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CHAPTER 11

A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR CONSTRUCTS

USED IN THE STUDY

2.1 Process Approach in the Teaching of Science

2.1.1 Significance of Process Approach in the Teaching of Science

2.1.2 Theoretical Framework of Scientific Processes

2.1.3 Historical Retrospect of the Development of Science Processes

2.1.4 Classification of Science Processes

2.1.5 Process Models

2.1.6 Major Curricular Innovations in Science

2.1.7 Proress Approach: Educational Implications

2.2 Personalit) Variables

2.3 Personal Variables

18

A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR CONSTRUCTS USED IN THE STUDY

The present study is conceived basically around personality correlates

and process outcomes in basic science. The constructs have acquired precise

scientific meanings in modern psychological and educational literature.

An attempt has been made here to examine the theoretical basis behind the

major constructs with a view to obtaining a better understanding of the nature

of the variables.

2.1 PROCESS APPROACH IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE

Learning of Science is not merely acquiring scientific knowledge. Nor it

is blindly accepting what is stated in the book and keeping the knowledge in

memory alone. Instead the students are to be made able to acquire scientific

knowledge by the processes of thinking, analysing and interpreting observed

facts.

In other words, the students have to go through the thinking process as

the original investigator did. Going by the same rule, it is apparent that

teaching of science is nt,t merely pouring down knowledge into the intellect of

the students. A new approach capable of triggering the processes of thinking,

analysing and inferring in the students' mind is needed. Process approach is

designed to attain these objectives in teaching science. Or. process approach

presents the instruction in science in intellectually stimulating and scientifically

authentic way. Here emphasis is given to the ways of acquiring knowledge

rather than to the content. This is a shift from the traditional approach. As a

result, outlook on different aspects of instructional practice in science teaching,

19

the designing of instructional objectives and the instructional strategies has

changed totally, as also the method of evaluating the resultant of these

processes, i.e. the process outcomes of science-teaching.

Since man is a thinking animal, the important goal of instruction in

science is to develop the potent skills in the students. Process approach

demands of the students to utilize their intellect and apply their ability to

engage themselves in thinking and reasoning more dynamically.

What is actually attained by the process approach is that the students

are initiated into being scientific investigators themselves. It is also expected

to help the students become better consumers of scientific knowledge. Further

it would enable them to make original scientific contributions to science.

2.1.1 Significance of Process Approach in the Teaching of Science

The vast explosion of scientific knowledge has forced science educators

to be highly choosy in respect of what is to be taught and the behavioural

outcomes expected. The hundreds of nev: developments which occur in

different scientific disciplines make it difficult or impossible to give them

adequate representation in any science curricula. What is today acct pted as

the latest scientific knowledge soon gets outdated or gets replaced by radically

new assumptions and principles.

In many countries attempts have been made to reorient the curriculum,

so as to give due importance to processes in science education. The major

goals of these curricular innovations can be classified as

20

a. The development of curricular materials and science programmes that

are consistent with current knowledge of science.

b. The development of curricular materials and science programmes

which provide the student with an understanding of the process of

science (AAAS. 1994).

The process approach has many-sided significance. It stimulates

autonomous recognition of relationship, broadens the background knowledge

for current and future use, reinforces the skills and motivates the pupils

towards self-education. Wellington (1990) argued that science education

should focus on the 'what', 'how' and 'why' of knowledge. .

a. Knowledge of 'what' focuses on fads, happenings and phenomena.

b. Knowledge of 'how' focuses on skills, processes and abilities.

c. Knowledge of 'why' focuses on explanations, models, analogies,

theories etc.

Donelly (1985) suggests the conditions for having a practical,

theoretical role for science processes in the science curricula and its

implementation. They are:

a. The processes must be defined at some minimum level of coherence.

b. Their connection if any, with pupil's intellectual skills must be

ascertained.

c. Method for the development of the relevant skills must be explored.

Some science educators (Simpson, 1987) raise strong arguments for a

process-led science curriculum (Bhatt, 1988). They question the relevance of

the teaching of facts in the situation where information is generated in gigantic

amounts. Human beings are information processors rather than information

absorbers, and active learning involves the processing of new information

according to the learners' previous experiences, needs, preconceived ideas,

knowledge and hypotheses. So in addition to the information skill, previous

ideas, experiences and hypotheses should be present in the learners' cognitive

structure.

A critical view on the major curricular innovations reveals that, for

effective teaching and learning of science, what is needed is a learning

method in which the processes and products are combined rather than

polarized. The knowledge of the product is useful in understanding the

processes of science and for concretizing the processes for pedagogical use.

But understanding of the processes is useful both for daily life as well as in

furthering scientific knowledge.

2.1.2 Theoretical Framework of Scientific Processes

The approach based on process may be somewhat new to school level

programme objectives, but its precursors have existed for sometime. Though

most of the refer( nces to test the construction are taken from the period of

1960s and 1970s, the assessment of the process or problem solving

component of science learning can be traced back much further. Champagne

and Nopfer (1977) reviewed reports and description of process oriented

problem solving that begins as early as 1916. In these early studies attempts to

measure knowledge of problem solving or the methods of science appear to

combine test of specific skills (e.g. arranging data in sequence) and of

scientific practice (e.g. suspending judgement). Theoretical analyses done by

22

Pearson (1911) Negal (1961) and Khun (1962) throw a significant light on the

understanding of the processes of science. Dressel ef a/. (1949) included

'scientific thinking', measured by a comprehensive examination on biological

sciences as an important component of objectives. The four elements of

scientific thinking were :

a. recognise and solve problems

b. recognise hypotheses and select methods for testing them

c. critically evaluate experimental procedures, data conclusions and

implications and

d. appraise real situations

One of the most accepted analyses of the thinking process is due to

Dewey (1910). He formulated his well known five steps in the process of

thinking, given below:

a. A felt difficulty

b. Its location and definition

c. Suggestions of possible solution

d. Development by reasoning of the bearings of sr ggestion

e. Further observations and experiments leading to its acceptance or

rejection.

