
peoples.[29]
Inscription of Naram Sin found at the city of Marad in Iraq, ca.
2260 BCEThe economy was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and
rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels
made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour
on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals
and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses.[30]In later
Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name Akkad, together with Sumer,
appears as part of the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL
KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian ar mt umeri u Akkadi,[31] translating
to "king of Sumer and Akkad". This title was assumed by the king
who seized control of Nippur,[31] the intellectual and religious
center of southern Mesopotamia.During the Akkadian period, the
Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East, and
was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian
language remained as a spoken and literary language. The spread of
Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the Elamite
language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform.
Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt
(in the Amarna Period) and Anatolia, to Persia (Behistun).
Collapse of the Akkadian EmpireThe Empire of Akkad collapsed in
2154 BCE, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a Dark Age
period of regional decline that lasted until the rise of the Third
Dynasty of Ur in 2112 BC. By the end of the reign of Naram-Sin's
son, Shar-kali-sharri (22172193 BC), the empire had weakened. There
was a period of anarchy between 2192 BC and 2168 BC. Shu-Durul
(21682154 BC) appears to have restored some centralized authority,
however he was unable to prevent the empire eventually collapsing
outright from the invasion of barbarian peoples from the Zagros
Mountains known as the Gutians.Little is known about the Gutian
period, or how long it endured. Cuneiform sources suggest that the
Gutians' administration showed little concern for maintaining
agriculture, written records, or public safety; they reputedly
released all farm animals to roam about Mesopotamia freely, and
soon brought about famine and rocketing grain prices. The decline
coincided with severe drought, possibly connected with climatic
changes reaching all across the area from Egypt to Greece. The
Sumerian king Ur-Nammu (21122095 BC) cleared the Gutians from
Mesopotamia during his reign.It has recently been suggested that
the regional decline at the end of the Akkadian period (and of the
First Intermediary Period that followed the Ancient Egyptian Old
Kingdom) was associated with rapidly increasing aridity, and
failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, caused by
a global centennial-scale drought.[32][33] H. Weiss et al. have
shown "Archaeological and soil-stratigraphic data define the
origin, growth, and collapse of Subir, the third millennium
rain-fed agriculture civilization of northern Mesopotamia on the
Habur Plains of Syria. At 2200 B. C., a marked increase in aridity
and wind circulation, subsequent to a volcanic eruption, induced a
considerable degradation of land-use conditions. After four
centuries of urban life, this abrupt climatic change evidently
caused abandonment of Tell Leilan, regional desertion, and collapse
of the Akkadian empire based in southern Mesopotamia. Synchronous
collapse in adjacent regions suggests that the impact of the abrupt
climatic change was extensive.".[34] Peter B. deMenocal, has shown
there was an influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the
stream flow of the Tigris and Euphrates at this time, which led to
the collapse of the Akkadian Empire".[35]The Sumerian King List,
describing the Akkadian Empire after the death of Shar-kali-shari,
states:"Who was king? Who was not king? Irgigi the king; Nanum, the
king; Imi the king; Ilulu, the kingthe four of them were kings but
reigned only three years. Dudu reigned 21 years; Shu-Turul, the son
of Dudu, reigned 15 years. ... Agade was defeated and its kingship
carried off to Uruk. In Uruk, Ur-ningin reigned 7 years, Ur-gigir,
son of Ur-ningin, reigned 6 years; Kuda reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili
reigned 5 years, Ur-Utu reigned 6 years. Uruk was smitten with
weapons and its kingship carried off by the Gutian hordes.However,
there are no known year-names or other archaeological evidence
verifying any of these later kings of Akkad or Uruk, apart from a
single artifact referencing king Dudu of Akkad. The named kings of
Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad, but
in any event could not have been very prominent.In the Gutian
hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3
years as king; Shulme reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years;
Inimbakesh reigned 5 years; Igeshuash reigned 6 years; Iarlagab
reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; ... reigned 3 years; Kurum
rained 1 year; ... reigned 3 years; ... reigned 2 years; Iararum
reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year; Hablum reigned 2 years;
Puzur-Sin son of Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7
years; ... reigned 7 years; ... reigned 40 days. Total 21 kings
reigned 91 years, 40 days.
"Cylinder Seal with King or God and Vanquished Lion" (Old
Akkadian).[36] The Walters Art Museum.Evidence from Tell Leilan in
Northern Mesopotamia shows what may have happened. The site was
abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its
temple rebuilt and its grain production reorganised. The debris,
dust and sand that followed show no trace of human activity. Soil
samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity,
reduced rainfall and indications of a drier and windier climate.
Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep and cattle died of drought,
and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site, seeking wetter areas
elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed.
Nomadic herders such as the Amorites moved herds closer to reliable
water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with Akkadian
populations. This climate-induced collapse seems to have affected
the whole of the Middle East, and to have coincided with the
collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom.[37]This collapse of rain-fed
agriculture in the Upper Country meant the loss to southern
Mesopotamia of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian
Empire solvent. Water levels within the Tigris and Euphrates fell
1.5 metres beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although they
stabilised for a time during the following Ur III period, rivalries
between pastoralists and farmers increased. Attempts were
undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in
agricultural lands, such as the building of a 180km (112mi) wall
known as the "Repeller of the Amorites" between the Tigris and
Euphrates under the Ur III ruler Shu-Sin. Such attempts led to
increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depression
occurred to re-establish demographic equilibrium with the less
favorable climatic conditions.[38]The period between ca. 2112 BC
and 2004 BC is known as the Ur III period. Documents again began to
be written in Sumerian, although Sumerian was becoming a purely
literary or liturgical language, much as Latin later would be in
Medieval Europe.[39]
The CurseLater material described how the fall of Akkad was due
to Naram-Sin's attack upon the city of Nippur. When prompted by a
pair of inauspicious oracles, the king sacked the E-kur temple,
supposedly protected by the god Enlil, head of the pantheon. As a
result of this, eight chief deities of the Anunnaki pantheon were
supposed to have come together and withdrawn their support from
Akkad.[40]For the first time since cities were built and
founded,The great agricultural tracts produced no grain,The
inundated tracts produced no ostriches,The irrigated orchards
produced neither wine nor syrup,The gathered clouds did not rain,
the masgurum did not grow.At that time, one shekel's worth of oil
was only one-half quart,One shekel's worth of grain was only
one-half quart. . . .These sold at such prices in the markets of
all the cities!He who slept on the roof, died on the roof,He who
slept in the house, had no burial,People were flailing at
themselves from hunger.[41]For many years, the events described in
