ABDUL AFIFF FIQHRY BIN ABDUL LATIF - core.ac.uk · menggabungkan mesin kisar konvensional dengan getaran sistem berbantu ke dalam proses pemotongan tunggal. Kajian ini akan mengkaji

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BIOMEDICAL

STAINLESS STEEL 316L VIBRATION ASSISTED

MILLING USING RETROFITTABLE 1D UVAM

WORKTABLE

ABDUL AFIFF FIQHRY BIN ABDUL LATIF

UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BIOMEDICAL STAINLESS STEEL 316L

VIBRATION ASSISTED MILLING USING RETROFITTABLE 1D UVAM

WORKTABLE

ABDUL AFIFF FIQHRY BIN ABDUL LATIF

A thesis submitted in

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the

Master of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

SEPTEMBER 2017

iii

DEDICATION

MY BELOVED PARENTS,

Abdul Latif bin Shaari and Roshida binti Hasan

For their love and support throughout my whole life

MY HONOURED SUPERVISOR,

Dr. Mohd Rasidi Bin Ibrahim

For his advices, support and patience during the completion of this research work

ALL MY COLLEAGUES, ESPECIALLY

Amiril Sahab Abdul Sani, Zazuli Mohid, Haris Rachmat and Nur Azurine

For their encouragement, cooperation and effort throughout this study

ALL TECHNICAL STAFF IN UTHM, ESPECIALLY

Mr. Mohamad Faizal, Mr. Zahrul Hisham, Mr. Mohd Adib and Mr. Azmi

Only Allah S.W.T can repay your kindness and hopes Allah S.W.T bless your life.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Alhamdulillah and praise to Allah S.W.T. for His grace, mercy and the strength

given to me to complete this research work successfully. Peace and blessings be upon

the beloved Prophet S.A.W, with his risalah and teaching the study has become

meaningful to me. I am extremely fortunate to be involved in this exciting and

challenging research work and get to expand my knowledge especially in machining

and manufacturing industries. With this research work I obtain an opportunity to

experience the technology and apply it in real life instead of just doing theoretical

studies. I also learned how to communicate with people and knew how to conduct a

design of experiment from this research work.

I would like to express my gratitude and respect to my supervisor, Dr. Mohd

Rasidi Bin Ibrahim for giving me his excellent guidance, suggestions, advice and

suggestion till I have successfully completed this project. I am so lucky to be able to

work alongside him.

Special thanks dedicated to my parents for their love, sacrifice, supports and

encouragements throughout the completion of this research work. Apart from that, I

would like to thank my family members for their support and love throughout the

research work.

Last but not least, I wish to extend my special appreciation to my fellow friends

in Precision Machining Research Centre (PREMACH) for their friendly cooperation

and moral support. There are numerous of people support and cooperation in this

research work without those direct and indirect the laboratory staffs that has helped

me a lot in laboratory and experimental work. I would like to acknowledge from

technical staffs which are Mr.Zahrul, Mr.Faizal, (Advanced Machining Lab) who gave

a lot of suggestion and for providing their laboratory equipment for research purposes.

Thank you.

v

ABSTRACT

Nowadays, the demand in industry for hard and brittle materials including alloys and

glasses components has been increasing. Thus, it is important to ensure machining for

these parts are done in a high precision manner. Ultrasonic vibration assisted milling

(UVAM) is a well-known precision machining equipment. It improves the machining

performance and could perform machining on extremely delicate components. UVAM is

an advance machining process which consists of the combination of conventional milling

with ultrasonic vibration assistance. This research investigates the effect of imposing

ultrasonic vibration assisted milling with feed and cross-feed vibration on conventional

milling (CM). The desired vibration is proposed from the workpiece by a specialised one-

dimensional UVAM worktable. A series of end-mill experiment in dry cutting conditions

were conducted on stainless steel 316L. A commercially available cutting tool

manufactured by HPMT with a diameter of 6 mm and featured with differential pitch was

used in this research. The ultrasonic vibration generator excites the workpiece with a

frequency in the range of 9~18 kHz and an amplitude of 0.5~3 µm. The values of the

cutting parameter were chosen with regards to the recommendation by the manufacturers.

Several parameters including cutting force, cutting temperature, surface roughness, chip

formation and tool wear progression were compared between CM and UVAM. The results

showed that a considerable improvement was identified in UVAM. It was found that end

milling with ultrasonic vibration in the feed vibration of 18 kHz with an amplitude of 3

µm was able to reduce 13%(Fx) and 18%(Fy) of cutting force, reduce 18.4% of cutting

temperature and improve the surface roughness up to 60% as compared to CM. Apart

from that, it also decreased the tool wear progression as compared to conventional milling,

In addition, the chip formation has shown a positive trend where larger amplitude and

higher frequency would produce smaller chips as compared to conventional milling.

vi

ABSTRAK

Pada masa kini, permintaan bahan keras dan lembut di industri sangat tinggi seperti aloi

keluli dan komponen kaca. Proses pemesinan perlulah dilakukan secara tepat dan jitu.

Pemesinan Berbantukan Frekuensi Getaran Mesin Kisar (PBFGMK) dikenali sebagai

pemesinan yang jitu dan tepat. PBFGMK mampu meningkatkan prestasi pemesinan dan

dapat melakukan pemesinan komponen yang sangat kecil. Proses pemesinan ini yang

menggabungkan mesin kisar konvensional dengan getaran sistem berbantu ke dalam

proses pemotongan tunggal. Kajian ini akan mengkaji kesan ultrasonik berbantukan

getaran dengan arah suapan dan merentas getaran pada mesin kisar konvensional. Getaran

dihasilkan daripada satu dimensi PBFGMK mesin. Satu siri eksperimen mesin kisar

dalam keadaan pemotongan kering telah dijalankan pada keluli tahan karat 316L. Alat

memotong didapati secara komersial yang dihasilkan oleh HPMT dengan diameter 6 mm

dan mempunyai sudut mata alat yang berbeza telah digunakan. Penjana getaran ultrasonik

menghantar isyarat frekuensi 9 ~ 18 kHz dan amplitud 0.5 ~ 3 µm. Parameter pemesinan

dipilih seperti yang disyorkan oleh pengeluar mata alat. Daya pemotongan, potongan

suhu, kekasaran permukaan, pembentukan serpihan dan kadar mata alat haus telah

dibandingkan antara mesin kisar konvensional dan PBFGMK. Keputusan menunjukkan

bahawa peningkatan yang besar dalam PBFGMK, dengan getaran ultrasonik dalam

getaran suapan pada 18 kHz dengan amplitud 3 µm dilihat dapat mengurangkan 13% (Fx)

dan 18% (Fy) daya pemotongan, mengurangkan 18.4 % daripada suhu pemesinan dan

penambahbaikan kekasaran permukaan sehingga 60% berbanding dengan pemesinan

konvensional. Selain itu, ia juga dapat mengurangkan kadar mata alat haus jika

dibandingkan dengan permesinan konvensional dan pembentukan serpihan juga

menunjukkan corak yang positif di mana amplitud yang lebih besar dan frekuensi yang

tinggi akan menghasilkan tatal lebih kecil berbanding dengan permesinan konvensional.

vii

CONTENTS

TITLE i

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST SYMBOL AND ABREVIATIONS xv

LIST OF APPENDICES xvi

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS xvii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem Statement 4