Karl Pearson's (1937) steps of scientific inquiry include many of the

science processes. They are listed below:

a. the problem is identified,

b. observations pertinent to the problem are gathered

c. a hypothesis based on the observations is developed and stated

23

d. testable predictions of other related observable phenomena are

developed from the hypothesis

e. the hypothesis is tested through observations

f. as a result of empirical observations, the hypothesis is supported,

rejected or modified.

Good (1945) described the scientific method as a plan or procedure in

which a difficulty or situation is recognised, a survey made of available

information relative to the problem, a hypothesis set up concerning possible

solutions to difficulty, the hypothesis tested experimentally under controlled

conditions, the results collected, evaluated and verified, their implications

reviewed and the hypothesis either accepted or rejected. (In the latter event, a

new hypothesis may be formulated and the entire operation repeated).

In the early 1950s, Burmester (1953) developed a test focussing on

"some of the inductive aspects of scientific thinking" with the following

separate abilities:

Recognize problem, hypotheses, experimental conditions, and

conclusions

Delimit problems

Understand experimental methods

Organize data

Understand the relation of the facts to the selection of a problem

Interpret data and plan experiment to test a hypothesis

Evaluate conclusions in terms of reasonableness, sufficiency and

pertinent data; and

Make generalizations and assumptions.

24

After a brief period of germination, these objectives reappeared under

the label of "science processes."

Oburn (1956) consider that scientific investigation is directly or

indirectly concerned with problem solving, which consists of the following

steps:

a. sensing and defining problem

b. collecting evidence on problem

c. organising evidence on problem

d. interpreting evidence on problem

e . selecting and testing hypothesis

f . formulating conclusions

Burton eta/. (1960) provide a detailed analysis of the characteristics of

a person who thinks critically in problem solving. The steps in this process are:

a. recognises and defines problem

b. formulates adequate hypothesis

c. makes pertinent selections

d. draws valid conclusions

e. applies conclusions

A major factor in popularising the goals of the teaching of science has

been the development of the elementary school science programmeScience-

A Process Approach by the American Association for the Advancement of

Science (AAAS, 1968). They have given a classification of the basic and

integrated processes in science in terms of thirteen scientific skills with a brief

definition of each (details in classification of science processes).

As an aid to constructing examinations for Biological Science

Curriculum Study (BSCS) high school curriculum materials, Klinckmann

(1963) developed the BSCS Test Grid categories. One of these categories was

labelled "ability to use skills involved in understanding specific problems' with

eight sclence process subcategories.

Another major influence on the further curricular development in

science process goals was the classic National Science Teacher Association

(NSTA) of USA document-Theory into Action (1964), which placed

'processes' at par with 'conceptual schemes' as a framework on which science

curriculum should be based. Subsequently, National Assessment of Education

Progress (NAEP, USA, 1969) has included process goals as one of the four

major objectives of science programmes.

Anderson ef a/. (1970) describe science as 'an accumulation of

systematised facts'. The operational definition of science, they state, is as

follows: "It is the activity through which scientists solve problems by using

scientific method." The main steps of this activity are: a problem is stated; a

hypothesis is formulated; an experiment is conducted; data are collected; and

a conclusion is drawn.

According to Hurd (1971) science is an intellectual activib, which arises

from personal experience and takes place in the mind of man. There are

certain operational schemes in the field of science characterising its

investigative nature e.g. inquiry skills or processes of science. The processes

represent the intellectual means by which man inquires into nature, i.e.,

26

organises his observation; establishes data; focuses it on a problem: and this

seeks to interpret or explain the rational event.

Kneller (1971) considers that the actual process of scientific

investigation is based on a method, observation-hypothesis-deduction-check'.

Tennenbaum (1971) developed an instrument to assess the

achievement and diagnose the weakness in the use of scientific processes by

students in the seventh, eighth and ninth grades entitled 'Test of Science

Process' (TOSP). The test is based on the eight processes: observing,

comparing, classifying, quantifying, measuring, experimenting, inferring and

predicting.

UNESCO (1971) referring to process approach in science, makes the

following comments:

a. An emphasis on process implies a corresponding de-emphasis on

specific science content.

b. What is taught to children sf,ould resemble what scientists do - the

processes that they carry out in their scientific activities.

c. Processes are in a broad sense 'ways of processing information' -

intellectual skills. The processes are: observing, classifying, using

numbers, measuring, using space time relationship, communicating,

predicting, inferring, defining operationally, formulating hypothesis.

~nterpreting data, controlling variables and experimenting.

Klopfer (1971) presented a very exhaustive classification of the

objectives of science education based on categories of factual knowledge and

comprehension. process of scientific inquiry, application of scientific

27

knowledge and methods, manual skills, scientific attitudes and interests and

orientation. The major processes of scientific inquiry are: observing and

measuring, seeing a problem and seeking ways to solve it, interpreting data

and formulating generalisations, building, testing and revising a theoretical

model.

Another classification by Nay ef a/. (1971) conceives of scientific

inquiry as consisting of five major steps. They are: initiation, collecting of data,

processing of data, conceptualization of data and open endedness. They

classified process into seventeen main sub divisions and many minor sub

divisions. They included so many affective attributes and mental operations

such as communication, logical thought, critical attitude, creativity, intuition

etc.

Riley (1972) developed the Test of Science Inquiring Skills (TSIS) for

Vth grade students. The TSIS measured the skills of identifying and controlling

variable, interpreting data. predicting and inferring as defined by the science

curriculum study elementary science programme.

According to Streven and Kothari (1972) a number of conceptual

processes are involved in learning science. The processes are classifying,

measuring space-time relations, communicating. inferring, observing,

quantifying, abstraction making, model making, hypothesis making, listing,

theorising, predicting, replicating, extrapolating, generalizing etc.

According to Harry (1972), the process skills are observation,

description, classification, analysis, inference, measurement, prediction and

communication.

2.8

Esler (1973) describes the process of science as 'that which scientists

and children must d o to conduct scientific inquiry. An investigator must be a

good observer, he must be able to classify objects and ideas. The investigator

must be able to measure, to communicate his data to others, and to predict

from his data. He must name the variable, i.e. control variables in the

experiment. Other more sophisticated skills of this category are formulating

hypothesis and interpreting data'.