"The Curse of Akkad" were thought, like the details of Sargon's
birth, to be purely fictional. But now the evidence of Tell Leilan,
and recent findings of elevated dust deposits in sea-cores
collected off Oman, that date to the period of Akkad's collapse
suggest that this climate change may have played a
role.[42][43]GovernmentThe Akkadian government formed a "classical
standard" with which all future Mesopotamian states compared
themselves. Traditionally, the ensi was the highest functionary of
the Sumerian city-states. In later traditions, one became an ensi
by marrying the goddess Inanna, legitimising the rulership through
divine consent.Initially, the monarchical lugal (lu = man, gal =
great) was subordinate to the priestly ensi, and was appointed at
times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the lugal
who had emerged as the preeminent role, having his own "" (= house)
or "palace", independent from the temple establishment. By the time
of Mesalim, whichever dynasty controlled the city of Kish was
recognised as ar kiati (= king of Kish), and was considered
preeminent in Sumer, possibly because this was where the two rivers
approached, and whoever controlled Kish ultimately controlled the
irrigation systems of the other cities downstream.As Sargon
extended his conquest from the "Lower Sea" (Persian Gulf), to the
"Upper Sea" (Mediterranean), it was felt that he ruled "the
totality of the lands under heaven", or "from sunrise to sunset",
as contemporary texts put it. Under Sargon, the ensis generally
retained their positions, but were seen more as provincial
governors. The title ar kiati became recognised as meaning "lord of
the universe". Sargon is even recorded as having organised naval
expeditions to Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan, amongst the first
organised military naval expeditions in history. Whether he also
did in the case of the Mediterranean with the kingdom of Kaptara
(possibly Cyprus), as claimed in later documents, is more
questionable.With Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, this went further
than with Sargon, with the king not only being called "Lord of the
Four Quarters (of the Earth)", but also elevated to the ranks of
the dingir (= gods), with his own temple establishment. Previously
a ruler could, like Gilgamesh, become divine after death but the
Akkadian kings, from Naram-Sin onward, were considered gods on
earth in their lifetimes. Their portraits showed them of larger
size than mere mortals and at some distance from their
retainers.[44]One strategy adopted by both Sargon and Naram-Sin, to
maintain control of the country, was to install their daughters,
Enheduanna and Emmenanna respectively, as high priestess to Sin,
the Akkadian version of the Sumerian moon deity, Nanna, at Ur, in
the extreme south of Sumer; to install sons as provincial ensi
governors in strategic locations; and to marry their daughters to
rulers of peripheral parts of the Empire (Urkesh and Marhashe). A
well documented case of the latter is that of Naram-Sin's daughter
Tar'am-Agade at Urkesh.[45]EconomyThe population of Akkad, like
nearly all pre-modern states, was entirely dependent upon the
agricultural systems of the region, which seem to have had two
principal centres: the irrigated farmlands of southern Iraq that
traditionally had a yield of 30 grains returned for each grain sown
and the rain-fed agriculture of northern Iraq, known as the "Upper
Country."Southern Iraq during Akkadian period seems to have been
approaching its modern rainfall level of less than 20mm (1in) per
year, with the result that agriculture was totally dependent upon
irrigation. Before the Akkadian period the progressive salinisation
of the soils, produced by poorly drained irrigation, had been
reducing yields of wheat in the southern part of the country,
leading to the conversion to more salt-tolerant barley growing.
Urban populations there had peaked already by 2,600 BC, and
illogical pressures were high, contributing to the rise of
militarism apparent immediately before the Akkadian period (as seen
in the Stele of the Vultures of Eannatum). Warfare between city
states had led to a population decline, from which Akkad provided a
temporary respite.[46] It was this high degree of agricultural
productivity in the south that enabled the growth of the highest
population densities in the world at this time, giving Akkad its
military advantage.The water table in this region was very high and
replenished regularlyby winter storms in the headwaters of the
Tigris and Euphrates from October to March and from snow-melt from
March to July. Flood levels, that had been stable from about 3,000
to 2,600 BC, had started falling, and by the Akkadian period were a
half-meter to a meter lower than recorded previously. Even so, the
flat country and weather uncertainties made flooding much more
unpredictable than in the case of the Nile; serious deluges seem to
have been a regular occurrence, requiring constant maintenance of
irrigation ditches and drainage systems. Farmers were recruited
into regiments for this work from August to Octobera period of food
shortageunder the control of city temple authorities, thus acting
as a form of unemployment relief. Some[who?] have suggested that
this was Sargon's original employment for the king of Kish, giving
him experience in effectively organising large groups of men; a
tablet reads, "Sargon, the king, to whom Enlil permitted no
rival5,400 warriors ate bread daily before him".[47]
Sea shell of a murex bearing the name of Rimush, king of Kish,
ca. 2270 BC, Louvre, traded from the Mediterranean coast where it
was used by Canaanites to make a purple dye.Harvest was in the late
spring and during the dry summer months. Nomadic Amorites from the
northwest would pasture their flocks of sheep and goats to graze on
the stubble and be watered from the river and irrigation canals.
For this privilege, they would have to pay a tax in wool, meat,
milk, and cheese to the temples, who would distribute these
products to the bureaucracy and priesthood. In good years, all
would go well, but in bad years, wild winter pastures would be in
short supply, nomads would seek to pasture their flocks in the
grain fields, and conflicts with farmers would result. It would
appear that the subsidizing of southern populations by the import
of wheat from the north of the Empire temporarily overcame this
problem,[citation needed] and it seems to have allowed economic
recovery and a growing population within this region.As a result,
Sumer and Akkad had a surplus of agricultural products but was
short of almost everything else, particularly metal ores, timber
and building stone, all of which had to be imported. The spread of
the Akkadian state as far as the "silver mountain" (possibly the
Taurus Mountains), the "cedars" of Lebanon, and the copper deposits
of Magan, was largely motivated by the goal of securing control
over these imports. One tablet reads "Sargon, the king of Kish,
triumphed in thirty-four battles (over the cities) up to the edge
of the sea (and) destroyed their walls. He made the ships from
Meluhha, the ships from Magan (and) the ships from Dilmun tie up
alongside the quay of Agade. Sargon the king prostrated himself
before (the god) Dagan (and) made supplication to him; (and) he
(Dagan) gave him the upper land, namely Mari, Yarmuti, (and) Ebla,
up to the Cedar Forest (and) up to the Silver
Mountain".CultureLanguageSee also: Sumerian languageDuring the 3rd
millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis
between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread
bilingualism.[5] The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice
versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive
scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological
convergence.[5] This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and
Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund.[5] Akkadian
gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around
the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating
being a matter of debate),[6] but Sumerian continued to be used as
a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientific language in
Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD.[48]Poetpriestess
EnheduannaSumerian literature continued in rich development during
the Akkadian period (a notable example being Enheduanna).