1.3 Objective 5

1.4 Scope of the Project 6

1.5 Significant of Study 6

1.6 Scope of the Thesis 7

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction of Milling Process 8

2.2 Cutting Tool 10

2.2.1 Geometry of End Mill 11

2.2.2 Classification of Cutting Tool 12

viii

2.3 Machining Performance 14

2.3.1 Cutting Force 14

2.3.2 Cutting Temperature 18

2.3.3 Surface Roughness 20

2.3.4 Tool Wear 23

2.3.5 Chip Formation 27

2.4 Stainless Steel 316L 29

2.5 Conclusions from The Literature Review 31

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 32

3.2 Process Flow Diagram 33

3.3 Machining Parameter 34

3.4 Workpiece Preparation 35

3.5 Experimental UVAM Setup 36

3.6 Major Instruments 38

3.6.1 CNC Milling 38

3.6.2 Dynamometer 39

3.6.3 Thermocouple K-Type 41

3.6.4 Tool Maker Microscope 43

3.6.5 High Magnifying Microscope 44

3.6.6 Surftest SJ-400 45

3.6.7 Digital Oscilloscope 47

3.6.8 Function Generator 48

3.6.9 Portable Digital Vibrometer 49

CHAPTER 4 ULTRASONIC VIBRATION ASSISTED

MILLING WORKTABLE

4.1 Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling (UVAM) 52

4.1.1 Cutting Principle of UVAM (1D) 53

4.1.2 UVAM Benefit 58

4.2 UVAM Design Review 61

4.3 Material 62

ix

4.4 UVAM Worktable Design 63

4.5 Vibration Mechanism 65

CHAPTER 5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction 68

5.2 Result and Analysis of UVAM Worktable 68

5.3 Result and Analysis of Cutting Force 74

5.4 Result and Analysis of Cutting Temperature 78

5.5 Result and Analysis of Surface Roughness 79

5.6 Result and Analysis of Tool Wear 82

5.7 Result and Analysis Chip Formation 84

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion 87

6.2 Recommendations 88

REFERENCES 89

APPENDICES 96

x

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Chemical composition of AISI 316L SS (wt%) 30

3.1 Machining parameter 34

3.2 UVAM parameter 34

3.3 Cutting tool terminology 35

3.4 Cutting conditions 35

3.5 Mechanicam and thermal properties for AISI 316L 36

3.6 Specification of Mitutoyo SJ-400 Surftest 47

3.7 Digital Oscilloscope (Yokogawa DL1620) specification 48

3.8 General specification of PDV-100 51

4.1 UVAM design comparison 61

4.2 Specifications of PK4FQP2 66

5.1 Simulation parameter 69

5.2 Compliance mechanism physical properties 69

5.3 Photographs of chip produced under different frequency

and amplitude 85

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Top view of slot cutting 9

2.2 The main part of the end mill (a) Side view, (b) Bottom

view 11

2.3 Estimated global use of the main cutting material 14

2.4 The force component affecting the cutting edge 15

2.5 The influence of steel hardness on cutting forces 16

2.6 Variation of cutting force with time during up milling

using (a) single tooth cutting at a time (b) two teeth at

a time 17

2.7 Factor affecting milling forces 18

2.8 Source of heat generated in orthogonal cutting process 19

2.9 Percentage of the heat generated going into the workpiece,

tool and chip as a function of cutting speed 20

2.10 Common surface roughness parameters 21

2.11 Type of failure and wears on cutting tool 24

2.12 Wear on end milling tools (ISO 8688-2) 25

2.13 Chipping (a) CH1 and (b) CH2 (ISO 8688-2) 26

2.14 Four type of chip formation in metal cutting

(a) discontinuous (b) continuous with built up edge

(d) serrated 27

xii

2.15 Classification of chip forms according to ISO 3685 29

2.16 Typical applications stainless steel 316 L 29

3.1 Research flow chart 33

3.2 Experimental setup of UVAM 37

3.3 Mazak Nexux 400 A- II CNC milling 38

3.4 Reaction force in dynamometer Kistler 9254 39

3.5 Coordinate system of dynamometer 40

3.6 Multi channel amplifier 5070A 40

3.7 K-type thermocouple 41

3.8 Measuring point for temperature 42

3.9 8 Channel amplifier 42

3.10 Nikon MM-60 too maker measuring microscope 43

3.11 Optical microscope OLYMPUS STM6 44

3.12 Equipment to clean surface workpiece 45

3.13 Mitutoyo SJ-400 Surftest 46

3.14 Three fixed spot measure on workpiece 46

3.15 Digital Oscilloscope (Yokogawa DL1620) 47

3.16 Function generator Hantek HDG6162B 48

3.17 Type of wave 49

3.18 Schematic diagram for measure displacement of UVAM 50

3.19 PDV-100 Portable digital vibrometer 50

xiii

3.20 Example result from PDV-100 51

4.1 Classification of vibration assisted machining (a) Cutting

velocity direction (b) Feed direction 54

4.2 Coordinate system 54

4.3 1D vibration-assisted machining 55

4.4 Tool workpiece engagement in the UVAM process 55

4.5 Full assemble of UVAM worktable 64

4.6 UVAM worktable components 64

4.7 Piezo-actuator (PK4FQP2) 65

4.8 The mechanism of piezo-actuator 66

4.9 Motion of the compliance mechanism 67

5.1 FEA loading input 70

5.2 FEA meshing output 70

5.3 Natural frequency of the compliance mechanism 71

5.4 Location of maximum stress of compliance mechanism 72

5.5 UVAM components after fabricate 73

5.6 Model (a) Assembly from solidworks (b) Assembly of

UVAM prototype 73

5.7 Displacement change over frequency 74

5.8 Experimental cutting forces under different conditions 75

5.9 Cutting force in Fx component 76

5.10 Cutting force in Fy component 76

5.11 Workpiece temperature in various condition 79

xiv

5.12 Qualities and surface roughness of the bottom surface

machined with various condition machining 80

5.13 Surface roughness in various condition 81

5.14 Location wear at the cutting edge 83

5.15 Flank wear values for various condition 83

5.16 Progression of tool wear under various condition 84

5.17 Photographs of chips produced under different amplitude 85

xv

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

𝜌 - Density

Tc - Cutting temperature

T2 - End temperature

T1 - Initial temperature

t2 - End time

t1 - Initial time

�̇� - Volume flow rate

λc - Cutoff length

r - Diameter of Shank (mm)

S - Spindle Speed (rpm)

T - Cutting Tool Life (cycles)

t - Cutting Time (s)

Wv - UVAM Width of Cut (mm)

w - Rotational speed

Vb - Flank Wear (µm)

x - X-axis Displacement

Fc - Cutting Force

Fx - Cutting Force in X Component

Fy - Cutting Force in Y Component

Fz - Cutting Force in Z Component

ap - Axial Depth of Cut

xvi

ae - Radial Depth of Cut

f - Feed per rev

VC - Cutting speed

A - Vibration Amplitude (mm)

D - Cutting Tool Diameter (µm)

f - Frequency (Hz)

fr - Feed Rate (mm min-1)

k - Hinge Spring Constant

N - Number of Cutter Teeth

R - Radius of Cutting Tool (mm)

Ra - Surface Roughness (µm)

HRB - Rockwell Hardness

CM - Conventional Machining

UVAM - Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling

PBFGMK - Pemesinan Berbantukan Frekuensi Gegaran Mesin Kisar

DM - Dry Machining

PREMACH - Precision Machining Research Centre

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope

UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

MRR - Material Removal Rate (mm3 min-1)

xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Technical Drawing for Base 97

B Technical Drawing for Cap 98

C Technical Drawing for Spacer 99

D Technical Drawing for Compliance Mechanism 100

xvii

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

Proceedings:

(i) Latif, A. A., Ibrahim, M. R., Rahim, E. A., & Cheng, K. (2017, April).

Investigation of 1-Dimensional ultrasonic vibration compliance mechanism

based on finite element analysis. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol.

1831, No. 1, p. 020028). AIP Publishing.