The nature of scientific research has also been analyzed by science

educators. One such analysis is due to Kerlinger. According to Kerlinger

(1973) scientific research is a process of reflective inquiry. Scientists go

through the different steps to solve a problem. The steps are troubled

situation, hypothesis, reasoning and deduction, observation test and

experiment. Kerlinger is of the view that the steps of scientific approach cannot

be neatly fixed.

Doran et a/. (1974) define the processes of science as observation:

measurement, classification, experiment, communication, prediction and

formulation of hypotheses, theories, laws and models.

Poppy and Wilson after an exhaustive scrutiny of the procedures used

in the various physical sciences, come to a broad generalization that scientific

method comprises of the following steps:

a. Defining the problem

b. Gathering controlled observation

c. Classifying and generalizing facts

d. Forming and testing the hypothesis

e. Forming theories from tested hypothesis (Bader, 1975)

29

Loretta and George (1976) describe the process abilities for lower

school grades (for 41h, 5th and 6th grades) as classification, inference, prediction

and hypothesis formation

Dowing (1978) identifies the elements of scientific thinking on the

following lines: purposeful observation; analysis-synthesis: selective recall;

hypotheses: verification by inference and experiment; reasoning (by different

models) and judgement.

Bhandula ef a/. (1979) suggest five processes as characterizing scientific

skills for primary classes. They are: observing, classifying, measuring,

communicating and recognising number relations.

Andrew (1980) classifies the abilities of scientific processes into six

skills:

a. Recognising and defining a problem

b. Formulating hypothesis

c. Collecting data

d Interpreting data

e. Evaluating hypothesis

f . Formulating generalizations

He again classifies these six skills into sixteen sub skills

Poulose (1987) describes three major components in scientific process

skills: initiation. manipulation and open-endedness. He also mentions its

seven process categories and 17 process sub categories for students entering

into the university.

30

Bhatt (1988) arranges the processes from observation to prediction in a

hierarchical pattern and he identifies that processes are cumulative in nature,

i.e. each process category is included in the next succeeding category.

Shepardson (1990) identifies student behaviour behind each phase of

the problem solving. These are:

a. Problem finding and refining phase

b. Research designing phase

c. Data collecting phase

d. Data analysing phase

e. Evaluating phase

UNESCO (1992) summarises the process skills of primary school

children as:

Observing

Raising questions

Hypothesizing

Predicting

Finding patterns and relationships

Communicating effectively

Designing and making

Devising and planning investigations

Manipulating materials and equipments effectively

Measuring and calculating

_ . . ,. .,

. ,, . ., ,. 1

28 ,.~, . 3 1

2.1.3 Historical Retrospect Science . . Processes

The assessment of techniques available for measuring the skills of

students with the processes of science has resulted in the development of

various theories and also the development of many new sophisticated

instruments for measuring scientific processes.

Many tests have been developed to measure the scientific process skills.

The details of various tests developed in the area are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1

H~storical Retrospect of the Development of Science Processes

Personfinstitution Year Level Description

developed

1911 Pearson not stated : Theoretical analysis of processes of science

1915 Stevens 8'" grade Introductory physical science programme

1935 Karl Pearson Secondary Steps in scientific inquiy school

1949 Dressel Secondary Elements of scientific thinking processes school

1949 Dunning I year college Certain aspects of scientific thinking Physics

Burmester

Monaghan

Cooley & Klopper

Klinckmann

Kastrinos

Watson & Glaser

Butts

Welch

Not stated

Not stated

Graduate level

Seconda y school

Seconday school

Not stated

Not stated

loth, i l l h and 12"' grade

I ~ductive aspects of scientific thinking

lhinking ability in science objective test

Test on understanding of science

BSCS Process Of Science Test (POST) 8 categories of understanding science problem

Critical thinking test. Relationship of methods of teaching advanced biology

Watson and Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA)

Evaluation of problem solving in science

Science Process Inventory (SPI) 90 items statement 'agree' or 'disagree'

PersodInstitution Year developed

Level

1 2 3

1967 Wisconsin Not stated

1967 Woodburn Secondary school

1968 Korth Not stated

1968 Walbesser H. H. Elementary school

1969 Hungerford & Junior H. S. Miles

1969 NAEP Not stated

1969 Wallace C. Not stated

1970 Diets & George For Gr.. 1, 11 & 111

1970 Weibesser & Carter Not stated

1971 Beard J. Not stated

1971 Klopfer Secondary school

1971 Morgan Middle school

1971 Nay, et al. Not stated

1971 Poel Secondary

1971 Tannenbaum 7 , 8 , 9

1972 Burns Teachers

1972 Riley 5'11

1973 IEA not stated

1975 Jacknicke Not stated

1975 Ludeman Elementary school

1975 McLeod Elementary school

1975 Van Bever 7"' grade

Description

4

Wiscosin inventory of science process. 9 3 items

An examination: Methods and procedures of science

Life Science Process Test (LSPT), 36 items MC.4

Process skill test with Science: A Process Approach

Scientific Observation and Comparison Skills (SOCS)

Science objectives: 10 abilities and skills in the procedure of science

ERIC science process test

Problem solving skills

Format of four integrated processes

Achievement test for two basic processes of AAAS

Elaborate table of specifications of scientific inquiry.

Science test for evaluation of process skills. 86 items diagnostic test

An inventoy of process in scientific inquiry

Critical thinking skilk as related to PSSC and non PSSC physics students

Test of science processes. 8 skills

Science process skills for teachers

Test of Science Inquiry Skills (TSIS)

Test in many science subjects - nature and method of science

Students outcomes in science content. process skill

Scientific process

4 processes group test

Mastery of selected science process skills

3 3

Description Person'lnstitution

developed ~

Y

Level

Welding Junior high school

4, 5. 6 grades

Scientific process of classification

Moliter & George Science Process Skill Test (SPST) skills of inference and verification - 18 items

To measure knowledge of PS or methods of science

Not stated

Nelsoi~ & Abraham Not stated Higher order science objectives in inquiry skills

Bowyer & Lin

Perez

Not stated

6''' grades

Four process tasks outcome study. SCIS

Perez Test of Science Process (PTSP) 8 processes 60 m. c. 60 minutes.