Enheduanna, the "wife (Sumerian "dam" = high priestess) of Nanna
[the Sumerian moon god] and daughter of Sargon"[49] of the temple
of Sin at Ur, who lived ca. 22852250 BC, is the first poet in
history whom we know by name. Her known works include hymns to the
goddess Inanna, the Exaltation of Inanna and In-nin sa-gur-ra. A
third work, the Temple Hymns, a collection of specific hymns,
addresses the sacred temples and their occupants, the deity to whom
they were consecrated. The works of this poetess are significant,
because although they start out using the third person, they shift
to the first person voice of the poet herself, and they mark a
significant development in the use of cuneiform. As poetess,
princess, and priestess, she was a personality who, according to
William W Hallo, "set standards in all three of her roles for many
succeeding centuries"[50]In the Exultation of Inanna,Enheduanna
depicts Inanna as disciplining mankind as a goddess of battle. She
thereby unites the warlike Akkadian Ishtar's qualities to those of
the gentler Sumerian goddess of love and fecundity. She likens
Inanna to a great storm bird who swoops down on the lesser gods and
sends them fluttering off like surprised bats. Then, in probably
the most interesting part of the hymn, Enheduanna herself steps
forward in the first person to recite her own past glories,
establishing her credibility, and explaining her present plight.
She has been banished as high priestess from the temple in the city
of Ur and from Uruk and exiled to the steppe. She begs the moon god
Nanna to intercede for her because the city of Uruk, under the
ruler Lugalanne, has rebelled against Sargon. The rebel, Lugalanne,
has even destroyed the temple Eanna, one of the greatest temples in
the ancient world, and then made advances on his
sister-in-law.[51]Technology
Bassetki Statue from the reign of Naram-Sin with an inscription
mentioning the construction of a temple in AkkadOne tablet from
this period reads, "(From the earliest days) no-one had made a
statue of lead, (but) Rimush king of Kish, had a statue of himself
made of lead. It stood before Enlil; and it recited his (Rimush's)
virtues to the idu of the gods". The copper Bassetki Statue, cast
with the lost wax method, testifies to the high level of skill that
craftsmen achieved during the Akkadian period.[52]AchievementsThe
empire was bound together by roads, along which there was a regular
postal service. Clay seals that took the place of stamps bear the
names of Sargon and his son. A cadastral survey seems also to have
been instituted, and one of the documents relating to it states
that a certain Uru-Malik, whose name ap The Adaptation of Cuneiform
to Akkadian Piotr Michalowski.[6]painting-brush. The outside rim
motifs are spaced and limited by groups of horizontal lines.
[1]
Pre-Pottery Neolithic BThe NeolithicThis box: view talk edit
Mesolithic
Fertile Crescent Levantine corridorHeavy NeolithicShepherd
NeolithicTrihedral NeolithicQaraoun cultureTahunian
cultureYarmukian CultureHalaf cultureHalaf-Ubaid Transitional
periodUbaid cultureByblosJerichoPre-Pottery (A, B)Tell
AswadatalhykJarmoEurope Boian cultureButmir cultureCernavod
cultureCoofeni cultureCucuteni-Trypillian cultureDudeti
cultureGorneti cultureGumelniaKaranovo cultureHamangia
cultureLinear Pottery cultureMalta TemplesPetreti cultureSesklo
cultureTisza cultureTiszapolgr cultureUsatovo cultureVarna
cultureVina cultureVuedol cultureNeolithic TransylvaniaNeolithic
Southeastern EuropeChina Peiligang culturePengtoushan cultureBeixin
cultureCishan cultureDadiwan cultureHouli cultureXinglongwa
cultureXinle cultureZhaobaogou cultureHemudu cultureDaxi
cultureMajiabang cultureYangshao cultureHongshan cultureDawenkou
cultureSongze cultureLiangzhu cultureMajiayao cultureQujialing
cultureLongshan cultureBaodun cultureShijiahe cultureTibetSouth
Asia Mehrgarh
farming, animal husbandrypottery, metallurgy, wheelcircular
ditches, henges, megalithsNeolithic religion
Chalcolithic
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) is a division of the Neolithic
developed by Kathleen Kenyon during her archaeological excavations
at Jericho in the West Bank.Cultural tendencies of this period
differ from that of the earlier Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
period in that people living during this period began to depend
more heavily upon domesticated animals to supplement their earlier
mixed agrarian and hunter-gatherer diet. In addition the flint tool
kit of the period is new and quite disparate from that of the
earlier period. One of its major elements is the naviform core.
This is the first period in which architectural styles of the
southern Levant became primarily rectilinear; earlier typical
dwellings were circular, elliptical and occasionally even
octagonal. Pyrotechnology was highly developed in this period.
During this period, one of the main features of houses is evidenced
by a thick layer of white clay plaster floors highly polished and
made of lime produced from limestone. It is believed that the use
of clay plaster for floor and wall coverings during PPNB led to the
discovery of pottery.[1] The earliest proto-pottery was White Ware
vessels, made from lime and gray ash, built up around baskets
before firing, for several centuries around 7000 BC at sites such
as Tell Neba'a Faour (Beqaa Valley).[2] Sites from this period
found in the Levant utilizing rectangular floor plans and plastered
floor techniques were found at Ain Ghazal, Yiftahel (western
Galilee), and Abu Hureyra (Upper Euphrates).[3] The period is dated
to between ca. 10,700 and ca. 8,000 BP or 7000 - 6000 BCE.Danielle
Stordeur's recent work at Tell Aswad, a large agricultural village
between Mount Hermon and Damascus could not validate Henri de
Contenson's earlier suggestion of a PPNA Aswadian culture. Instead,
they found evidence of a fully established PPNB culture at 8700 BC
at Aswad, pushing back the period's generally accepted start date
by 1,200 years. Similar sites to Tell Aswad in the Damascus Basin
of the same age were found at Tell Ramad and Tell Ghoraif. How a
PPNB culture could spring up in this location, practicing
domesticated farming from 8700 BC has been the subject of
speculation. Whether it created its own culture or imported
traditions from the North East or Southern Levant has been
considered an important question for a site that poses a problem
for the scientific community.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]Like the
earlier PPNA people, the PPNB culture developed from the Earlier
Natufian but shows evidence of a northerly origin, possibly
indicating an influx from the region of north eastern Anatolia. The
culture disappeared during the 8.2 kiloyear event, a term that
climatologists have adopted for a sudden decrease in global
temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the
present, or c. 6200 BCE, and which lasted for the next two to four
centuries. In the following Munhatta and Yarmukian post-pottery
Neolithic cultures that succeeded it, rapid cultural development
continues, although PPNB culture continued in the Amuq valley,
where it influenced the later development of Ghassulian
culture.Work at the site of 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan has indicated a
later Pre-Pottery Neolithic C period which existed between 8,200
and 7,900 BP. Juris Zarins has proposed that a Circum Arabian
Nomadic Pastoral Complex developed in the period from the climatic
crisis of 6200 BCE, partly as a result of an increasing emphasis in
PPNB cultures upon animal domesticates, and a fusion with Harifian
hunter gatherers in Southern Palestine, with affiliate connections
with the cultures of Fayyum and the Eastern Desert of Egypt.