(ii) Afiff Latif, Mohd Rasidi Ibrahim, Mohammad Sukri Mustapa, Hakim Rafai

& Charles Prakash. Effect of Variable Pitch on Cutting Temperature,

Cutting Forces and Surface Roughness using Nitico30 Cutting Tool when

End Milling of Stainless Steel 316L in 2017 5th Asia Conference on

Mechanical and Materials Engineering (ACMME 2017), University of

Tokyo, Japan, June 9-11, 2017 (On process publication)

(iii) M. Rasidi Ibrahim, A. Afiff Latif, and A. Zahid Amran. “Effect of Feed

Rate and Depth of Cut on Cutting Forces and Surface Roughness when End

Milling of Mild Steel using NOVIANO Cutting Tool” Proceedings of the

International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations

Management Rabat, Morocco, April 11-13, 2017 (On process publication)

(iv) M R Ibrahim, A A Latif, A Z Amran, and E A Rahim” A Study Effect of

Feed Rate and Cutting Speed on Surface Roughness and Material Removal

Rate of Mild Steel” ICMER2017 4th Conference on Mechanical

Engineering Research. Kuantan, Pahang August 1-2, 2017. (On process

publication)

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

In the process of machining, milling is the most appropriate operation to perform

metal shaping process. To increase the accuracy, a higher value of cutting parameter such

as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are needed. A higher value cutting parameter

would increase the generation of heat energy. Thus, the cutting temperature would also

increase. A higher cutting temperature will cause deterioration on the surface quality as

well as affecting the tool life (Childs et al., 2000). This phenomenon would happen due

to the failure of penetration of the conventional cutting fluid to the chip-tool interface

during high-speed milling processes.

To overcome this problem, the Ultrasonic Vibration assisted machining (UVAM)

was introduced. UVAM is an advance machining process where it is grouped under non-

traditional machining process. It is commonly used to machine conductive, non-

conductive, hard and brittle work materials. Vibration assisted drilling, vibration assisted

turning, vibration assisted milling, vibration assisted abrasive are all categorised under

the scope of vibration assisted machining. Vibration assisted machining was introduced

during the early 1950’s and today, it has become a widely accepted method in precision

metal cutting industries (Rasidi, 2010). A hydrostatic bearing with its sub-micrometer

rotational accuracy was the first component of precision metal cutting to benefit from the

efforts of researches. Along with the refinement of conventional machine component

2

(spindle, metrology, frames, etc.), the development of linear motors in the late 1970s and

piezoelectric driven stages in the 1980s allowed tool positioning and control to be on

nanometer scale. Besides, researches on material and the development of the

monocrystalline diamond tool with Nano metric edge sharpness had ensured the levels for

errors to occur and surface roughness to be reduced significantly (Brehl & Dow, 2008).

This has attracted many researches to further develop various systems to suit different

applications.

Vibration is one of the mechanism that can be used to assist machining processes.

Vibration is an oscillation of an object about a static position. There are a few range of

vibrations that can be produced to assist machining processes. Ultrasonic vibration has

been widely used for industries in Japan, where the machining processes have widely

adapted vibration technologies to improve the machining processes in order to obtain a

better and fine result for the products.

UVAM is an advanced machining process that combines ultrasonic vibration as a

supporting mechanism in milling process. From previous researches, it is found that by

adding vibration to milling processes, several improvements were identified such as

extended cutting tool life, reduction of cutting force and improvement on the cutting

quality especially on surface roughness. In current technologies, the vibration mechanism

can be installed on either the cutting tool itself or at the worktable. When a small

amplitude of vibration is applied to the tool or to the work piece, it could help the

machining process to achieve a better result as compared to conventional machining.

There are many types of vibrations that exist in this world. Nevertheless, only a few types

of vibrators could produce an efficient vibration at small amplitude. Piezo actuator is one

of the devices that could produce a precision vibration amplitude (in micro and nano) at

both high and low frequencies. Both the vibration installation method and vibration

emitter component have their own capabilities and disadvantages, and these factors could

actually deliver different outcomes. In addition, the interaction between high frequency

vibrations with the cutting tool motion will enhance the characteristics of the outcome of

the milling process. The motions of the vibration exist in different directions including X,

Y, and Z or a combination of the axis. However, the frequency rate as well as the

amplitude of vibration is usually manageable. These characteristics could usually become

3

the parameter factors that control and distinguish the outcomes from UVAM process and

conventional milling process.

Typical ultrasonic vibration assisted milling consist of three main parts which are

data output (computer), data acquisition card (DAQ), and the vibration device

(piezoelectric actuator). Nevertheless, a typical UVAM would still have a few drawbacks.

In recent years, there are various researches which was conducted to improve the current

UVAM which is by applying a closed-loop control system. Closed-loop system is a

system that utilises feedback where the feedback is used to make decision about any

changes to the control signal that is driving the system. In a closed-loop control system,

sensors are being used to obtain reading from the output signal (vibration amplitude of

cutting tip). Then, the software would react according to the changes of the system by

recalculating and readjusting the driven signal (input signal). The system responds to

changes by having several samples taken repeatedly, and the cycle continues until the

system reaches the desired state. At the desired state, the software will cease making

further changes. Previous researchers (Barr, 2002; Moriwaki & Shamoto, 1995; Rasidi,

2010; Shamoto & Moriwaki, 1994; Shamoto, Suzuki, Moriwaki, & Naoi, 2002) have

developed a closed-loop control system for ultrasonic vibration in order to stabilise the

ultrasonic elliptical vibration. The results of their experiments showed that amplitude of

vibration as well as phase difference are kept constant, and the average resonant frequency

is successfully organised in the present the control system.

This research would focus on the effect of one-dimensional vibration towards

cutting force, cutting temperature, surface roughness, tool wear and chip formation.

Cutting force is the force that is required to cut the material to desired dimensions. Cutting

force would commonly affect the tool wear. When the cutting force is set to be high, the

tool that is being used will have to exert a greater force and this could lead to the rapid

wear of the tool. Next, the heat generated in machining operation is an important factor in

addressing several metal cutting issues such as dimensional accuracy, surface integrity

and tool life. A higher value of cutting temperature will increase the deterioration of

surface quality as well as affecting the tool life (Childs et al., 2000). Furthermore, this

research will also compare the effect of cutting force, cutting temperature, surface

roughness, tool wear and chip formation when vibration is being applied or not being

4

apply during the milling process. The UVAM worktable that was used in this experiment

is a 1-D UVAM, where it includes two motions either in X-axis or Y-axis. 1-D UVAM

has a linear movement where it can only move in one motion. It is notable that in 1-D

UVAM, the cutting force and tool wear can be reduced. Apart from that, the 1-D UVAM

can extend the tool life significantly as compared to conventional machining.

1.2 Problem Statement

Machining AISI 316L is complicated due to the properties of low thermal conductivity

which creates and builds up heat in the cutting zone. Cooling lubricant is commonly

recommended to machine this group of alloys. It helps to achieve a better result in terms

of tool life, surface finishes and ensure a smooth chip flow. However, in recent years, its

usage in industries is nonetheless characterised to have problems during waste disposal.

These issues have caused a large number of ecological problems, environmental concerns

and had also been identified to be one of the major factors for sickness among the workers.

Some researches claimed that, cost related to cutting fluids is enough to represent an

enormous amount of expenditure which could overtake the cost of cutting tool. Thus, dry

cutting machining is a relevant and beneficial alternative which could fulfill the needs for

cost reduction and environmental concerns. Nonetheless, it is notable that dry cutting is

not suitable in some applications that require high accuracy of the finished components

as well as high surface integrity. In conventional milling machine, high force and friction

are produced during the process of machining. As a result, it will induce rapid tool wear

and could alter the surface integrity of the machining product. Furthermore, a higher force

could reduce the quality of the products. The tool could also easily wear out during the

processes. This could increase the maintenance cost and decrease the quality of surface

integrity.

UVAM is an effective method to counter this problem and could be utilised in

machining operations. Besides, UVAM processes have a lot of advantages as compared

to conventional milling processes. However, it is still uncommonly used in the industry.

This phenomenon is due to various major drawback factors that still could not be fully

understood in depth by current researchers. Vibration amplitude, vibration frequency and

5

voltage supply are several key factors in determining the performance for surface

integrity, cutting force and cutting temperature. In previous studies conducted (Rasidi,

2010), it has been shown that an increase in the vibration amplitude could lead to the

reduction in cutting force, lower cutting temperature, improvement in surface integrity

and enhancing tool life. In this study, both performance between X-axis and Y-axis

ultrasonic vibration assistance are investigated in order to further comprehend the

mechanism of 1-D UVAM. The amount of vibration amplitude that can be obtained

during machining process is mainly depended on the types of piezoelectric actuators being

used. Different types of piezoelectric actuators have different capabilities of vibration

amplitude and resonance frequency. Thus, a number of experiments have been done to

determine the optimum vibration amplitude and frequency that can be produced by the

selected piezoelectric actuator.

