Abdominal X-ray Radiological Signs Suzanne O’Hagan
Abdominal X-ray Radiological Signs
Suzanne O’Hagan
Lightbulb momenta moment of sudden inspiration, revelation, or recognition
Approach to AXR
• Bowel gas pattern
• Extraluminal air
• Soft tissue masses
• Calcifications
Normal AXR11th rib
Hepatic flexure
Gas in stomach
T12
Gas in caecum
Iliac crest
Femoral head
SI joint
Gas in sigmoid
Transverse colon
Splenic flexure
Psoas margin
Sacrum
Left kidney
Liver
Bladder
Gas pattern
• Stomach– Almost always air in stomach
• Small bowel– Usually small amount of air in
2 or 3 loops• Large bowel
– Almost always air in rectum and sigmoid
– Varying amount of gas in rest of large bowel
What is normal?
Normal fluid levels• Stomach
– Always (upright, decub)
• Small bowel– Two or three levels acceptable (upright, decub)
• Large bowel– None normally (functions to remove fluid)
Large vs small bowel
• Large bowel– Peripheral (except RUQ occupied by liver)– Haustral markings don’t extend from wall to wall
• Small bowel– Central– Valvulae conniventes extend across lumen and are
spaced closer together
Radiographic principles
Series of films for acute abdomen• Obstruction series/ Acute abdominal series/
Complete abdominal series
– Supine (almost always)– Upright or left decubitus (almost always)– Prone or lateral rectum (variable)– Chest, upright or supine (variable)
VIEW LOOK FOR
SUPINE ABDOMEN Bowel gas patternCalcificationsMasses
PRONE ABDOMEN Gas in rectosigmoidGas in ascending and descending colon
UPRIGHT ABDOMEN Free air, air-fluid levels
UPRIGHT CHEST Free air, lung pathology secondary to intraabdominal process
Acute abdominal seriesWhat to look for
Substitutes: Prone Lateral rectum Upright Left lateral decub Upright chest Supine chest
Obtaining views• Supine
– Patient on back, x ray beam directed vertically downward, casette posterior, x-ray tube anterior (AP)
• Prone– Patient on abdomen, x-ray beam directed
vertically downward, cassette anterior, x-ray tube posterior (PA)
• Upright– Patient stands or sits, x-ray beam directed
horizontally, cassette posterior, x-ray tube anterior (AP)
• Upright chest– Patient stands or sits, horizontal x-ray
beam, cassette anterior, x-ray tube posterior (PA)
1900s X-Ray-based fluoroscopy machine in which radiation is shot directly through the patient and into the doctor’s face.
Abnormal Gas Patterns
• Functional ileus– One or more bowel loops become aperistaltic usually
due to local irritation or inflammation• Localised “sentinel loops” (one or two loops)• Generalised (all loops of large and small bowel)
• Mechanical obstruction– Intraluminal or extraluminal
• Small bowel obstruction• Large bowel obstruction
3, 6, 9 RULE
Maximum Normal Diameter of bowelSmall bowel 3cmLarge bowel 6cmCaecum 9cm
Localised ileusKey features
• One or two persistently dilated loops of small or large bowel (multiple views)
• Often air-fluid levels in sentinel loops
• Local irritation, ileus in same anatomical region as pathology
• Gas in rectum or sigmoid• May resemble early SBO
Causes of Localised Ileusby location
SITE OF DILATED LOOPS CAUSERight upper quadrant CholecystitisLeft upper quadrant PancreatitisRight lower quadrant AppendicitisLeft lower quadrant DiverticulitisMid-abdomen Ulcer or kidney/ureteric calculi
Colon cut off sign
Explanation:
Inflammatory exudate in acute pancreatitis extends into the phrenicocolic ligament via lateral attachment of the transverse mesocolon
Infiltration of the phrenicocolic ligament results in functional spasm and/or mechanical narrowing of the splenic flexure at the level where the colon returns to the retroperitoneum.