Cultures practicing this lifestyle spread down the Red Sea
shoreline and moved east from Syria into southern Iraq.[12]
Syro-Hittite statesFrom Wikipedia, the free
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v t e
The states that are called Neo-Hittite, or more recently
Syro-Hittite were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician-speaking political
entities of the Iron Age in northern Syria and southern Anatolia
that arose following the collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1180
BC and which lasted until roughly 700 BC. The term "Neo-Hittite" is
sometimes reserved specifically for the Luwian-speaking
principalities like Milid and Carchemish, although in a wider sense
the broader cultural term "Syro-Hittite" is now applied to all the
entities that arose in south-central Anatolia following the Hittite
collapsesuch as Tabal and Quwas well as those of northern and
coastal Syria.[1]Contents 1 Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
transition 2 List of Syro-Hittite states 3 Inscriptions 4 See also
5 Notes 6 External linksLate Bronze Age-Early Iron Age
transitionThis section may require copy editing for grammar, style,
cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it.
(November 2014)
Further information: Bronze Age collapse
The vast Hittite empire at its maximum expansion in the lands of
central AnatoliaThe collapse of the Hittite Empire is usually
associated with the gradual decline of Eastern Mediterranean trade
networks and the resulting collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities
in the Levantine coast, Anatolia and the Aegean.[2] In the middle
of the 13th century BC, great groups of Greeks speaking ancient
Dorian dialects moved from the north through the Balkan region to
the south. The Thracians who occupied this region, and northern
Greece, were forced to move to the western coasts, and later to the
inland of Anatolia, where they became known as Phrygians and
Mysians. At the end of the 13th century BC, the Mycenean palaces in
inland Greece were destroyed by invaders and almost simultaneously
sea-raiders devastated the palace at Pylos. [3] [4] A few decades
later, at the beginning of the 12th century BC, Homeric Troy was
destroyed[5] and the Hittite Empire suffered a sudden devastating
attack from the Kaskas, who occupied the coasts around the Black
Sea, and who were joined with the Mysians. They proceeded to
destroy almost all Hittite sites but they were finally defeated by
the Assyrians beyond the southern borders near Tigris[6] These
great population movements in the Eastern-Meditterannean are
documented in the records of Ramesses III (11861155 BCE) as an
invasion by the so-called sea peoples.[7] Mentioned as being among
them are the people of Adana (Dnnym or Danuna) in Cilicia and
probably the Troyans. Hatti, Arzawa (Lydia), Alashiya (Cyprus),
Ugarit and Alalakh were destroyed.[8] The invaders were defeated
near the borders of Egypt.It seems that the sea-peoples contributed
to the collapse of the Empire, although they are only mentioned in
the Egyptian records and the archaeological evidence is
insufficient. Their invasion caused the movement, by both land and
sea, of large populations seeking new land to settle.[9] In fact,
it is recorded that the foreign countries made a conspiracy in
their islands and that no land could stand before their arms. The
Hittites were strong enough to survive the first stream of
emigrations, but they didn't escape the second, where they were
surrounded by enemies. The Caska were a continuous trouble, the
borders with Arzawa were never considered safe, Mitanni to the
south was always an enemy and a few decades earlier the Hittites
suffered a great defeat against the Assyrians beyond the
borders.[10] These Neo-Hittite Kingdoms gradually fell under the
control of the Neo Assyrian Empire (911608 BC).Hattusa, the Hittite
capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large
cities and the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northern
Mesopotamia saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with
the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and
farmsteads.[11] SyroHittite states emerged in the process of such
major landscape transformation, in the form of regional states with
new political structures and cultural affiliations. David Hawkins
was able to trace a dynastic link between the Hittite imperial
dynasty and the "Great Kings" and "Country-lords" of Melid and
Karkamish of the Early Iron Age, proving an uninterrupted
continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age at
those sites.[12]Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the
uninterrupted cultural continuity in the region of Neo-Hittite
states from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age is now
further confirmed by the recent archaeological work at the sites of
Aleppo (Temple of the Storm God on the Citadel)[13] and Ain Dara
(Temple of Ishtar-Shawushka),[14] where temples built in the Late
Bronze Age continue into the Iron Age without hiatus, and those
temples witness multiple rebuildings in the Early Iron Age.List of
Syro-Hittite states
Historical map of the Neo-Hittite states, c. 800 BCE. Borders
are approximate only.The SyroHittite states may be divided into two
groups: a northern group where Hittite rulers remained in power,
and a southern group where Aramaeans came to rule from about 1000
BC. Although these states are considered somewhat unified, they
were thought to actually be disunified, even in separate
kingdoms.[15][16]The northern group includes: Tabal. It may have
included a group of city states called the Tyanitis (Tuwana, Tunna,
Hupisna, Shinukhtu, Ishtunda) Kammanu (with Melid) Hilakku Quw
(with a stronghold at modern Karatepe) Gurgum Kummuh CarchemishThe
southern, Aramaic, group includes: Palistin (cpital was probably
Tell Tayinat)[17][18] Bit Gabbari (with Sam'al) Bit-Adini (with the
city of Til Barsip) Bit Bahiani (with Guzana) Pattin (also Pattina
or Unqi) (with the city of Kinalua, maybe modern Tell Tayinat[19])
Ain Dara, a religious center Bit Agusi (with the cities of Arpad,
Nampigi, and (later on) Aleppo) Hatarikka-Luhuti (the capital city
of which was at Hatarikka) HamathInscriptionsLuwian monumental
inscriptions in Anatolian hieroglyphs continue uninterrupted from
the 13th-century Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age
Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkamish, Melid, Aleppo and
elsewhere.[20] Luwian hieroglyphs was chosen by many of the
Syro-Hittite regional kingdoms for their monumental inscriptions,
which often appear in bi or tri-lingual inscriptions with Aramaic,
Phoenician or Akkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in Northern
Mesopotamia also saw a gradual spread of alphabetic writing in
Aramaic and Phoenician. During the cultural interactions on the
Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the tenth
through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks and Phrygians adopted the
alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians.[21]
HammurabiFor other uses see Hammurabi (disambiguation).Not to be
confused with Ammurapi.
Hammurabi
Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia
from Shamash. Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of
prayer[1] (relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's
code of laws).
Born~1810 BCBabylonia
Died1750 BC middle chronologyBabylon
KnownforCode of Hammurabi
TitleKing of Babylon
Term42 years; c. 1792 1750 BC (middle)
PredecessorSin-Muballit
SuccessorSamsu-iluna
ReligionBabylonian religion
Partner(s)Unknown
ChildrenSamsu-iluna
Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension
in c. 1792 BC and upon his death in c. 1750 BCHammurabi (Akkadian
from Amorite Ammurpi, "the kinsman is a healer", from Ammu,
"paternal kinsman", and Rpi, "healer"; died c. 1750 BC) was the
sixth Amorite king of Babylon (that is, of the First Babylonian
Dynasty, the Amorite Dynasty) from 1792 BC to 1750 BC middle
chronology (1728 BC 1686 BC short chronology[2]). He became the
first king of the Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his
father, Sin-Muballit, who had become very ill and died, extending
Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars
against neighboring kingdoms.[3] Although his empire controlled all
of Mesopotamia at the time of his death, his successors were unable
to maintain his empire. Hammurabi is known for the set of laws
called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes of law in
recorded history.