Cutting force and temperature is an importance factor in metal cutting process and

it is linked to many issues in cutting process such as product accuracy, surface roughness

and tool life. Theoretically, cutting force and temperature in ultrasonic vibration assisted

milling should be much lower than conventional milling since there are intermittent gap

being produced during the cutting process. The intermittent gap produced is mainly

depended on the vibration amplitude and vibration frequency. A higher amplitude of

vibration could result in a larger intermittent gap being produced and a higher vibration

frequency would cause the frequency of the intermittent gap to increase. The increase in

both vibration amplitude and vibration frequency would decrease the cutting force and its

temperature. However, there is a lack of scientific evidence or research study to

understand and explain this theory.

1.3 Objective

i. To design a UVAM worktable

ii. To investigate the experimental and simulation of compliance mechanism

iii. To study the performance of Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling (UVAM) with

feed and cross-feed vibration against dry machining in terms of

1. Cutting force

6

2. Cutting temperature

3. Surface roughness

4. Tool wear

5. Chip formation

1.4 Scope of Study

In order to achieve the objectives, this study has been carried out with some limitations

and assumptions. This research would include finite element analysis, experiments, visual

observations and measurements. The works were done under the following scope.

i. Machining parameter:

a) Spindle speed, n : 2387 (min-1)

b) Feed, Vf : 191 mm/min

c) Depth of cut ap : 0.1 mm

d) Condition : Dry cutting

e) Workpiece : Stainless steel 316L

f) Cutting tool : Nitico 30

: 6 mm diameter

: 4 flute end mill

: Differential pitch

: Uncoated

g) Type of cutting : Slot milling (Up and Down milling)

ii. UVAM parameter

Signal Pattern Sine Wave

Amplitude, µm 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0

Frequency, kHz 9 13 15 18

iii. UVAM work table:

a) Vibration motion : 1D motion (Linear X or Y axis)

7

b) Vibration emitter : Thorlab discrete piezo stack PK4FQP2

iv. Material

a) Stainless Steel 316L

1.5 Significance of Study

This study focused on the machining of 316L stainless steel with a higher creep, stress to

rupture and tensile strength at elevated temperatures as the technology for machining

process of this particular material is still developing. Through this study, the development

of the machining process for stainless steel 316L was enhanced by using UVAM.

This study is also an effort to build the market value for UVAM machining in

industry as it has a wide usage and bright future development. Although UVAM had

already been used by advance technology in global market, the knowledge regarding the

process is still incomplete. This study could fulfill the missing knowledge of the UVAM

especially on effect of the cutting force, cutting temperature, surface roughness, tool wear

and chip formation.

Thus, by conducting this research, a new UVAM worktable that is industry

friendly can be designed. However, it can only be done by enhancing the characteristics

and reducing the limitations of current UVAM technology. UVAM can assist machining

in many ways that are still yet to be discovered. Hopefully this study will be one of the

stepping stone that could increase the technology usage of UVAM in Malaysia as UVAM

technology is currently being developed by advance countries.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction of Milling Process

Milling operation is considered one of the most common machining operations in

industry. It can be used for face finishing, edge finishing as well as material removal.

Milling machine is one of the widely used machine in removing excess material to achieve

a desired part. One of the machines that was used in this research was CNC milling

(MAZAK Nexus 400A-II CNC). Milling is a machining operation in which a work part

is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with multiple cutting edges. The axis of rotation of

the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of feed. This orientation between the tool

axis and the feed direction is one of the features that distinguishes milling from drilling.

In drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a direction which is parallel to its axis of rotation. The

cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are called teeth.

The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface. Other work geometries

can be created either by means of the cutter path or the cutter shape. Due to the variety of

shapes and its high production rates, milling is considered as one of the most versatile and

widely used machining operations. It is an interrupted cutting operation where the teeth

of the milling cutter enter and exit the work during each revolution. This interrupted

cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of impact force and thermal shock on every

rotation. Thus, the tool material and cutter geometry must be designed to withstand these

conditions.

9

In milling operation, there are many types of cutting including slot cutting. In slot

cutting, the direction of cutter rotation can be distinguished into two forms of milling: up

milling and down milling which are as illustrated in Figure 2.1. In up milling which is

also called conventional milling, the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is opposite to

the feed direction. It is milling “against the feed.” In down milling which is also known

as climb milling, the direction of cutter motion is the same as the feed direction. It is

milling “with the feed.” The relative geometries of these two forms of milling would result

in different cutting actions. In up milling, the chip formed by each cutter tooth would start

out very thin and would increase in thickness during the sweep of the cutter. In down

milling, each chip would start out thick and would reduce in thickness throughout the cut.

The length of the chip in down milling is lesser as compared with up milling. This means

that the cutter is engaged with less time per volume of material cut. Thus, this would

increase the tool life in down milling (Groover, 2013). The cutting force direction is

tangential to the periphery of the cutter for the teeth that are engaged in the work. In up

milling, there is a tendency to lift the work part as the cutter teeth exits the material. In

down milling, this cutter force direction is downward which is tending to hold the work

against the milling machine table.

Figure 2.1: Top view of slot cutting

Y

X

Cutting

tool rotation

Up

milling

Down

milling

Cutting width, ae

Feed

10

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machining center is a multifunction machine

that uses a programmable mini-computer with a read-write memory to perform numeric

control (NC) functions to control the machine tool. The minicomputer provides basic

computing capacity and data buffering as part of the control unit. CNC machines can

execute a wide variety of operations including milling, drilling and boring, without

changing the setup of any components. CNC units also allow combinations of these

operations with variable spindle speeds and feed rates. By using the computer numeric

control programs, CNC machines can automatically control the tool change, tool path,

machining parameters, and coolant usage without further complex manipulations.

2.2 Cutting Tool

2.2.1 Geometry of End Mill

One important way to classify cutting tools is via machining process. There are tools such

as turning tools, cutoff tools, milling cutters, drill bits, reamers, taps, and many other

cutting tools that are named for the operation in which they are used. Each of the tools

has its own tool geometry, and in some cases are quite unique. Cutting tools can be divided

into single point tools and multiple-cutting-edge tools. Single-point tools are used in

turning, boring, shaping, and planning. Multiple-cutting-edge tools are used in drilling,

reaming, tapping, milling, broaching, and sawing. Many of the principles that are applied

to single-point tools could also be applied to other cutting-tool types. This is due to the

fact that the mechanism of chip formation is basically the same for all machining

operations.

Most multiple-cutting-edge tools are used in machining operations in which the

tool is rotated. Primary examples are drilling and milling. On the other hand, broaching

and several sawing operations (hack sawing and band sawing) would use multiple-

cutting-edge tools that could operate in a linear motion. Other sawing operations (circular

sawing) would use rotating saw blades. The major types of milling cutters are as follows:

11

• End milling cutters - an end milling cutter looks like a drill bit. Nevertheless, close

inspection indicates that it is designed for primary cutting with its peripheral teeth

rather than its end. (A drill bit cuts only on its end as it penetrates into the work.)

End mills are designed with square ends, ends with radii, and ball ends. End mills

can be used for face milling, profile milling and pocketing, cutting slots,

engraving, surface contouring, and die sinking. The major part of the end mill is

as illustrated in Figure 2.2.

• Face milling cutters - These are designed with teeth that cut on both the periphery

as well as the end of the cutter. Face milling cutters can be made of HSS, or they

can be designed to use cemented carbide inserts.

• Plain milling cutters - These are used for peripheral or slab milling. It has a

cylindrical shape with several rows of teeth. The cutting edges are usually oriented

at a helix angle to reduce impact on entry onto the work, and these cutters are

called helical milling cutter.