Abrupt cutoff of colonic gas column at the splenic flexure (arrow). The colon is usually decompressed beyond this point.
Generalised ileusKey features
• Entire bowel aperistaltic/hypoperistaltic• Dilated small bowel and large bowel to
rectum (with LBO no gas in rectum/sigmoid)• Long air-fluid levels
CAUSE REMARK
*Postoperative Usually abdominal surgery
Electrolyte imbalance Diabetic ketoacidosis
* almost always
Generalised adynamic ileus
The large and small bowel are extensively airfilled but not dilated.
The large and small bowel "look the same".
Mechanical SBO
• Dilated small bowel
• Fighting loops (visible loops, lying transversely, with air-fluid levels at different levels)
• Little gas in colon, especially rectum
SBO Erect SBO Supine
Air fluid levels
Causes of Mechanical SBO
* May be visible on AXR
Adhesions
Hernia*
Malignancy
Gallstone ileus*
Intussesception
Inflammatory bowel disease
Step ladder appearance
• Loops arrange themselves from left upper to right lower quadrant in distal SBO
Coil spring sign
String of pearls sign
Considered diagnostic of obstruction (as opposed to ileus) and is caused by small bubbles of air trapped in the valvulae of the small bowel.
Stretch/slit sign
Slit of air caught in a valvulae, characteristic of SBO
Closed loop obstruction• Two points of same loop of bowel obstructed
at a single location• Forms a C or a U shape
– Term applies to small bowel, usually caused by adhesions
– Large bowel, called a volvulus
Crescent Sign
Caused by:
LUQ Soft tissue mass
OR
Head of intussusception in distal transverse colon
Double Bubble Sign
Duodenal Atresia
Mechanical LBO• Colon dilates from point
of obstruction backwards
• Little/no air fluid levels (colon reabsorbs water)
• Little or no air in rectum/sigmoid
Large bowel obstructionBowel loops tend not to overlap therefore possible to identify site of obstruction
Little or no gas in small bowel if ileocaecal valve remains competent*
* If incompetent, large bowel decompresses into small bowel, may look like SBO
Causes of Mechanical LBO
TUMOURVOLVULUSHERNIADIVERTICULITISINTUSSUSCEPTION
Note on volvulus
• Sigmoid colon has its own mesentry therefore prone to twisting
• Caecum usually retroperitoneal and not prone to twisting; 20% people have defect in peritoneum that covers the caecum resulting in a mobile caecum
VolvulusA volvulus always extends away from the area of twist.Sigmoid volvulus can only move upwards and usually goes to the right upper quadrant. Caecal volvulus can go almost anywhere.
Coffee Bean SignSigmoid volvulus
Massively dilated sigmoid loop
Hernia
Lateral decubitus of valueThe advantage is that there may be a greater chance of air entering the
herniated bowel because it is the least dependent part of the bowel in the supine position.
Apple core sign
• Radiologic manifestation of a focal stricture of the bowel usually at contrast material enema examination. The stricture demonstrates shouldered margins and resembles the core of an apple that has been partially eaten. The most common cause is an annular carcinoma of the colon.
Thumbprinting
The distance between loops of bowel is increased due to thickening of the bowel wall.
The haustral folds are very thick, leading to a sign known as 'thumbprinting.'
Lead pipe colon
• Shortening of colon secondary to fibrosis
• Loss of haustration
• Ulcerative colitis
Extraluminal air• TYPES
– Pneumoperitoneum/free air/intraperitoneal air
– Retroperintoneal air
– Air in the bowel wall (pneumatosis intestinalis)
– Air in the biliary system (pneumobilia)
Upright film best
• The patient should be positioned sitting upright for 10-20 minutes prior to acquiring the erect chest X-ray image.
• This allows any free intra-abdominal gas to rise up, forming a crescent beneath the diaphragm. It is said that as little as 1ml of gas can be detected in this way.