This bust, known as the "Head of Hammurabi", is now thought to
predate Hammurabi by a few hundred years[4] (Louvre)Hammurabi was
an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and
inherited the power from his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792
BC.[5] Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite ruled
city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian
plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile
agricultural land.[6] Though many cultures co-existed in
Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among
the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.[7]
The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor
City State in 1894 BC which controlled little territory outside of
the city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger and more
powerful kingdoms such as Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna and Larsa
for a century or so after its founding. However his father
Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south
central Mesopotamia under Babylonian hegemony and, by the time of
his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish,
and Sippar.[7]Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of
a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation.
The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River
while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east of Mesopotamia
lay the powerful kingdom of Elam which regularly invaded and forced
tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia. In northern
Mesopotamia, the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who had already
inherited centuries old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor, had
expanded his territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia,[8]
although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his
empire.[9]The first few decades of Hammurabi's reign were quite
peaceful. Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public
works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes,
and expanding the temples.[10] In c. 1801 BC, the powerful kingdom
of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros
Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.[11] With allies among
the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of
Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on
portions of the plain for the first time.[12] In order to
consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between
Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa.[13]
Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they
discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites,
although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military
effort.[13] Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid,
Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of
the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC.[14]As
Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies
from the north such as Yamhad and Mari, the absence of soldiers in
the north led to unrest.[14] Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi
turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest and soon after
crushing Eshnunna.[15] Next the Babylonian armies conquered the
remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari,
although it is possible that the 'conquest' of Mari was a surrender
without any actual conflict.[16][17][18]Hammurabi entered into a
protracted war with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria for control of
Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in
order to gain the upper hand. Eventually Hammurabi prevailed,
ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death. Mut-Ashkur the new
king of Assyria was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi, however
Babylon did not rule Assyria directly.In just a few years,
Hammurabi had succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his
rule.[18] The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay
tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the
region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained
their independence.[18] However, one stele of Hammurabi has been
found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King
of the Amorites".[19]Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the
reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as
well as 55 of his own letters.[20] These letters give a glimpse
into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods
and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to taking care of
Babylon's massive herds of livestock.[21] Hammurabi died and passed
the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC,
under whose rule the Babylonian empire began to quickly
unravel.[22]Contents 1 Code of laws 1.1 Significant laws in
Hammurabi's code 2 Legacy and depictions 3 See also 4 Notes 5
References 6 Further reading 7 External linksCode of lawsMain
article: Code of Hammurabi
Code of Hammurabi stele. Louvre Museum, ParisHammurabi is best
known for the promulgation of a new code of Babylonian law: the
Code of Hammurabi. One of the first written laws in the
world,[citation needed] the Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a
stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it,
although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later
plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it
was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre
Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written
by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in
Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be
read by any literate person in the city.[23]The structure of the
code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified
punishment. The punishments tended to be very harsh by modern
standards, with many offenses resulting in death, disfigurement, or
the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of
Retaliation") philosophy.[24] The code is also one of the earliest
examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, and it also
suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to
provide evidence.[25] However, there is no provision for
extenuating circumstances to alter the prescribed punishment.A
carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the
laws from the god Shamash or possibly Marduk,[26] and the preface
states that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods of his people to bring
the laws to them. Parallels between this narrative and the giving
of laws by God in Jewish tradition to Moses and similarities
between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the
Semitic background of the two. Fragments of previous law codes have
been found.[27][28][29][30] David P. Wright argues that the Jewish
law used Hammurabi's collection as a model, imitating both its
structure and content.[31]Similar codes of law were created in
several nearby civilizations, including the earlier Mesopotamian
examples of Ur-Nammu's code, Laws of Eshnunna, and Code of
Lipit-Ishtar, and the later Hittite code of laws.[32]Significant
laws in Hammurabi's code(Text taken from Harper's translation,
readable on wikisource) 59 - If a man cut down a tree in a man's
orchard, without the consent of the owner of the orchard, he shall
pay one-half mina of silver. 55 - If a man open his canal for
irrigation and neglect it and the water carry away an adjacent
field, he shall measure out grain on the basis of the adjacent
fields. 168 - If a man set his face to disinherit his son and say
to the judges: "I will disinherit my son," the judges shall inquire
into his antecedents, and if the son have not committed a crime
sufficiently grave to cut him off from sonship, the father may not
cut off his son from sonship. 169 - If he have committed a crime
against his father sufficiently grave to cut him off from sonship,
they shall condone his first (offense). If he commit a crime a
second time, the father may cut off his son from sonship. 8 - If
any one steal cattle or sheep, or an ass, or a pig or a goat, if it
belong to a god or to the court, the thief shall pay thirtyfold
therefor; if they belonged to a freed man of the king he shall pay
tenfold; if the thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put