• Form milling cutters - These are peripheral milling cutters in which the cutting

edges have a special profile that is to be imparted to the work. An important

application is in gear making, in which the form milling cutter is shaped to cut the

slots between adjacent gear teeth, thereby leaving the geometry of the gear teeth.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2: The main parts of the end mill (a) Side view, (b) Bottom View

DISH

ANGLE

PRIMARY ANGLE (SIDE)

RAKE ANGLE

WEB

TOOTH HEIGHT

TOOTH WIDTH

CORE DIAMETER

SECONDARY ANGLE

(SIDE)

GASH ANGLE

HELIX ANGLE

PRIMARY LAND WIDTH

12

Dish angle – At the end of cutting edge the angle is formed and a plane perpendicular to

the cutter axis. The flat surface is produced by dish from the cutter.

Gash angle – The gash feature relief angle.

Helix Angle – A line tangent to the helix formed by the angle and a cutting edge or a

plane through the axis of the cutter where a helical cutting edge from axis

of cylindrical cutter contained a plane

Rake – At a given point and a reference plane or line, there is an angular relationship

between the tooth face and a tangent to the tooth face which we call rake. The

surface of the end mill has an angular feature

Axial rake – A line parallel or tangent to the tooth face and a plane passing

through the axis form the angle.

Effective rake – The rake angle influencing the chip formation which is measured

normal to the cutting edge. The effective rake angle is mostly

influenced by the axial and radial rake only when corner angles

are involved.

Helical rake – Helical and axial rake can be used interchangeably for most

situation. It is the indication of the tooth face with reference to a

plane through the cutter axis.

Negative Rake – The initial contact between tool and workpiece which cause

a negative rake at a point or line on the tooth other than the

cutting edge.

Positive Rake – The initial contact between the cutter and the workpiece which

form a positive rake at the cutting edge. The cutting edge leads

to rake surface.

2.2.2 Classification and Properties of Cutting Tool Material

Cutting tool materials constitute a special group of tool materials because they have to

withstand extreme process conditions specifically for cutting, i.e. high temperature, high

13

contact stresses, rubbing on the workpiece surface by fast moving chip. Consequently,

cutting tool materials must have certain properties which depend on the type of machining

operations. Thus, workpiece material being machined and overall thermomechanical

process conditions commonly include the following:

• High hardness at elevated temperatures (hardness at high temperature) to resist

abrasive wear

• High deformation and resistance to prevent the cutting edge from plastic

deformation under high stresses and elevated temperatures during chip formation

• High fracture toughness to resist edge micro-chipping and breakage especially

during interrupted cutting

• Chemical inertness (low chemical affinity or high chemical stability) with respect

to workpiece material to protect against heat-affected wear types, i.e. diffusion,

chemical and oxidation wear

• High thermal conductivity to reduce temperature near the cutting edge (the cool

edge of the tool)

• High fatigue resistance for tools suffering from peaked mechanical loads

• High thermal shock resistance which naturally follows the mechanical shock

• High stiffness required to maintain accuracy

• Adequate lubricity (low friction) to increase welding resistance and to prevent

seizure (built-up edge formation)

It should be noted that all properties are with respect to an ideal tool material and in

practice no single material exhibits all of the desired properties mentioned above.

Moreover, some of the desired properties are mutually exclusive, for example hardness

and toughness. The main classes of tool materials currently in use include high speed

steels (HSS) and cobalt enriched high-speed steels (HSS-Co), sintered tungsten carbides

(WC), cermets, ceramics (aluminas and silicon nitrides), super-/ultra-hard materials such

as polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) and polycrystalline diamond (PCD). Figure

2.3 shows the global use of the main cutting tool materials based on a 'Technology

Forecast 2005' by Kennametal, USA (Trent & Wright, 2000). It can be seen through this

14

pie diagram that currently CVD and PVD coated carbide tools are the commonly used

materials in manufacturing sector (about 53% of the total usage).

Figure 2.3: Estimated global use of the main cutting material in year 2005 (Trent &

Wright, 2000)

2.3 Machining Performance

2.3.1 Cutting Force

In machining operation, cutting is a process of extensive stresses and plastic deformations.

The high compressive and frictional and contact stresses on the tool face with the work

piece face may result in substantial cutting force (Marinov, 2001). There are several

mathematical and graphical methods for determining the components of force in face

milling. The difficulties involved are the change in the chip forming geometry and chip

thickness during the cutter revolution for each tooth.

The force components can be measured during cutting tests with the aid of a device

which is known as dynamometers which could be mounted on the machine tools. During

operation, this device will record all the forces being exerted on the machine tool.

However, using this device requires an exact experiment and is a time-consuming way.

15

Thus, it is useful to develop a simple method to calculate the forces based on information

of the tool geometry and the work material (Heikkala, 1995)

In face milling, it is convenient to consider the components of force in tangential,

radial and axial directions of the cutter which is as shown in Figure 2.4. The tangential

component is called the power force ft and is the most important component. The radial

and axial components are called thrust forces fr and fa. The power force can be expressed

in a general form which is as shown in Equation 2.1.

𝑓𝑡 =𝑊∗ℎ𝑚∗𝐶𝑆

sin 𝐾 (2.1)

Based on the above equation, W is the depth of cut, hm is the undeformed-chip

thickness, K is the approach angle of the cutter and Cs is the cutting force per unit cross-

section-area of cut (N/mm2). This specific cutting force is a material parameter that is

defined by many factors, mainly the tool geometry, the work material and the

undeformed-chip thickness as well as other less significant cutting parameters in normal

milling processes.

Figure 2.4: The force components affecting the cutting edge: FT, power force; FR, thrust

force in the radial direction; FN, force component normal to the feed; and Fs, force

component parallel to the feed (Heikkala, 1995)

16

As observed in Figure 2.5, the cutting forces would increase drastically when

conducting machining on materials with hardness higher than approximately 45 HRC.

Therefore, larger negative rake angle and tool corner radius would influence the passive

force Fp by increasing it remarkably. This means that an absolute stable and rigid process

has to be provided. This requirement has to be specially kept when using super-hard tools

with smoothing, multi-radii geometry, so-called wiper tools (Davim, 2010).

Figure 2.5: The influence of steel hardness on cutting forces (vc = 90 m/min, f=

0.15 mm/rev, ap = 0.9 mm) (Davim, 2010).

For variation of cutting forces with time during plain up milling, it can be observed

the thickness of the chip to be cut by each tooth increases from zero to a certain maximum

value and decreases to zero again. This means that the cutting forces will vary in the same

trend. Figures 2.6 shows typical changes in peripheral cutting force for up milling using

a cutter with straight teeth. Such diagrams are valid for situations when the contact angle

is smaller than the angular pitch of the cutter teeth. Thus, there is always only one tooth

cutting at a time. Periodic variations of forces cause vibrations, which may lead to chatter.

A better uniformity of tooth loading and quick work could be obtained by increasing the

number of teeth cutting at one time or by using helical teeth (El-Hofy, 2014).

17

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.6: Variation of cutting force with time during up milling using (a) single tooth

cutting at a time (b) two teeth cutting at a time (El-Hofy, 2014)

There are many factors that influence and affect the cutting forces during the

machining. These factors are classified according to the material of workpiece, tool

material, tool shape and machining conditions which is as shown in Figure 2.7.

Rake angle: An increase in the value of rake angle will decrease the cutting forces

and power. This is explained by the degree of plastic deformation which decreases at

lower rake angles.

Cutter diameter: The forces and power would decrease due to the reduction of

thickness of the chip hm. Despite the increase of ks, the decrease of chip area hmxbw

decreases the forces and power (Kaczmarek, 1976).

Number of teeth: For the same feed/tooth, Sz, the total resistance may increase or

the number of teeth cutting simultaneously, Ze, may increase.

Cutting edge radius and wear: The forces and power would increase with the

increase of edge radius and wear.