Andrew Seconday school

7 through 12

Process outcomes of seconda y school children

Dillashaw & R. Okey

Test of Integrated (science) Process Skills (TIPS), group test, m. c., 9 outcomes, 36 items, 25 minutes

Tobin & Capie Middle school,

College

Test of Integrated Science Process - 24 items (TISP)

Bhargava Higher secon- d a y classes

Cognitive process in science learning

Cox

Ross & Mev~~es

High school

Not stated

Science Process Competency Test (SPCT)

Seven experimental problem solving skills rn. c.

Shaw 6"' graders Integrated process, m. c. 4 Reliability coefficient K. R. 20 = 0.924

Hur Not stated 20 science process categories evaluating inquiy teaching approach

Sharmann et a1 Elementary teachers

Process Orientation Towards Science Scale (POTSS)

Khalwania

Pouiose

High school process skill test

University entrants

Test of Process Outcomes in Physics

Suresh Secondary school - 9"' standard

Test of Process Outcomes in Biology

UNESCO Primary school children

Process skills of primary school children

Celine Joseph 9"' standard Test of Process Outcomes in Physics

34

2.1.4 Classification of Science Processes

Process outcomes are the resultant effects of the processes adopted in

teaching whereas process is a series of activities performed to attain a specific

goal. In clearer terms the science process outcomes are the intellectual skills

attained by the students which help them perform scientific investigation.

These are attained as a result of the learning of science.

In fact process outcome is a measure of the efficacy of the processes.

It follows that by examining a class of outcomes the investigator would get a

better insight into the nature of the processes. So this investigator examined

some of the important classifications attempted by experts in the field, which

are given below.

2.1.4.1 Kjopfer 'k Cjassification of Outcomes in Science

Klopfer (1971) was an expert in the field. The investigator selected his

classification for the purpose of examining process outcomes. The bases for

his classification were categories of factual knowledge and comprehension,

process of scientific enquiry, application of scientific knowledge and methods,

manual skills, scientific attit Ides and interests, and orientation. This is given

below in terms of the categories and subcategories.

Table of Specification for Science Education

A.O. Knowledqe and Comprehension

A. 1. Knowledge of specific facts

A.2. Knowledge of scientific terminology

A.3. Knowledge of concepts of science

A.4.

A.5.

A.6.

A.7.

A.8.

A.9.

A.lO.

A . l l .

8 .0 .

B.1.

B.2.

8.3.

B.4.

B.5.

C.O.

C.1.

C.2.

C.3.

C.4.

D.O.

Knowledge of conventions

Knowledge of trends and sequences

Knowledge of classifications, categories and criteria

Knowledge of scientific techniques and procedures

Knowledge of scientific principles and laws

Knowledge of theories or major conceptual schemes

Identification of knowledge in a new context

Translation of knowledge from one symbolic form to another

Process of Scientific Enquiry I: Observina and Measuring

Observation of objects and phenomena

Description of observations using appropriate language

Measurement of objects and changes

Selection of appropriate measuring instruments

Estimation of measurements and recognition of limits in accuracy

Process of Scientific Enquiry 11: Seeinq a Problem and Seekina Wavs io

Solve it

Recognition of a problem

Formulation of a working hypothesis

Selection of suitable tests of a hypothesis

Design of appropriate procedure for performing experiments

Process of Scientific Enquiry 111: Interpretins Data and Formulatinq

Generalisations

Processing of experimental data

Presentation of data in the form of functional relationship

Interpretation of experimental data and observations

D.4. Extrapolation and interpolation

E.O. Process of Scientific Enauirv IV: Buildina, Testinq and Revisins a

Theoretical Model

E.1. Recognition of the need for a theoretical model

E.2. Formulation of a theoretical model to accommodate knowledge

E.3. Specification of relationships satisfied by a model

E.4. Deduction of a new hypothesis from a theoretical model

E.5. Interpretation and evaluation of tests of a model

E.6. Formulation of revised, refined, extended model

F.O. Aoplication of Scientific Knowledae and Methods

F.1. Application to new problems in the same field of science

F.2. Application to new problems in a different field of science

F.3. Application to problems outside of science (including technology)

G.O. Manual Skills

G.I. Development of skills in using common laboratory equipments

G.2. Performance of common laboratory techniques with care and safety

H.O. Attitudes and Interests

H. 1. Manifestation of favourable attitudes towards science and scientists

H.2. Acceptance of science enquiry as a way of thought

H.3. Adoption of scientific attitudes

H.4. Enjoyment of science learning experiences

H.5. Development of interests in science and science-related activities

H.6. Development of interest in pursuing a career in science

1.0. Orientation

1.1. Relationship among various types of statements in science

1.2. Recognition of the philosophical limitations and influence of scientific

enquiry

1.3. Hutorical perspective: Recognition of the background of science

1.4. Realization of the relationship among science, technology and

economics

1.5. Awareness of the social and moral implication of scientific enquiry and

its results

2.1.4.2 Processes of Science (Nay et al.)

Classification by Nay et al. (1971) conceives of scientific inquiry as

consisting of five major steps with seventeen main subdivisions and many

minor subdivisions.

I. Initiation

1 . Identifying and formulating a problem

a. Speculating about a phenomenon

b. Idenl'fying variables

c. Noting and making assumptions

d. Delimiting the problem

2. Seeking relevant background information

a. Recalling relevant knowledge and experiments

b. Doing literature research

c. Consulting people

3. Predicting

4. Hypothesising

3 8

5. Design for collection of data through field work and/or experimentation

a. defining the independent and control variables in operational

terms.

b. defining the procedure and sequencing the steps

c. identifying needed equipment, materials and techniques

d. indicating safety precautions

e. devising the method for recording data.