to death. 196-201 - If a man destroy the eye of another man, they
shall destroy his eye. If one break a man's bone, they shall break
his bone. If one destroy the eye of a freeman or break the bone of
a freeman he shall pay one mana of silver. If one destroy the eye
of a man's slave or break a bone of a man's slave he shall pay
one-half his price. If a man knock out a tooth of a man of his own
rank, they shall knock out his tooth. If one knock out a tooth of a
freeman, he shall pay one-third mana of silver. 218-219 - If a
physician operate on a man for a severe wound with a bronze lancet
and cause that man's death; or open an abscess (in the eye) of a
man with a bronze lancet and destroy the man's eye, they shall cut
off his fingers. If a physician operate on a slave of a freeman for
a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause his death, he shall
restore a slave of equal value. 229-232 - If a builder build a
house for a man and do not make its construction firm, and the
house which he has built collapse and cause the death of the owner
of the house, that builder shall be put to death. If it cause the
death of a son of the owner of the house, they shall put to death a
son of that builder. If it cause the death of a slave of the owner
of the house, he shall give the owner of the house a slave of equal
value. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it
destroyed, and because he did not make the house which he built
firm and it collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed
from his own property (i.e., at his own expense). 21 - If a man
make a breach in a house, they shall put him to death in front of
that breach and they shall thrust him therein. 195 - If a son
strike his father, they shall cut off his fingers. 2.1 Classical
dating 3 Early Assyria, 26002335 BC 4 Assyria in the Akkadian
Empire and Neo-Sumerian Empires 5 Old Assyrian Kingdom 5.1 Dynasty
of Puzur-Ashur I, 20251809 BC, Old Assyrian Empire 5.2 Amorite
Period in Assyria, 18091750 BC 5.3 Assyria under Babylonian
domination, 17501732 BC 5.4 Assyrian Adaside dynasty, 17321451 BC
5.5 Assyria in decline, 14501393 BC 6 Middle Assyrian Empire,
13921056 BC 6.1 Assyrian expansion and empire, 13921056 BC 6.2
Assyria during the Bronze Age Collapse, 1055936 BC 6.3 Society in
the Middle Assyrian period 7 Neo-Assyrian Empire, 911612 BC 7.1
Expansion, 911627 BC 7.2 Downfall, 626605 BC 8 Assyria after the
empire 8.1 Achaemenid Assyria, Athura, Assuristan, Assyria
province, Adiabene, Osroene and Hatra 8.1.1 Achaemenid Assyria
(549330 BC) 8.1.2 Seleucid Assyria 8.1.3 Parthian Assyria (150 BC
116 AD); Adiabene (69 BC 117 AD) 8.1.4 Roman Assyria (116 AD 118
AD) 8.1.5 Parthian Assyria restored (119 AD 225 AD), Osroene, Hatra
8.1.6 Sassanid Assyria (Assuristan (226 AD circa 650 AD) 9
Assyrians after Assyria 10 Assyrian religion 11 Language 12 Arts
and sciences 13 Legacy 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17
Literature 18 External linksNamesAssyria was also sometimes known
as Subartu prior to the rise of the city state of Ashur after which
it was Aryu, and after its fall, from 605 BC through to the late
7th century AD variously as Athura and also referenced as
Atouria[4] according to Strabo, Syria (Greek), Assyria (Latin) and
Assuristan. After its dissolution in the mid 7th century AD it
remained The Ecclesiastical Province of Ator. The term Assyria can
also refer to the geographic region or heartland where Assyria, its
empires and the Assyrian people were (and still are) centered. The
modern Assyrian Christian (AKA Chaldo-Assyrian) ethnic minority in
northern Iraq, north east Syria, south east Turkey and north west
Iran are the descendants of the ancient Assyrians (see Assyrian
continuity).[5][6]Pre-history of AssyriaIn prehistoric times, the
region that was to become known as Assyria (and Subartu) was home
to a Neanderthal culture such as has been found at the Shanidar
Cave. The earliest Neolithic sites in Assyria were the Jarmo
culture c. 7100 BC and Tell Hassuna, the centre of the Hassuna
culture, c. 6000 BC.During the 3rd millennium BC, a very intimate
cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Semitic
Akkadians throughout Mesopotamia, which included widespread
bilingualism.[7] The influence of Sumerian (a language isolate,
i.e. not related to any other language) on Akkadian (and vice
versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive
scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological
convergence.[7] This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and
Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a sprachbund.[7]
Letter sent by the high-priest Lu'enna to the king of Lagash
(maybe Urukagina), informing him of his son's death in combat, c.
2400 BC, found in Girsu.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the
spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere after the turn of the 3rd
and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of
debate),[8] but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred,
ceremonial, literary and scientific language in Mesopotamia until
the 1st century AD.The cities of Assur (also spelled Ashur or Aur)
and Nineveh, together with a number of other towns and cities,
existed since at least before the middle of the 3rd millennium BC
(c. 2600 BC), although they appear to have been Sumerian-ruled
administrative centres at this time, rather than independent
states.According to some Judaeo-Christian writers[who?], the city
of Ashur was founded by Ashur the son of Shem, who was deified by
later generations as the city's patron god[citation needed].
However, it is not among the cities said to have been founded by
him in Genesis 10:1112, and the far older Assyrian annals make no
mention of the much later Judeo-Christian figures of Shem and
Ashur.Assyrian tradition lists an early Assyrian king named Ushpia
as having dedicated the first temple to the god Ashur in the city
in the 21st century BC. It is highly likely that the city was named
in honour of its patron Assyrian god with the same name.Classical
datingGeorge Syncellus in his Chronographia quotes a fragment from
Julius Africanus which dates the founding of Assyria to 2284 BC.[9]
The Roman historian Velleius Paterculus citing Aemilius Sura states
that Assyria was founded 1995 years before Philip V was defeated in
197 BC (at the Battle of Cynoscephalae) by the Romans.[10] The sum
therefore 197 + 1995 = 2192 BC for the foundation of Assyria.
Diodorus Siculus recorded another tradition from Ctesias, that
dates Assyria 1,306 years before 883 BC (the starting date of the
reign of Ashurnasirpal II) and so the sum 883 + 1306 = 2189 BC.[11]
The Chronicle of Eusebius provides yet another date for the
founding of Assyria, with the accession of Ninus, dating to 2057
BC, but the Armenian translation of the Chronicle puts this figure
back slightly to 2116 BC. Another classical dating tradition found
in the Excerpta Latina Barbari dates the foundation of Assyria,
under Belus, to 2206 BC.Early Assyria, 26002335 BCThe city of
Ashur, together with a number of other Assyrian cities, seem to
have been established by 2600 BC, however it is likely that they
were initially Sumerian dominated administrative centres. In c. the
late 26th century BC, Eannatum of Lagash, then the dominant
Sumerian ruler in Mesopotamia, mentions "smiting Subartu" (Subartu
being the Sumerian name for Assyria). Similarly, in c. the early
25th century BC, Lugal-Anne-Mundu the king of the Sumerian state of
Adab lists Subartu as paying tribute to him.Of the early history of
the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. In the Assyrian
King List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya. In archaeological
reports from Ebla, it appeared that Tudiya's activities were
confirmed with the discovery of a tablet where he concluded a
treaty for the operation of a karum (trading colony) in Eblaite
territory, with "king" Ibrium of Ebla (who is now known to have
been the vizier of Ebla for king Ishar-Damu). This entire reading
is now questionable, as several scholars have more recently argued
that the treaty in question may not have been with king Tudiya of
Assyria, but rather with the unnamed king of an uncertain location
called "Abarsal".Tudiya was succeeded on the list by Adamu and then
a further thirteen rulers (Yangi, Shuhlamu, Harharu, Mandaru,
Imshu, Harshu, Didanu, Hanu, Zuabu, Nuabu, Abazu, Belu and Azarah).