18

Figure 2.7: Factors affecting milling forces.

2.3.2 Cutting Temperature

In metal cutting process, the tool which performs the cutting action is by overcoming the

shear strength of the workpiece material. This generates a large amount of heat in the

workpiece and may often result in a highly localised thermomechanical coupled

deformation in the shear zone. Temperatures in the cutting zone could considerably affect

the stress–strain relationship, fracture and the flow of the workpiece material. Generally,

increasing the temperature would decrease the strength of the workpiece material and

thus, increase its ductility. It is now assumed that nearly all the work done by the tool and

the energy input during the machining process are converted into heat (Abukshim et al.,

2006). The main regions where heat is generated during the orthogonal cutting process is

as shown in Figure 2.8

Firstly, heat is generated in the primary deformation zone due to plastic work done

at the shear plane. The local heating in this zone would result in a very high temperature.

Thus, it would soften the material and allow greater deformation. Secondly, heat is

generated in the secondary deformation zone due to the work done in the chip deformation

and overcoming the sliding friction at the tool-chip interface zone. Next, the heat

generated in the tertiary deformation zone, at the tool workpiece interface is due to the

work done to overcome friction. This occurs at the rubbing contact between the tool flank

Workpiece material

Microstructure

Hardness

Strength

Cutting Conditions

Feed rate

Depth of cut

Cutting speed

Width of cut

coolant

Tool material and shape

Rake angle

Helix angle

Edge radius and wear

Cutter diameter

Number of teeth

Milling

Forces

19

face and the newly machined surface. Heat generation and temperatures in the primary

and secondary zones are highly dependent on the cutting conditions while heat generation

in the tertiary zone is strongly influenced by tool flank wear. In summary, the power

consumption and the heat generation in metal cutting processes are dependent on a

combination of the physical and chemical properties of the workpiece material and cutting

tool material, cutting conditions as well as the cutting tool geometry.

Figure 2.8: Source of heat generated in orthogonal cutting process (Komanduri & Hou,

2001).

Thermal consideration of hard machining processes is very important for tool wear

mechanisms and heat penetration into the subsurface layer. This would lead to the

formation of the white layers as well as determining the distribution of the residual

stresses. It is strongly agreed by various researchers that the cutting temperature in hard

machining depends not only on the cutting conditions but also on the hardness of the

workpiece material. There is a close relation between the tool temperature and the

hardness of the work material used. Thus, the cutting speed would cause a substantial

increase of the temperature. For a higher range of hardness, an increase of the material

hardness leads to an increase of the cutting force. With the increase in cutting force, the

cutting energy becomes higher and this would result in elevated temperatures.

As shown in Figure 2.9, as the cutting speed increases, a larger proportion of the

heat generated is carried away by the chip. Thus, less heat goes into the workpiece. When

20

cutting speed increases, the time in which the heat fluxes into the workpiece and the tool

is shortened (Grzesik & Nieslony, 2004). For example, at the cutting speed of 150 m/min,

75-80% of heat is transported by the chip, 10-15% is conducted into the tool, and the

remaining 5-10% is conducted into the workpiece. As a result at extremely high cutting

speeds characteristic for high speed machining, the majority of the heat being generated

is evacuated with chips and the cutting temperature diminishes substantially.

Figure 2.9: Percentage of the heat generated going into the workpiece, tool and

chip, as a function of cutting speed (Grzesik & Nieslony, 2004)

2.3.3 Surface Roughness

The surface roughness is related to all those irregularities which form surface relief. They

are conventionally defined within the area where deviations of form and waviness are

eliminated. It is also defined as a parameter that shows the surface finish quality of the

workpiece or tool. The setup of cutting parameter such as cutting speed, Vc, depth of cut,

d and feed rate, fr can affect the surface finish of a machined workpiece. When tool wear

reaches a certain value, increasing the cutting force, vibration and cutting temperature

would deteriorate the surface integrity. Thus, there would be greater dimension error than

the tolerance (Qehaja et al., 2015). The selection of tools also gives an impact on surface

roughness. Surface roughness is the most frequently investigated characteristic of hard

21

machining processes, mainly due to the continuous competition between hard turning and

grinding, as well as various appropriate data which can be found in numerous references

(Klocke & Kratz, 2005).

These data deal with different grades of hardened steels (alloy, bearing, tool and

cold-work steels) are mostly used in the automotive and die/mould industries. In

machining operation, the surfaces which are fine and smooth as well as without any

unwanted surface condition are preferred. The surface roughness of the workpiece can be

measured by a device called surface finish tester. This device will scan the surface of the

workpiece using a highly sensitive sensor to check the surface texture (Hashimoto et al.,

2006).

The measurement and interpretation of surface roughness can be quite complex

and sometimes controversial. Two surfaces may have the same roughness value, as

measured by a profilometer, but their topography may be different. However, surface

roughness can be measured by various parameters of indices. The various parameters

which collectively assist to build up an accurate picture of the surface is shown in Figure

2.10. In this work, the index, Ra was used to measure the surface roughness of the

machined surface. It is described as Ra (centre line average), which is also known as the

centre line average, CLA (British) and AA, arithmetic average (American). Based on the

schematic illustration which is as shown in Figure 2.9, Ra is the arithmetic mean of the

departures “Y “of the profile from the mean line. It is normally determined as the mean

results of several consecutive sampling lengths “Ls ". Ra presented in the formula below

is in micron meter.

𝑅𝑎 = 1

𝐿𝑠∫ |𝑌|𝑑𝑋

𝐿𝑠

0 (2.2)

22

Figure 2.10: Common surface roughness parameters

Ra (centre line average)

Rv (Lowest valley from the mean line)

Rp (highest peak from mean line)

Rt (maximum peak to valley height within assessment length)

There are many factors that influence the surface finishing in end milling. During

machining, there are several machine variables that play important roles which could

influence the outcome of the machining. One of the variables is cutting speed. At low

cutting speeds, the shear angle is low and thus, cutting forces are high (Marinov, 2001).

Furthermore, each section of the workpiece is in contact with the cutting tool for a

relatively long period of time. Both these conditions would encourage built up edge which

may lead to tearing and galling (König & Erinski, 1983). Thus, surface finishing would

decrease at low cutting speed. Due to an increase in temperature and consequently

decrease of frictional stress at the rake face at higher cutting speed, the tendency towards

built up edge formation weakens. This effect is beneficial for surface finish. At a relatively

small cutting speed, the built-up edge does not form on account of the cutting temperature

when it is too low. As the speed increased, conditions become more favorable for

formation of built-up edge. However, when the cutting speed is increased further, the

built-up edge size starts decreasing owing to increased tool temperature. Finally, at a

sufficiently high speed, the built-up edge disappears altogether and surface finish becomes

almost insensitive to cutting speed.

Other than cutting speed, feed also plays an important role to produce a smooth

surface. The ideal surface roughness is mainly dependent on feed. It is found that surface

roughness would increase with the increase of feed (Alauddin et al., 1996) (Alauddin, El-

Rt

Rp

Rv

23

Baradie, & Hashmi, 1996). The height of roughness (height of the peaks and the depth of

valleys of feed marks) are proportional to the square of the feed per insert. Thus, if the

feed per insert is reduced by half, roughness will be reduced by 1/4 of its previous value.

It is well known that if axial depth of cut increases, then cutting forces would also increase.

Therefore, there is a tendency for deflection, vibration and chatter in the work-tool system.

Previous researchers have shown that surface roughness would increase as the axial depth

of cut increases (Kumar, 2013). Surface error profiles have been studied in end milling as

a function of axial depth of cut where it is shown that an increase in depth of cut would

cause deflections of the cutter. Thus, surface profile would deteriorate due to the

deflection of the cutter. Therefore, an increase in axial depth of cut tends to increase the

surface irregularities.