11. Collection of data

6 . Procedure

a. collecting, constructing and setting up the apparatus or

equipment

b. doing field work andlor performing the experiment

c. identifying the limitation of design (as a result of failures, blind

alleys etc. and modifying the procedure (often by trial and error).

d. repeating the experiment, for rsproducibility, to overcome the

limitations of initial design etc.)

e. recording data (describing, tabulating, diagramming,

photographing etc.)

7. Observing and observations

a . obtaining qualitative data (using senses, etc.)

b. obtaining semi-quantitative and quantitative data (measuring,

reading scales, calibrating, counting objects or events,

estimating, approximating etc.)

c. gathering specimens

d. obtaining graphical data (charts, photographs, films etc.)

e. noting unexpected or accidental occurrences. (serendipity)

Ill.

8.

f . noting the precision and accuracy of data

g. judging the reliability and validity of data

Processing of data

Organizing the data

a. ordering to identify regularities

b. classifying

c. comparing

Representing the data graphically

a . drawing graphs, charts, maps, diagrams etc.

b. interpolating, extrapolating etc.

Treating data mathematically

a . computing (calculating)

b. using statistics

c. determining the uncertainty of the results

Conceptualization of data

Interpreting the data

a. suggesting an explanation for a set of data

b. deriving an inference or generalization from a set of data

c. assessing validity of initial assumptions, predictions and

hypotheses

Formulating operational definitions

a . verbal

b. mathematical

Expressing data in the form of mathematical relationship

Incorporating the new discovety into the existing theory (developing a

'Mental Model').

V. Open-endedness

15. Seeking further evidence to

a. increase the level of confidence in the explanation or

generalization

b. test the range of applicability of the explanation or generalization

16. Identifying new problems for investigation because of

a . the need to study the effect of new variable.

b. anomalous or unexpected observations

c. incompleteness (gaps) and inconsistencies in the theory

17. Applying the discovered knowledge.

2.1.4.3 The AAAS Classification of Science Skills

The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS,

1971) presents thirteen skills (scientific skills) together with a brief definition of

each. They are as follows:

I. Basic processes

1 . Observing

2 . Using spaceltime

Relationship

3. Classifying

4. Using numbers

5. Measuring

Using the five senses to obtain information.

Describing spatial relationships and their

change with time.

Imposing order and collecting of objects or

events.

Identifying quantitative relationships in

nature.

Measuring length, area. volume, weight.

temperature, force and speed.

4 1

6. Communicating : Expressing ideas with oral and written

words, diagrams, maps, graphs,

mathematical equations and various kinds

of visual demonstrations.

7. Predicting : Making specific forecasts of what a future

observation will be.

8. Inferring : An explanation of an observation.

11. lntegratedprocesses

9. Controlling variables : Studying the influence of changing

variables, the factors which influence one

another.

10. Interpreting data : Using data to make inferences, predictions

and hypotheses, the statistical treatments

given to such interpretations and the study

of probability.

11. Formulatinghypothesis : Making generalised statements of

explanations.

12. Defining operationally : Defining terms in the context of experience. -

13. Experimenting : Larger process of using basic and integrated

process.

2.1.4.4 Classification of Scientific Processes (Andrew)

Andrew (1980) classified the abilities of scientific processes into six skills

and sixteen subskills. They are:

1.0. Recognising and defining a problem

1.1. Recognise specific problem in a new situation

1.2. Isolate the single major idea of problem

1.3. State problem as definite and concise questions

2.0. Formulating hypothesis

2.1. Suggest tentative solutions to the problem

3.0. Collecting data

3.1. Select a suitable test of the hypothesis

3.2. Design experiment

3.3. Selecting equipments for experiment

3.4. Observe objects and phenomena

3.5. Measure objects and changes

4.0. Interpreting data

4.1. Organise data collected

4.2. Identify rejationships

4.3. Interpret relationships

5.0. Evaluating hypothesis

5.1. Formulate conclusions on the basis of relationship found

5.2. Evaluate hypothesis in relation to data interpreted

6.0. Formulating generalizations

6.1. Apply conclusions to new situation

6.2. Formulate generalizations on the basis of relationships identified

and conclusions formed and applied

2.1.4.5 Gagne 's Hierarchy of Learning

Gagne formulated a model based on the hierarchy of Learning types.

On this model, the learning of more basic behaviour is a prerequisite for the

learning of the higher behaviour. This idea has been systematised by Gagne

(1977) in the form of a hierarchy of learning types.

1. Signal learning

2. Stimulus response Learning

3. Chain learning

4. Verbal associate learning

5. Multiple discrimination

6. Learning of concepts

7. Learning of principles

8. Problem solving

Gagne (1985) later modified this hierarchy of eight learning types. He

retained the first four in the same order and modified the latter four higher

types into five varieties of capabilities.

These capabilities are:

Intellectual skills are the most important types of capabilities learned by

human beings. They include successful handling of symbols for

communication with the environment. Intellectual skills consist of the following

categories:

a. multiple discrimination

b. concrete concept and defined concept

c. higher order principles or learning of rules

d. procedure

2. Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies are internally organised skills whose functioning is

to regulate or monitor the utilisation of concepts and rules. By acquiring and

44

using cognitive strategies the learners are able to regulate internal processes

such as.

a. attending

b. learning

c. remembering

d. thinking

e. problem solving

3. Verbal Information

The learner has to learn verbal information and retain it: so that, it is

immediately accessible. Information is thought of as verbal and capable of

being verbalised.

4. Mofor skills

Acquisition of motor skills is the organisation of movements to constitute a

total action that is smooth, regular and precisely limited.

5. Attitudes

Attitudes are a kind of group norms: The best way to develop

attitudinal learning is to develop appropriate group norms.

2.1.4.6 Classification of Science Processes (Poulose)

Poulose (1987) classified the science processes into three main

processes, seven major process categories and 17 process subcategories.