Nothing concrete is yet known about these names, although it has
been noted that a much later Babylonian tablet listing the
ancestral lineage of Hammurabi, the Amorite king of Babylon, seems
to have copied the same names from Tudiya through Nuabu, though in
a heavily corrupted form.The earliest kings, such as Tudiya, who
are recorded as kings who lived in tents, were independent
semi-nomadic pastoralist rulers.[2] These kings at some point
became fully urbanised and founded the city state of
Ashur.[12]Assyria in the Akkadian Empire and Neo-Sumerian
EmpiresDuring the Akkadian Empire (23342154 BC) the Assyrians, like
all the Mesopotamian Semites (and also the Sumerians), became
subject to the dynasty of the city state of Akkad, centered in
central Mesopotamia. The Akkadian Empire founded by Sargon the
Great, claimed to encompass the surrounding "four quarters". The
region of Assyria, north of the seat of the empire in central
Mesopotamia had also been known as Subartu by the Sumerians, and
the name Azuhinum in Akkadian records also seems to refer to
Assyria proper.Assyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his
successors, and the city of Ashur became a regional administrative
center of the Empire, implicated by the Nuzi tablets.[13]During
this period, the Akkadian-speaking Semites of Mesopotamia came to
rule an empire encompassing not only Mesopotamia itself but large
swathes of Asia Minor, ancient Iran, Elam, the Arabian Peninsula,
Canaan and Syria.Assyria seems to have already been firmly involved
in trade in Asia Minor by this time; the earliest known reference
to Anatolian karums in Hatti, was found on later cuneiform tablets
describing the early period of the Akkadian Empire (c. 2350 BC). On
those tablets, Assyrian traders in Burushanda implored the help of
their ruler, Sargon the Great, and this appellation continued to
exist throughout the Assyrian Empire for about 1,700 years. The
name "Hatti" itself even appears in later accounts of his grandson,
Naram-Sin, campaigning in Anatolia.Assyrian and Akkadian traders
spread the use of writing in the form of the Mesopotamian cuneiform
script to Asia Minor and The Levant (modern Syria and
Lebanon).However, towards the end of the reign of Sargon the Great,
the Assyrian faction rebelled against him; "the tribes of Assyria
of the upper countryin their turn attacked, but they submitted to
his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them
grievously".[14]The Akkadian Empire was destroyed by economic
decline and internal civil war, followed by attacks from barbarian
Gutian people in 2154 BC.The rulers of Assyria during the period
between c. 2154 BC and 2112 BC once again became fully independent,
as the Gutians are only known to have administered southern
Mesopotamia. However, the king list is the only information from
Assyria for this period.Most of Assyria briefly became part of the
Neo-Sumerian Empire (or 3rd dynasty of Ur) founded in c. 2112 BC.
Sumerian domination extended as far as the city of Ashur, but
appears not to have reached Nineveh and the far north of Assyria.
One local ruler (shakkanakku) named Zriqum (who does not appear on
any Assyrian king list) is listed as paying tribute to Amar-Sin of
Ur. Ashur's rulers appear to have remained largely under Sumerian
domination until the mid-21st century BC (c. 2050 BC); the king
list names Assyrian rulers for this period and several are known
from other references to have also borne the title of shakkanakka
or vassal governors for the neo-Sumerians.Old Assyrian KingdomThe
first written inscriptions by 'urbanised' Assyrian kings appear in
the mid-21st century BC, after they had shrugged off Sumerian
domination. The land of Assyria as a whole then consisted of a
number of city states and small Semitic kingdoms, some of which
were initially independent of Assyria. The foundation of the first
major temple in the city of Ashur was traditionally ascribed to
king Ushpia who reigned c. 2050 BC, possibly a contemporary of
Ishbi-Erra of Isin and Naplanum of Larsa.[15] He was reputedly
succeeded by kings named Apiashal, Sulili, Kikkiya and Akiya (died
c. 2026 BC), of whom little is known, apart from much later
mentions of Kikkiya conducting fortifications on the city walls,
and building work on temples in Ashur.The main rivals, neighbours
or trading partners to early Assyrian kings during the 22nd, 21st
and 20th centuries BC would have been the Hattians and Hurrians to
the north in Asia Minor, the Gutians, Lullubi and Turukku to the
east in the Zagros Mountains of northwest Ancient Iran, the
Elamites to the southeast in what is now south central Iran, the
Amorites to the west in what is today Syria, and their fellow
Sumero-Akkadian city-states of southern Mesopotamia such as Isin,
Kish, Ur, Eshnunna and Larsa.[2]Like many city-states in early
Mesopotamian history, Ashur was, to a great extent, originally an
oligarchy rather than a monarchy. Authority was considered to lie
with "the City", and the polity had three main centres of poweran
assembly of elders, a hereditary ruler, and an eponym. The ruler
presided over the assembly and carried out its decisions. He was
not referred to with the usual Akkadian term for "king",
arrum/Sharru; that was instead reserved for the city's patron deity
Assur, of whom the ruler was the high priest. The ruler himself was
only designated as "the steward of Assur" (iiak Assur), where the
term for steward is a borrowing from Sumerian ensi(k). The third
centre of power was the eponym (limmum), who gave the year his
name, similarly to the later archons and consuls of Classical
Antiquity. He was annually elected by lot and was responsible for
the economic administration of the city, which included the power
to detain people and confiscate property. The institution of the
eponym as well as the formula iiak Assur lingered on as ceremonial
vestiges of this early system throughout the history of the
Assyrian monarchy.[16]Dynasty of Puzur-Ashur I, 20251809 BC, Old
Assyrian EmpireIn approximately 2025 BC (long chronology),
Puzur-Ashur I (perhaps a contemporary of Shu-ilishu of Larsa and
Samium of Isin) is speculated to have overthrown Kikkiya and
founded a new dynasty which was to survive for 216 years. His
descendants left inscriptions mentioning him regarding the building
of temples to gods such as Ashur, Adad and Ishtar in Assyria. The
length of his reign is unknown.Shalim-ahum (died c. 2009 BC)
succeeded the throne at a currently unknown date. He left
inscriptions in archaic Old Assyrian regarding the construction of
a temple dedicated to the god Ashur, and the placement of beer vats
within it.Ilushuma[17] (c. 20081975 BC) took the throne in c. 2008
BC, and is known from his inscription (extant in several copies)
where he claims to have "washed the copper" and "established
liberty" for the Akkadians in Sumerian city-states as far as the
Persian Gulf. This has been taken by some scholars to imply that he
made military campaigns into Southern Mesopotamia to relieve his
fellow Mesopotamians from Amorite and Elamite invasions, however
some recent scholars have taken the view that the inscription means
he supplied these areas with copper from Hatti, and that the word
used for "liberty" (adduraru) is usually in the context of his
exempting the southern Mesopotamian kings from tariffs."The
freedom[nb 1] of the Akkadians and their children I established. I
purified their copper. I established their freedom from the border
of the marshes and Ur and Nippur, Awal, and Kish, Der of the
goddess Ishtar, as far as the City of (Ashur)."[18]Assyria had long
held extensive contact with Hattian, Hittite and Hurrian cities on
the Anatolian plateau in Asia Minor. The Assyrians who had for
centuries traded in the region, and possibly ruled small areas
bordering Assyria, now established significant colonies in
Cappadocia (e.g., at Kanesh (modern Kltepe) from 2008 BC to 1740
BC). These colonies, called karum, from the Akkadian word for
'port', were attached to Hattian cities in Anatolia, but physically
separate, and had special tax status. They must have arisen from a
long tradition of trade between Assyria and the Anatolian cities,
but no archaeological or written records show this. The trade
consisted of metals (copper or tin and perhaps iron; the
terminology is not entirely clear) being traded for textiles from
Assyria.Erishum I[19] (c. 19741935 BC) vigorously expanded Assyrian
colonies in Asia Minor during his long reign, the major ones
appearing to be at Kanesh, attua (Boazky) (the future capital of
the Hittite Empire) and Amkuwa (Alisar Hyk), together with a
further eighteen smaller colonies. He created some of the earliest
examples of Written Law, conducted extensive building work in the
form of fortifying the walls of major Assyrian cities and the
erection of temples dedicated to Ashur and Ishtar. It is from his
reign that the continuous limmum lists are known, however there are
references to the eponym-books for his predecessors having been
destroyed at some point.Ikunum (c. 19341921 BC)[20] built a major
temple for the god Ningal. He further strengthened the
fortifications of the city of Assur and maintained Assyria's
colonies in Asia Minor.Sargon I (c. 19201881 BC)[21] succeeded him
in c. 1920 BC, and had an unusually long reign of 39 years. It is
likely he was named after his illustrious predecessor Sargon of
Akkad. He is known to have refortified the defences of major
Assyrian cities, and maintained Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor
during his reign. Apart from this, little has yet been unearthed
about him. At some point he appears to have withdrawn Assyrian aid
to southern Mesopotamia. It was during his reign in Assyria that
the initially minor city-state of Babylon was founded in 1894 BC by
an Amorite Malka (prince) named Sumuabum.Puzur-Ashur II (c.