2.3.4 Tool Wear

The damages of a cutting tool are influenced by the stress state and temperature of the

tool surfaces, which in turn would depend on the cutting mode. For example, in turning,

milling or drilling processes, the cutting conditions and the presence of cutting fluid and

its type would affect the tool wear. In machining, the tool damage mode and the rate of

damage are very sensitive to changes in the cutting operation and the cutting conditions.

To minimise machining cost, it is necessary to find the most suitable tool and

combination of work materials for a given machining operation. It is important to predict

the tool life as well. Tool damages can be classified into two groups which include wear

and fracture, by means of its scale and how it progresses.

Unfortunately, in practice these two groups of tool damage are not clearly

distinguished. Wear is the loss of material which usually progresses continuously on an

asperity or micro-contact, or smaller scale that could be down to molecular or atomic

removal mechanisms. As for fracture (failure), it is a continuous spectrum of damage

scales from micro-wear (for example, micro-chipping) to gross fracture (catastrophic

failure).

Tool wear would lead to tool failure. According to several authors, the failure of

cutting tool occurs as premature tool failure (i.e. tool breakage) and progressive tool wear.

24

Generally, the wear of cutting tools depends on the tool material and geometry, workpiece

materials, cutting parameters (i.e. cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut), cutting fluids

and characteristics of machine-tool. Normally, wear is undesirable and should be

minimised. Tool wear occurs when the machine surfaces rub together and the loss of

material from one or both surfaces would result in a change of the desired geometry in the

system (Shaw, 2005). Tool wear adversely affects tool life as well as the quality of the

machined surface and its dimensional accuracy. Consequently, the economics of cutting

operation is affected. Figure 2.11 illustrates several types of failures and wears on cutting

tools.

Figure 2.11: Type of failures and wears on cutting tool

Wear on the flank of the cutting tool is caused by the friction between the newly

machined workpiece surface and the contact area on the tool flank. Due to the rigidity of

the workpiece, the worn area which is referred as the flank wear land, must be parallel to

the resultant cutting direction. The width of the wear land is usually taken as a measure

of the amount of wear and can be readily determined by means of toolmaker’s microscope

(Boothroyd and Knight, 2006). Tool wear often leads to tool failure. Generally, wear of

the cutting tools would depend on the tool material and geometry, workpiece materials,

89

REFERENCES

Abootorabi Zarchi, M. M., Razfar, M. R., & Abdullah, A. (2012). Investigation of the

Effect of Cutting Speed and Vibration Amplitude on Cutting Forces in Ultrasonic-

Assisted Milling. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B:

Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 226(7), 1185–1191.

Abukhshim, N. A., Mativenga, P. T., & Sheikh, M. A. (2006). Heat generation and

temperature prediction in metal cutting: A review and implications for high speed

machining. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 46(7–8), 782–

800.

Adnan, A. S., & Subbiah, S. (2010). Experimental investigation of transverse vibration-

assisted orthogonal cutting of AL-2024. International Journal of Machine Tools and

Manufacture, 50(3), 294–302.

Ahmed, N., Mitrofanov, A. V., Babitsky, V. I., & Silberschmidt, V. V. (2006). Analysis

of material response to ultrasonic vibration loading in turning Inconel 718. Materials

Science and Engineering A, 424(1–2), 318–325.

Alauddin, M., El-Baradie, M. a., & Hashmi, M. S. J. (1996). Optimization of Surface

Finish in End Milling Inconel 718. Journal of Algorithms, 56, 54–65.

Astashev, V. K., & Babitsky, V. I. (1998). Ultrasonic cutting as a nonlinear (vibro-impact)

process. Ultrasonics, 36(1–5), 89–96.

Azghandi, B. V., Kadivar, M. A., & Razfar, M. R. (2016). An Experimental Study on

Cutting Forces in Ultrasonic Assisted Drilling. Procedia CIRP, 46, 563–566.

Babitsky, V. I., Mitrofanov, A. V., & Silberschmidt, V. V. (2004). Ultrasonically assisted

turning of aviation materials: Simulations and experimental study. In Ultrasonics

(Vol. 42, pp. 81–86).

Barr, M. (2002). Introdcution to Closed-Loop Control.

90

Brehl, D. E., & Dow, T. A. (2008). Review of vibration-assisted machining. Precision

Engineering, 32(3), 153–172.

Childs, T., Maekawa, K., Obikawa, T., & Yamane, Y. (2000). Chip formation

fundamentals. Metal Machining, (1878), 35–80.

Davim, J. P. (2010). Surface integrity in machining. Surface Integrity in Machining.

Davim, J. P. (2013). Machining and Machine - Tools.

Daymi, A., Boujelbene, M., Salem, S. Ben, Hadj Sassi, B., Torbaty, S., & Sassi, B. H.

(2009). Effect of the cutting speed on the chip morphology and the cutting forces

MANUFACTURING AND PROCESSING OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 78,

1(2), 77–83.

Ding, H., Chen, S., & Cheng, K. (2010). Optimization Design of Two Dimensional

Vibrating Platforms Using Dual Flexure Hinge Structure. Advances in Functional

Manufacturing Technologies, 33, 181–184.

El-Hofy, H. (2014). Metal cutting operations and terminology. Machining processes,

Conventional and Nonconventional.

Erli, H. J., Marx, R., Paar, O., Niethard, F. U., Weber, M., & Wirtz, D. C. (2003). Surface

pretreatments for medical application of adhesion. Biomedical Engineering Online,

2, 15.

Esteves Correia, A., & Paulo Davim, J. (2011). Surface roughness measurement in turning

carbon steel AISI 1045 using wiper inserts. Measurement: Journal of the

International Measurement Confederation, 44(5), 1000–1005.

Gao, G. F., Zhao, Y. Y., & Ma, X. H. (2012). Research on Tool Wear and Surface

Characteristics in Ultrasonic Milling Carbon Fibre Reinforced Carbon Composite.

Advanced Materials Research, 497, 299–303.

Givan, D. a. (2014). Precious Metals for Biomedical Applications. Precious Metals for

Biomedical Applications.

Groover, M. P. (2013). Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing:Materials, Processes,

and Systems. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling (Vol. 53).

Grzesik, W., & Nieslony, P. (2004). Prediction of friction and heat flow in machining

incorporating thermophysical properties of the coating-chip interface. Wear, 256(1–

2), 108–117.

91

Gziut, O. (2015). Impact of Depth of Cut on Chip Formation in Az91Hp Magnesium,

9(26), 49–56.

Hashimoto, F., Guo, Y. B., & Warren, A. W. (2006). Surface integrity difference between

hard turned and ground surfaces and its impact on fatigue life. CIRP Annals -

Manufacturing Technology, 55(1), 81–84.

Haudrechy, P., Foussereau, J., Mantout, B., & Baroux, B. (1993). Nickel release from 304

and 316 stainless steels in synthetic sweat. Comparison with nickel and nickel-plated

metals. Consequences on allergic contact dermatitis. Corrosion Science, 35(1–4),

329–336.

Heikkala, J. (1995). Determining of cutting-force components in face milling. Journal of

Materials Processing Tech., 52(1), 1–8.

Ibrahim, M. R., Rahim, Z., Rahim, E., Tobi, L., Cheng, K., & Ding, H. (2017). An

Experimental Investigation of Cutting Temperature and Tool Wear in 2 Dimensional

Ultrasonic Vibrations Assisted Micro-Milling, 7005(January), 2–6.

Ibrahim, R., Rafai, N. H., Rahim, E. A., & Cheng, K. A. I. (2015). A Performance Of 2

Dimensional Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling In Cutting Force Reduction , On

Aluminium Al6061.

Jamshidi, H., & Nategh, M. J. (2013). Theoretical and experimental investigation of the

frictional behavior of the tool-chip interface in ultrasonic-vibration assisted turning.

International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 65, 1–7.

Kaczmarek, J., Principles of Machining by Cutting, Abrasion and Erosion, Peter

Peregrines, Stevenage, U.K., 1976

Klocke, F., & Kratz, H. (2005). Advanced Tool Edge Geometry for High Precision Hard

Turning. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 54(1), 47–50.