Process

1, lnitiation

Maior Process Process Subcateqory Cateuorv

C 1. Recognition of problems

- 1. lnitiation 2. Observation of objects and

phenomena

3. Formulation of a working r hypothesis

L 2. Hypothesising 4. Selection of a suitable test of

hypothesis

L 5 Design of appropriate procedure for experimental test

6. Selection of proper instrument or material

r 3. Gathering of data t 7. Measuring objects and changes

2. Manipulation L 8. Estimation of measurement

r 9. Organi;ing and manipulation of data

t L 4. Processing of data 10. Preparation of graphs

11 .Interpolation and extrapolation

C 12.lnterpreting experimental data

i 5. Conceptualisation

13. Evaluation lf hypothesis

3. Open

endedness

14. Formulation of generalisation

6. Generalisation

15. Developing a mental model

16. Application of a discovered 7. Open endedness knowledge

17. Identification of a new problem for investigation

46

2.1.4.7 UNESCO's Classification of Science Processes

UNESCO (1992) source book for science in the primary school lists out

the indicators of process skills. They are summarised and given below:

I . Observing

Using the senses (as many as safe and appropriate) to gather

information.

ldentifying differences between similar objects or events.

ldentifying similarities between different objects or events.

Noticing fair details that are relevant to an investigation.

Recognising the order in which sequenced events take place.

Distinguishing from any observations those which are relevant to the

problem in hand.

2. Raising questions

Asking questions which lead to inquiry.

Asking questions based on hypotheses.

Identifying questions which they can answer by their own investigation.

Putting questions into a form, which indicates the investigation which

has to be carried out.

Recognising that some questions cannot be answered by inquiry.

47

3. Hypothesizing

Attempting to explain observations or relationships in terms of certain

principles or concepts.

Applying concepts or knowledge gained in one situation to help

understanding or solve a problem in another.

Recognizing that there can be more than one possible explanation of

an event.

Recognizing the need to test explanations by gathering more evidence.

Suggesting explanations, which are stable, even if unlikely.

4. Predicting

Making use of evidence to make a prediction (as opposed to a guess,

which takes no account of evidence).

Explicitly using patterns or relationships to make a prediction.

Justifying how a prediction was made in terms of present evidence or

past experience showing caution in making assumptions about the general

applicatior. of a pattern beyond available evidence.

Making use of patterns to extrapolate cases where no information has

been gathered.

5. Finding patterns and relationships

Putting various pieces of information together (from direct observations

or seconda~y sources) and inferring certain information from them.

Finding regularities or trends in information, measurements or

observations.

Identifying an association between one variable and another.

Realizing the difference between a conclusion that fits all the evidence

and an inference that goes beyond it

Checking an inferred association or relationship against evidence.

6. Communicating effectively

Using writing or speech as a medium of sorting out ideas or linking one

idea with another.

Listening to others' ideas and responding to them,

Keeping notes on actions or observations.

Displaying results appropriately using graphs, tables, charts etc

Reporting events systematically and clearly.

Using sources of information considering how to present information so

that it is understandable by others.

7. Designing and making

Choosing appropriate materials for constructing things. which have to

work or serve a purpose. Choosing appropriate materials for constructing

models.

Producing a plan or design which is a realistic attempt at solving a

problem.

49

Succeeding in making models that work or meet certain criteria.

Reviewing a plan or a construction in relation to the problem to be

solved.

8. Devising and planning investigations

Deciding what equipment, materials, etc. are needed for an

investigation.

Identifying what is to change or be changed when different

observations or measurements are made.

Identifyng what variables are to be kept the same for a fair test.

Identifying what is to be measured or compared.

Considering beforehand how the measuremetlts, comparisons, etc. are

to be used to solve the problem.

Deciding the order in which steps should be taken in an investigation.

9. Manipulating materials and equipment effectively

Handling and manipulating materials with c~ -e for safety and

efficiency.

Us~ng tools effectively and safely.

Showing appropriate respect and care for living things.

Assembling parts successfully to a plan.

Working with the degree of precision appropriate to the task in hand.

10. Measuring and calculating

Using an appropriate standard or non-standard measure in making

comparisons or taking readings.

Taking an adequate set of measurements for the task in hand.

Using measuring instruments correctly and with reasonable precision.

Computing results in effective way.

Showing concern for accuracy in checking measurements or

calculations.

A general discussion of the science processes given by various experts

reveal that, the science process skills have a hierarchical order. Some basic

skills are needed for the acquisition of higher order skills. One can infer an

overlap of many skills in a specific phase of a problem-solving task. There are

some commonalities among the various classification of skills, but some of

them lack the high degree of wholeness of the processes.

2.1.5 Process Models

Attempts have been made by educators to describe processes in terms

of models.

Anderson eta/ . (19701, for example, provides a model of process skills

as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 A model of process skills (Anderson, 1970)

Carin and Sund's (1970) model of interrelationship between processes

and products is given below.

---

of phenomena in Scientific New scientific

Figure 2 Interrelationship between processes and produds (Carin and Sund, 1970)

r - -

Scientific Processes

Attitudes

Intense curiosity Humility

1 investiabon of Phenomena in _Nature

Objects Events Relationship etc

Determination

Open mindedness etc.

Methods

Identifying problems Observing

Hypothesizing Analysing Inferring

Gdrapolating

Synthesi .ing Evaluating

- -

New Scientific Products

Facts Concepts Generalizations Principles Theories Laws

Wilson (1974) presents a process model of scientific inquiry,

Empirical inquiy I I 1 Discrepant events: I 1 Curious events

Data gaps 1 Chance observations

I Empirical experiments: 1 I 1 Obsewation I Classification 1 Inferring ' Predicting I 1 Quantifying

Simplification I__-.-_-

I j New plrenomena. I / Objects, events

Obseivable relationships I Conelateci occurirnces

Conceptual inquiry I I I Discrepant attributes: I

Contradictoly phenomena Limit determination Theoy articulation

Conceptual experiments: I Attribute search 1 Symbolic representation Conceptual testing Idealization Analysis of cause

I ,

1 New explanations:

Paradigms, Modeis Relationships Principles, Theories Laws

Figure 3 Process model of scientific inquiry (Wilson, 1974)

Rachelson (1977) gives a model of process of scientific inquiry. The

model illustrates the relationship between testing and generating a hypothesis.

It presents scientific inquiry as a self-correlating revisionary system. The

revisionary element is critical, as it is the unique characteristic of scientific

inquiries.