18811873 BC) came to the throne as an already older man due to his
fathers long reign. Little is known about his rule, but it appears
to have been uneventful.Naram-Suen (c. 18721818 BC) ascended to the
throne in 1872 BC, and is likely named after his predecessor
Naram-Sin of the Akkadian Empire. Assyria continued to be wealthy
during his 54 year long reign (one of the longest in the ancient
Near East), and he defeated the future usurper king Shamshi-Adad I
who attempted to take his throne.Erishum II (c. 18181809 BC) was to
be the last king of the dynasty of Puzur-Ashur I, founded c. 2025
BC. After only eight or nine years in power he was overthrown by
Shamshi-Adad I, the Amorite usurper who had previously been
defeated in an attempt to unseat Naram-Suen, and who claimed
legitimacy by asserting descent from the mid 21st century BC
Assyrian king, Ushpia.Amorite Period in Assyria, 18091750 BCThe
Amorites were successfully repelled by the Assyrian kings of the
20th and 19th centuries BC. However, in 1809 BC the native
Mesopotamian king of Assyria Erishum II was deposed, and the throne
of Assyria was usurped by Shamshi-Adad I (c. 1809 1776 BC) in the
expansion of Semitic Amorite tribes from the Khabur River delta in
the north eastern Levant.Although regarded as an Amorite by later
Assyrian tradition, Shamshi-Adad's descent is suggested to be from
the same line as the native Mesopotamian ruler Ushpia in the
Assyrian King List. He put his son Ishme-Dagan on the throne of a
nearby Assyrian city, Ekallatum, and maintained Assyria's Anatolian
colonies. Shamshi-Adad I then went on to conquer the kingdom of
Mari (in modern Syria) on the Euphrates putting another of his
sons, Yasmah-Adad on the throne there. Shamshi-Adad's Assyria now
encompassed the whole of northern Mesopotamia and included
territory in central Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and northern Syria.
Shamshi-Adad I mentions conducting raids on the Canaanite coasts of
the far off Mediterranean, where he erected stelae to commemorate
his victories. He himself resided in a new capital city founded in
the Khabur valley in northern Mesopotamia, called
Shubat-Enlil.Ishme-Dagan I (17741763 BC) inherited Assyria, but
Yasmah-Adad was overthrown by a new king called Zimrilim in Mari.
The new king of Mari allied himself with the Amorite king Hammurabi
of Babylon, who had made the recently created, and originally minor
state of Babylon into a major power. It was from the reign of
Hammurabi onwards that southern Mesopotamia came to be known as
Babylonia.Assyria now faced the rising power of Babylon in the
south. Ishme-Dagan responded by making an alliance with the enemies
of Babylon, and the power struggle continued without resolution for
decades. Ishme-Dagan, like his father was a great warrior, and in
addition to repelling Babylonian attacks, campaigned successfully
against the Turukku and Lullubi of the Zagros Mountains (in modern
Iran) who had attacked the Assyrian city of Ekallatum, and against
Dadusha, king of Eshnunna, and the state of Iamhad (modern
Aleppo).Assyria under Babylonian domination, 17501732 BCHammurabi,
after first conquering Mari, Larsa, and Eshnunna, eventually
prevailed over Ishme-Dagan's successor Mut-Ashkur (17501740 BC),
and subjected him to Babylon c. 1750 BC. With Hammurabi, the
various karum colonies in Anatolia ceased trade activityprobably
because the goods of Assyria were now being traded with the
Babylonians. The Assyrian monarchy survived, however the three
Amorite kings succeeding Ishme-Dagan, Mut-Ashkur (who was the son
of Ishme-Dagan and married to a Hurrian queen), Rimush (17391733
BC) and Asinum (1732 BC), were vassals, dependent on the
Babylonians during the reign of Hammurabi, and for a short time, of
his successor Samsu-iluna.Assyrian Adaside dynasty, 17321451 BCThe
short lived Babylonian Empire quickly began to unravel upon the
death of Hammurabi, and Babylonia lost control over Assyria during
the reign of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna (17501712 BC). A
period of civil war ensued after Asinum (a granused for measuring
the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing
time.[18]AstronomyMain article: Mesopotamian astronomyFrom Sumerian
times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events
with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to
Assyrian times when Limmu lists were created as a year by year
association of events with planetary positions, which, when they
have survived to the present day, allow accurate associations of
relative with absolute dating for establishing the history of
Mesopotamia.The Babylonian astronomers were very adept at
mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices. Scholars
thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of
these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers
worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon.
They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The
origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this
time.During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers
developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying
philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and
began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary
systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the
philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this
new approach as the first scientific revolution.[19] This new
approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek
and Hellenistic astronomy.In Seleucid and Parthian times, the
astronomical reports were thoroughly scientific; how much earlier
their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain.
The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of
the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of
astronomy.The only Greek Babylonian astronomer known to have
supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of
Seleucia (b. 190 BC).[20][21][22] Seleucus is known from the
writings of Plutarch. He supported Aristarchus of Samos'
heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis
which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch,
Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known
what arguments he used (except that he correctly theorized on tides
as a result of Moon's attraction).Babylonian astronomy served as
the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian,
Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western
European astronomy.[23]MedicineThe oldest Babylonian texts on
medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half
of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical
text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummn, or
chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[24] during the reign of
the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC).[25]Along with
contemporary Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the
concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and
prescriptions. In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the
methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic,
and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text
contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical
observations along with logical rules used in combining observed
symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and
prognosis.[26]The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated
through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a
patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians
often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses.
Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of
axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the
examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is
possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology, its
future development, and the chances of the patient's
recovery.[24]Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and
diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook.
These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and
related ailments along with their diagnosis and
prognosis.[27]TechnologyMesopotamian people invented many
technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp
making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and
irrigation. They were also one of the first Bronze age people in
the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron.
Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very
expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for
armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers,
spears, and maces.According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes'
screw may have been used by