Ko, J. H., Shaw, K. C., Tan, S. W., & Lin, R. (2012). Surface Quality Improvement in

Meso-scale Milling with Spindle Axial Directional Ultrasonic Vibration Assistance.

Advances in Abrasive Technology Xv, 565, 508–513.

Komanduri, R., & Hou, Z. . (2001). A review of the experimental techniques for the

measurement of heat and temperatures generated in some manufacturing processes

and tribology. Tribology International, 34(10), 653–682.

König, W., & Erinski, D. (1983). Machining and Machinability of Aluminium Cast

92

Alloys. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 32(2), 535–540.

Kumar, M. C.---V. S.---R. G.---S. (2013). To Estimate The Range Of Process Parameters

For Optimization Of Surface Roughness & Material Removal Rate In CNC Milling.

International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology, 4(10), 4556–4563.

Kumar, M. N., Kanmani Subbu, S., Vamsi Krishna, P., & Venugopal, A. (2014).

Vibration assisted conventional and advanced machining: A review. Procedia

Engineering, 97, 1577–1586.

Liu K, Li XP, Rahman M, Liu XD (2004) Study of ductile mode cutting in grooving of

tungsten carbide with and without ultrasonic vibration assistance. Int J Adv Manuf

Technol 24:389–394

Liu, C.S., Zhao, B., Gao, G.F., Jiao, F., 2002. Research on the characteristics of the cutting

force in the vibration cutting of a particle-reinforced metal matrix composites

SiCp/Al. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 129, 196–199.

Marinov, V. R. (2001). Hybrid analytical-numerical solution for the shear angle in

orthogonal metal cutting - Part I: Theoretical foundation. International Journal of

Mechanical Sciences, 43(2), 399–414.

Maurotto, A., Muhammad, R., Roy, A., & Silberschmidt, V. V. (2013). Enhanced

ultrasonically assisted turning of a ??-titanium alloy. In Ultrasonics (Vol. 53, pp.

1242–1250).

Moriwaki, T., & Shamoto, E. (1995). Ultrasonic Elliptical Vibration Cutting. CIRP

Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 44(1), 31–34.

Moriwaki, T., Shamoto, E., & Inoue, K. (1991). Ultra-precision diamond turning of

stainless steel by applying ultrasonic vibration. Seimitsu Kogaku Kaishi/Journal of

the Japan Society for Precision Engineering, 57(11), 1983–1988.

Moriwaki, T., Shamoto, E., & Inoue, K. (1992). Ultraprecision Ductile Cutting of Glass

by Applying Ultrasonic Vibration. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 41(1),

141–144.

Muhammad, R., Ahmed, N., Demiral, M., Roy, A., & Silberschmidt, V. V. (2011).

Computational Study of Ultrasonically-Assisted Turning of Ti Alloys. Advanced

Materials Research, 223, 30–36.

M. Jin, M. Murakawa, Development of a practical ultrasonic vibration cutting tool system,

93

J. Mat. Process. Technol. 113 (2001) 342–347.

Nath, C., Rahman, M., & Andrew, S. S. K. (2007). A study on ultrasonic vibration cutting

of low alloy steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 192–193, 159–165.

Niinomi, M. (2002). Recent metallic materials for biomedical applications. Metallurgical

and Materials Transactions A, 33(3), 477–486. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-002-

0109-2

Ning, Y., Rahman, M., & Wong, Y. S. (2001). Investigation of chip formation in high

speed end milling. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113(1–3), 360–367.

Nosouhi, R., Behbahani, S., Amini, S., & Khosrojerdi, M. R. (2014). An Experimental

Study on the Cutting Forces, Surface Roughness and the Hardness of Al 6061 in 1D

and 2D Ultrasonic Assisted Turning. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 680, 224–

227.

Oliaei, S. N. B., & Karpat, Y. (2016). Influence of tool wear on machining forces and tool

deflections during micro milling. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing

Technology, 84(9–12), 1963–1980.

Priarone, P. C., Rizzuti, S., Settineri, L., & Vergnano, G. (2012). Effects of cutting angle,

edge preparation, and nano-structured coating on milling performance of a gamma

titanium aluminide. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 212(12), 2619–

2628.

Pujana J, Rivero A, Celaya A, Lo’pez deLacalle LN (2009) Analysis of ultrasonic-assisted

drilling of Ti6A14V. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 49:500–508

Qehaja, N., Jakupi, K., Bunjaku, A., Bruçi, M., & Osmani, H. (2015). Effect of machining

parameters and machining time on surface roughness in dry turning process. In

Energy Procedia (Vol. 100, pp. 135–140).

Rahim, E. A., & Shariff, S. (2006). Investigation on Tool Life and Surface Integrity when

Drilling Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-5Al-4V-Mo/Fe. JSME International Journal Series C,

49(2), 340–345.

Rasidi, I. (2010). Vibration Assisted Machining : Control and Applications A thesis

submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Rasidi Ibrahim. Methodology,

(September).

Rasidi, I. I., Rafai, N. H., Rahim, E. A., Kamaruddin, S. A., Ding, H., & Cheng, K. (2015).

94

An investigation of cutting mechanics in 2 dimensional Ultrasonic Vibration assisted

milling toward chip thickness and chip formation. IOP Conference Series: Materials

Science and Engineering, 100(1).

Rasidi, I., Rahim, E. A., Ibrahim, A. A., Maskam, N. A., & Ghani, S. C. (2014). The

Effect on the Application of Coolant and Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Micro

Milling on Machining Performance. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 660, 65–69.

Shamoto, E., & Moriwaki, T. (1994). Study on Elliptical Vibration Cutting. CIRP Annals

- Manufacturing Technology, 43(1), 35–38.

Shamoto, E., & Moriwaki, T. (1999). Ultaprecision Diamond Cutting of Hardened Steel

by Applying Elliptical Vibration Cutting. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology,

48(1), 441–444

Shamoto, E., Suzuki, N., Moriwaki, T., & Naoi, Y. (2002). Development of Ultrasonic

Elliptical Vibration Controller for Elliptical Vibration Cutting. CIRP Annals -

Manufacturing Technology, 51(1), 327–330.

Shaw, M. C. (2005). Metal Cutting Principles–Oxford Series on Advanced

Manufacturing. Publ. Oxford University Press, New York (USA).

Shen, X. H., Zhang, J. H., Li, H., Wang, J. J., & Wang, X. C. (2012). Ultrasonic vibration-

assisted milling of aluminum alloy. International Journal of Advanced

Manufacturing Technology, 63(1–4), 41–49.

Shen, X. H., Zhang, J., Xing, D. X., & Zhao, Y. (2012). A study of surface roughness

variation in ultrasonic vibration-assisted milling. International Journal of Advanced

Manufacturing Technology, 58(5–8), 553–561.

Silberschmidt, V. V., Mahdy, S. M. A., Gouda, M. A., Naseer, A., Maurotto, A., & Roy,

A. (2014). Surface-roughness improvement in ultrasonically assisted turning. In

Procedia CIRP (Vol. 13, pp. 49–54).

Trent, E. M., & Wright, P. K. (2000). Metal Cutting. Vasa.

Wang, L.J., Zhao, J., 1987. Influence on surface roughness in turning with ultrasonic

vibration tool. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 27 (2), 181–190.

Weber, H., Herberger, J., & Pilz, R. (1984). Turning of Machinable Glass Ceramics with

an Ultrasonically Vibrated Tool. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 33(1),

85–87.

95

Xiang, D. H., Yue, G. X., Liu, H. T., & Zhao, B. (2012). Study on Surface Roughness in

Ultrasonic High-Speed Milling of SiCp/Al Composites. Materials Science Forum,

723, 214–218.

Xiao M, Sato K, Karube S, Soutome T (2003) The effect of tool nose radius in ultrasonic

vibration cutting of hard metal. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 43:1375–1382.

Zhong ZW, Lin G (2006) Ultrasonic assisted turning of an aluminium-based metal matrix

composite reinforced with SiC particles. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 27:1077–1081