Free AirCauses
• Rupture of a hollow viscus– Perforated peptic ulcer– Trauma– Perforated diverticulitis (usually seals off)– Perforated carcinoma
• Post-op 5-7 days normal, should get less with successive studies *NOT ruptured appendix (seals off)
Signs of free air• Crescent sign• Chilaiditis sign• Riglers (and False Rigler’s)• Football sign• Falciform ligament sign• Triangle sign• Cupola sign• Lesser sac sign
Crescent Sign IIFree air under the diaphragm
Best demonstrated on upright chest x rays or left lat decub
Easier to see under right diaphragm
Chilaiditis sign
• May mimic air underthe diaphragm
• Look for haustral folds• Get left lat decub to
confirm
In patients who have cirrhosis or flattened diaphragms due to lung hyperinflation, a void is created within the upper abdomen above the liver. This space may be filled by bowel. If this bowel is air filled then it may mimic free gas.
Rigler’s Sign Bowel wall visualised on both sides due to intra and extraluminal airUsually large amounts of free airMay be confused with overlapping loops of bowel, confirm with upright view
False Rigler’s Sign
• The Rigler sign can sometimes be simulated by contiguous loops of bowel, whereby intraluminal air in one loop of bowel may appear to outline the wall of an adjacent loop, which results in a misdiagnosis of free air.
• Measure distance of interface if unsure
Football SIgn
Seen with massive pneumoperitoneum
Most often in children with necrotising enterocolitis
Paediatric Adult
In supine position air collects anterior to abdominal viscera
Falciform ligament sign
Normally invisible.
Supine film, free air rises over anterior surface of liver
Other patterns of air around liver
Doge’s Cap Sign
Inverted V sign
• On the supine radiograph, an inverted "V" may be seen over the pelvis in a patient with pneumoperitoneum.
• While in infants this is produced by the umbilical arteries, in adults it appears to be created by the inferior epigastric vessels
Continuous diaphragm sign
Sufficient free air, left and right hemi- diaphragmsappear continous
Lesser sac Sign Cupola Sign
Lesser sac sign
– (black arrows)
The lesser sac is positioned posterior to the stomach and is usually a potential space. There is free connection between the lesser sac and the greater sac through the foramen of Winslow
Cupola sign
– (white arrows)
Air superior to left lobe of liver
Double Bubble Sign
Cupola Sign
The term cupola comes from a dome such as this famous dome of the Duomo in Florence.
Air beneath the central tendon of the diaphragm
Triangle Sign
• The triangle sign refers to small triangles of free gas that can typically be positioned between the large bowel and the flank
Retroperitoneal Air• Recognised by:
– Streaky, linear appearance outlining retroperitoneal structures
– Mottled, blotchy appearance– Relatively fixed position
• May outline:– Psoas muscles– Kidneys, ureters, bladder– Aorta or IVC– Subphrenic spaces
Causes of retroperitoneal air
• Bowel perforation (appendix, ileum, colon)• Trauma (blunt or penetrating)• Iatrogenic• Foreign body• Gas producing infection
Pneumoretroperitoneum
• This patient has free air in the retroperitoneal space. The air is seen surrounding the lateral border of the right kidney (white arrow). There is other evidence of free gas including Rigler's sign.
• If you are not confident that the appearance is pneumoretroperitoneum, you can try an erect and decubitus view to see if the gas moves. If the gas is seen to move, it's not in the retroperitoneum.
Air in the bowel wall• Signs
– Best seen in profile producing a linear lucency that parallels the bowel
– Air en face has a mottled appearance resembling gas mixed with faeculent material
Causes of air in bowel wall• Primary Pneumatosis cystoides intestinalis (rare)
– usually affects left colon– Produces cyst-like collections of air in the submucosa or serosa
• Secondary– Diseases with bowel wall necrosis– Obstructing lesions of the bowel that raise intraluminal pressure
• Complications– Rupture into peritoneal cavity– Dissection of air into portal venous system
Pneumatosis intestinalis
• Intramural air, best appreciated in profile
Air in the biliary tree
• One or two tube-like branching lucencies in the RUQ, conform to location of major bile ducts
Causes
• “Normal” if Sphincter of Oddi incompetence• Previous surgery including sphincterotomy or
transplantation of CBD
• Pathology (uncommon)– Gallstone ileus: gallstone erodes through wall of GB into
the duodenum producing a fistula between the bowel and the biliary system.