1 Result k- -1 Observable predictions

A Hypothesis

Generation of hypothesis through

intuitive acts

Formation of observable

L______J u Empirical testing of

prediction using empirical controls

Drawins conclusion

(R) - Revisionaly element

Figure 4 Process of scientific inquiry (Rachelson, 1977)

prediction

7

Bhatt (1988) arranged the processes from observation to prediction in a

hierarchical and cumulative pattern.

Figure 5 Cumulative nature of science processes (Bhatt, 1988)

The format of science process skills is given by UNESCO source book

for science in the primary school (1992).

Raising thesising questions

{ Predicting \ \ I / uoservlrly ( Comparing )

Figure 6 Science process skills (UNESCO. 1992)

5 7

2.1.6 Major Curricular Innovations in Science

Since 1960. the teaching of science has become a major concern that

has received global attention. This period is of intense and vigorous

development in the curriculum of science, marked by the publication of many

major projects. The major curricular innovations, launched as a revolt against

the traditional product led approach, stress the development of processes in

science teaching.

During the 1960s a number of projects for the improvement of science

curriculum were undertaken in a number of countries which gave more

emphasis on process approach. A list of major curricular innovations in

different countries is given below:

India

1. UNESCO planning mission of experts.

2. Indian Education Commission.

3. UNESCO-UNICEF assisted project in science.

4. Production of supplementary reading material.

5 . Ishwarbhai Pate1 Committee.

Thailand

1. Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST).

United Kingdom

1. Nuffield Science Teaching Projects

United States of America

A. At the elementary level

1. Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary Science

(COPES).

2. Elementary Science Study (ESS).

3. Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS).

4. Science A Process Approach (SAPA).

5. Other projects such as MINNEMAST, ESSP, QAESS etc.

B. At intermediate level

1. Intermediate Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) .

2. Introductory Physical Science (IPS).

3. Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS).

4. Earth Science Curriculum Project (ESCP).

5. Secondary School Science Project (SSSP).

C. At the secondary level (stages 10-12)

1. Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS): There are three

versions of BSCS, viz. yellow, blue and green, each emphasising

a different approach.

2. Chemical education material study (chem. study).

3. Chemical Bond Approach (CBA).

4. The Project Physics Course (PPC).

5. Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC).

6. Harvard Physics project.

59

The curriculum projects are framed in such a way that children should

enjoy science through direct engagement in scientific activities and gain an

awareness of what scientists do and should be encouraged to pursue the study

of science at an advanced level. A critical evaluation of them reveals that, the

intensity of the role of processes in them is different, but they have some

uniqueness.

2.1.7 Process Approach: Educational Implications

Billeh and Malik (1977) pointed out that in order to understand

science, one should know the processes through which scientific knowledge is

acquired and developed. The same wine in another bottle is that involvement

of a learner in the scientific process is a must for meaningful learning in

science. Or the learner is to be placed in the role of an original investigator.

It follows hereof that no good science-teaching can take place or that

no teaching-learning will be ideal, without sufficient orientation of the learner

into the involvement of scientific processes. The learner's skills in going

through the processes are not only useful in learning science but also effective

in facing life situations. Science educators are of the belief that learners who

acquire process skills in science will be able to face the problems of life in a

better way and they can look at problems critically. Also they will be inclined

to handle problems analytically and to take decisions objectively. This is the

positive transfer value of acquisition of process skills. Process approach to

science teaching will also help learners to understand science with meaning.

A much earlier writer Gordan (1953) also had shown that the scientific

method had a definite transfer value. Teevan and Jandron (1953) opined

60

that perception and knowledge, the constituents of cognitive process are

necessary for learning with understanding.

For junior students of science, the lower level cognitive skills are to be

isolated for special treatment. This is true even while all types of cognitive

skills are important in science teaching. For achieving the appropriate process

outcomes of the level, curriculum and instructional methods are to be

designed accordingly. The reality is that scientific processes are not properly

inculcated in lower learning levels. The spirit to search, find and deduce is to

be emphasised on right from the beginning.

According to a UNESCO Committee (Lewis, 1972), "science education

is a continuing process from pre-school age to post-university training, . . . it

should focus attention on primary science education for developing the spirit

of inquiry and logical thought."

2.2 PERSONALITY VARIABLES

The major independent variables of the study are the personality

variables. Considering the specialized nature of t lese variables, an attempt

has been made to examine the concept of personality and also the particular

personality variables used in the study.

Definition of Personality

One of the most popular definitions of personality is by Allport (1961).

Allport defines personality as the dynamic organization within the individual

of those psycho-physical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour

6 1

and thought. Personality is something growing and changing and not fixed or

static.

According to Murphy (1947), "a personality is a structured organism's

environment field, each aspect of which stands in dynamic relation to each

other aspect. There is organisation within the organism and organisation

within the environments but it is the cross organisation of the two that is

investigated in personality research."

For Cattel (1950), "personality is concerned with the entire behaviour

of the individual both overt and inward."

Vernon (1957) approaches the term from a different angle by stressing

the affective side of behaviour. In his words, "we mean by personality, simply

what sort of a person is so and so, what he is like . . . While a man's

intelligence, his bodily strength and skills are certainly part of his personality.

yet the term refers chiefly to his emotional and social qualities, together with

his drives, sentiments and interest'. In this sense, construds like adjustment,

anxiety, interests etc. are major aspects of a person's personality."

Personality is considered to be a learned disposition to do certain

things in a certain situation. Interpreted in this manner, personality is bound

to have considerable influence in his performance. A person's educational

performance is bound to be affected by different traits of his personality. This

fact can be illustrated by isolating one aspect of personality, say 'science

interest'. A person who has a little or no interest in science need not be

expected to apply his mind fully to a study of science subject. This in turn will

be reflected to his achievement in science. He is in all probability not likely to

get high achievement in science subjects. This fact has been expressed more

technically by Pidgeon and Yates (1969) in their remark that the strength of

the child's interest in a school subject is an item of evidence which will help us

both to judge the effectiveness of the course of instruction and also to predict

the levels of attainment in future. This example can be extended to other

personality variables like examination anxiety, achievement motivation, etc.

We will now examine in some detail the particular personality variables

used in the study.

2.2.1 Personal Adjustment

Personal adjustment is defined as a state of being in which the

individual is in harmonious relationship with a given social situation. It is also

defined as the process of attaining such a state (Fairchild, 1944).

Lowrey (1947) looks upon personal adjustment as "having inner

emotional security, feeling personal adequacy and of being successful,

happiness in personal relations, a relative evaluation of self and adaptabilily

and acceptance of one's limitations."

According to Carr (1955) it is a balance between a person and his

environmental situations.

A variety of techniques are at present employed to appraise personal

and social adjustment. The following are some of the techniques:

a ) self-descriptive inventories or personal reports

b) rating scales of personal and social conduct

c) observational and anecdotal records

d) free association and projective methods

e) autobiographies

f 1 interviews

g) sociometric techniques

h ) situational tests

Inventories like Bell Adjustment Inventory, California Test of

Personality, Heston Personal Adjustment Inventory and Minnesota Personality

Scale are some of the important tools used to evaluate personal adjustments.

The present scale consists of the following dimensions

a. Self reliance

b. Sense of personal worth

c. Sense of personal freedom'

d. Feeling of belonging

e. Withdrawing tendencies (freedom from)

f . Nervous symptoms (Freedom from)

2.2.2 Social Adjustment

The tern is vey close to personal adjustment and v e y often they are

defined and measured together.

Encyclopaedia of Psychology (Eysensck eta]., 1972) defines the term

social adjustment as "a process or state resulting from that process of physical,

socio-systematic or organisational changes in group-specific behaviour or

relations, or a specific culture."

64

Dictionary of Education (Good, 1945) defines the term as follows:

1) The process whereby the individual attempts to maintain or further his

security. comfort, status, or creative inclinations in the face of ever

changing conditions and pressures of his social environment or the

state or condition attained through such efforts.

2 ) The pattern or the modes of response built up by the individual with

respect to his social environment and evaluated in terms of standards of

his culture groups as acceptable, desirable or successful.

Dictionary of Sociology (Fairchild, 1944) defines the term as follows:

1) Those types of relationships between personalities, groups, culture

elements and culture complexes which are harmonious and mutually

satisfactory to the personalities and groups involved.

2 ) Those processes which tend to produce such relationships.

In modern sociology, social adjustment has been attributed a

sociological meaning that highlights the interactive, striving, accommodative,

associative and normative dimensions of the term.

The present scale consists of the following dimensions:

a. Social standards

b. Social skills

c. Anti-social tendencies (freedom from)

d. Family relations

e. School relations

f. Community relations

65

2.2.3 Examination Anxiety

Dictionaty of Psychology (Warron, 1962) defines 'anxiety' as "an

emotional attitude or sentiment concerning the future characterised by an

unpleasant alternation or mingling of dread and hope (mixing)."

Good (1973) defines examination anxiety as the fear of taking

examination; unpleasant emotional reaction elicited by anticipation of a

testing situation may have an effect on the test performance of the subject.

Anxiety is a reflection of internal tension whereas fear is a mechanism

for dealing with external and presumably more realistic dangers.

Examination anxiety is the mental distress and fear experienced by

pupils, when they have to face examinations of any type or any of its related

activities.

2.2.4 Achievement Motivation

Achievement motivation is an important determinant of aspiration,

efforts and persistence when an individual expects that his personality and his

achievements in life will be evaluated in relation to some standard of

excellence. Such a behaviour is called achievement motivation.

Achievement motivation is a hypothetical construct designed to explain

inter and intra individual differences in the orientation. intensity and

consistency of achievement behaviour. In terms of content, achievement

motivation may be characterised as the tendency to maintain and increase

individual proficiency in all areas in which standard of quality is taken as

binding (Eysenck ef a/., 1972).

66

Achievement motivation refers to a pattern of actions and feelings

connected to striving to achieve some internalized standard of excellence in

performance (Vidler, 1977). Atkinson and Feather (1966) provide clear

presentation of the expanded theory of achievement motivation.

Achievement oriented behaviour is seen to be a function of a number of

factors including the motive to succeed, the motive to avoid failure, the

perceived probability of success, and the incentive value of success. Atkinson

and McClelland (1965) view motivation as an unconscious drive or need that

is socialized early in a child's life. This view closely aligns motivation with the

study of personality.

2.2.5 Science Interest

Interests are accepted as important dimensions of personality.

According to Pidgeon and Yates (1969) interest is "a tendency or disposition

to pay attention to particular phenomena or to select a given activity wt-ken

choice is given." According to Anderson (1976) "a person's interests are

reflected in his tendencies to seek or avoid certain kinds of activities."

Bhatacl arya (1972) considers that interest is a behaviour tendency

which is an expression of satisfaction of certain needs innate or acquired in

the course of adjustment to the environment.

Eysenck et a/. (1972) define interest as a tendency to behaviours

oriented towards certain objects, activities or experience, which tendency

varies in intensity (and generality) from individual to individual.

Vernon (1965) points out that interests are close to attitudes. Guilford

et a/. (1954) and his associates found over twenty interest factors, most of

which reflect general personality styles. 'Science interest' can be defined as

interest for science and allied area of work. It may be defined as a positive

feeling attached to the abstract and concrete aspects of scientific activity,

which manifest in the fonn of acceptance for and a satisfaction in all activities

and movements connected with science. According to Super (1957) "science

interest involves a desire to understand the why and how of biological and

physical processes, the desire to add to the new store of such knowledge, and

the desire to put such knowledge to use."

Interest is usually measured using self-report techniques. Most popular

measures of ihterests are the Kuder preference records, the strong vocational

interest bank, Thurstone interest schedule, the occupational interest inventory

and the Allport-Vernon study of values.

2.3 PERSONAL VARIABLES

The constructs of the three other variables of the study, viz. sex

(boyslgirls), school location (ruraVurban) and the type of school management

(government/private) are sufficiently commonplace and hence they have been

excluded from the present discussion.