– Stone impacts in small bowel = mechanical SBO. “ileus” misnomer
Biliary vs Portal Venous Air
• Portal venous air usually associated with bowel necrosis
• Air is peripheral rather than central
• Numerous branching structures
Soft tissue masses• Organomegaly
– Know normal landmarks
2 ways to identify soft tissue masses/organs:
– Direct visualisation of edges of structure– Indirect by displacement of bowel
CT, US and MRI have essentially replaced conventional radiography in the assessment of organomegaly and soft tissue masses
Location Pattern
Abdominal Calcifications
First exclude artefact
Kim Kardashian’s butt – real or artefact?
Location• Vascular• Liver• Gallbladder• Spleen• Pancreas• Lymph nodes• Adrenals • Kidneys• Ureters• Bladder• Prostate
Rim-like• Calcification that has occurred in the wall of a
hollow viscus
– Cysts • renal, splenic, hepatic
– Aneurysms • aortic, splenic, renal artery
– Saccular organs• Gallbladder• Urinary bladder
Calcified hydatid cysts
Linear/Track
• Calcification in walls of tubular structures
– Arteries– Fallopian tubes– Vas deferens– Ureter
Aortoiliac calcification
Chinese Dragon Sign
Calcified splenic artery
Calcified vas deferens
Floccular, Amorphous, Popcorn
• Formed in solid organ or tumour– Pancreas (chronic pancreatitis)– Leiomyomas of uterus– Ovarian cystadenomas– Lymph nodes– Adenocarcinomas of stomach, ovary, colon– Metastases– Soft tissue (previous trauma, crystal deposition)
Calcified enteric lymph nodes
Calcified fibroids
Calcified pancreas
Floccular
Lamellar or laminar
• Formed around a nidus inside hollow lumen
• Concentric layers due to prolonged movement of stone inside hollow viscus– Renal stones– Gallstones– Bladder stones
Bladder calculi
Lamellar
Renal calculiPelvicalyceal calcifications
Staghorn Calcification
Renal stones are often small, but if large can fill the renal pelvis or a calyx, taking on its shape which is likened to a staghorn.Tubular
Nephrocalcinosis
Uncommonly the renal parenchyma can become calcified.
This is known as nephrocalcinosis, a condition found in disease entities such as medullary sponge kidney or hyperparathyroidism.
Renal calculiParenchymal calcification
Flocculent
Putty Kidney
• "Putty kidney" – sacs of casseous, necrotic material (TB)
• Autonephrectomy – small, shrunken kidney with dystrophic calcification
Flocculent
Calcified gallstones
Lamellar
Conclusion
• Approach to AXR should include gas pattern, extraluminal air, soft tissue and calcifications
• Named radiological signs are a useful way of remembering, identifying and reporting on films
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1369-1384• Young, L. Radiology Cases in Paediatric Emergency Medicine. Vol 1 Ca 2. The Target, Crescent and
Absent Liver Edge Signs.• Raymond, B et al. Radiographics: Classic signs in uroradiology. RSN 2004• http://www.swansea-radiology.co.uk Radiology Teaching Site. Introduction to abdominal radiography• Mussin, R. Postgrad Med J 2011: 87:274-287. Gas patterns on plain abdominal radiographs• http://www.radiologymasterclass.co.uk/tutorials/abdo/abdo_x-ray_abnormalities• Mettler: Essentials of Radiology, 2nd Ed, 2005• http://www.learningradiology.com/radsigns• Muharram Food signs in radiology. International Journal of Health Sciences Vol 1 No 1. Jan 2007.
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