A Survey of Sight-Reading Activities in Instructional Piano Methods for Average-Age Beginners and a Sample Primer-Level Sight-Reading Curriculum

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A SURVEY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIGHT-READING SKILLS IN INSTRUCTIONAL PIANO METHODS FOR AVERAGE-AGE BEGINNERS AND A SAMPLE PRIMER-LEVEL

SIGHT-READING CURRICULUM

By

Scott Dirkse

Bachelor of Arts California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, December 2005

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Master of Music in

Piano Pedagogy

School of Music

University of South Carolina

2009

Accepted by:

Dr. Scott Price, Director of Thesis

Dr. Charles Fugo, Reader

Dr. Nancy Baker, Reader

James Buggy, Interim Dean of the Graduate School

UMI Number: 1464039

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© Copyright by Scott Dirkse, 2009 All Rights Reserved.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is with great appreciation that I acknowledge my committee members: Dr. Scott

Price, Dr. Nancy Baker, and Dr. Charles Fugo. Their support and insight were essential

to this document’s success. I am especially grateful to my thesis director, Dr. Price, for

his guidance and advisement through the writing process.

In addition, I offer sincere appreciation to my piano students and pedagogy

colleagues for continually inspiring me to evaluate the way I teach and search for better

solutions.

A special thanks is extended to my parents, John and Linda Dirkse, for their

constant support and encouragement.

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to evaluate instructional piano methods for the

average-age beginner based on their inclusion of activities that promote the development

of sight-reading skills. Chapter one consists of an introduction including the purpose and

need for the study, limitations of the research, and a survey of the literature. The second

chapter summarizes the existing research on sight-reading and identifies four categories

of sight-reading skills: topographical awareness of the keyboard, directional reading

ability, pattern recognition skills, and effective sight-reading habits. Chapter three

consists of a survey of the inclusion of activities and concepts that promote sight-reading

skills in specific average-age piano methods during the first two years of study. The final

chapter contains a sample sight-reading curriculum at the primer level with concepts and

activities that will develop skills that facilitate sight-reading and may be used in

correlation with any primer-level method book.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ vii

I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1

PURPOSE ........................................................................................................................ 7

NEED ............................................................................................................................. 8

LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................................. 9

RELATED LITERATURE .................................................................................................. 9

DESIGN AND PROCEDURES .......................................................................................... 12

II. REVIEW OF SIGHT-READING RESEARCH ..................................................................... 13

KEYBOARD TOPOGRAPHY........................................................................................... 15

DIRECTIONAL READING .............................................................................................. 16

PATTERN RECOGNITION .............................................................................................. 17

EFFECTIVE SIGHT-READING HABITS .......................................................................... 19

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 22

III. SURVEY OF ELEMENTARY PIANO METHODS............................................................... 24

ALFRED’S PREMIER PIANO COURSE ........................................................................... 26

PIANO ADVENTURES ................................................................................................... 31

BASTIEN PIANO BASICS .............................................................................................. 38

THE MUSIC TREE ........................................................................................................ 42

IV. SAMPLE PRIMER-LEVEL SIGHT-READING CURRICULUM ........................................... 47

KEYBOARD TOPOGRAPHY........................................................................................... 47

DIRECTIONAL READING .............................................................................................. 50

PATTERN RECOGNITION .............................................................................................. 57

SIGHT-READING HABITS ............................................................................................. 60

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BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 64

BOOKS ......................................................................................................................... 64

ARTICLES .................................................................................................................... 65

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS ......................................................................................... 72

INTERNET RESOURCES ................................................................................................ 73

PIANO METHODS ......................................................................................................... 73

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in Alfred’s Premier Piano Course ........................................................................................................................... 26 Table 3.2 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in Alfred’s Premier Piano Course ............ 27 Table 3.3 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in Alfred’s Premier Piano Course ............ 30 Table 3.4 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in Piano Adventures .......... 32 Table 3.5 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in Piano Adventures ................................. 33 Table 3.6 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in Piano Adventures ................................. 36 Table 3.7 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in Bastien Piano Basics..... 38 Table 3.8 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in Bastien Piano Basics ............................ 39 Table 3.9 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in Bastien Piano Basics ............................ 41 Table 3.10 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in The Music Tree ........... 42 Table 3.11 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in The Music Tree ................................... 43 Table 3.12 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in The Music Tree .................................. 45

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Many pedagogues agree that an ability to sight-read is a valuable tool for pianists

to possess. 1 A capacity to sight-read effectively reveals an ability to efficiently interpret

musical symbols and recognize harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic patterns. Proficient

sight-reading skills are a reflection of an overall understanding of the music and its

construction and should be fostered from the earliest piano lessons.

A proficiency in sight-reading reduces practice time and may allow a musician to

become familiar with a large amount of music in a short amount of time. Being able to

play more music and learn desired music quickly may decrease frustration and increase

pleasure at the piano for students, leading to longer periods of piano study.2 A regular

sight-reading routine may be therapeutic by preventing boredom and providing a

constantly renewed interest in music.3

Sight-reading is also a procedural component in learning new repertoire. Those

who play a piece well at first sight avoid much of the work involved in becoming familiar

1 Victoria McArthur, “Piano Methods and Sightreading,” Piano & Keyboard no. 179 (March/April

1996): 59; Robert Spillman, Sightreading at the Keyboard (New York: Schirmer Books, 1990), 1. 2 Diane Hardy, “Teaching Sight-Reading at the Piano: Methodology and Significance,” Piano

Pedagogy Forum 1, no. 2 (May 1998), http://www.music.sc.edu/ea/keyboard/ppf/1.2/1.2.ppfke.html (accessed January 29, 2009).

3 Ida Elkan, Piano Sightreading Can Be Taught (New York: Music Sightreading Publications, 1948), 56.

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with a new piece. Without an ability to sight-read, students must re-decipher the musical

notation with each new piece, often resulting in countless hours of laborious repetition.4

For professionals, having a reputation as a strong sight-reader may lead to more

employment opportunities. A facility in sight-reading may enable the professional to be a

better accompanist and to access more of the vast repertoire of piano literature.5

Professionals with good sight-reading skills may offer new concert programs on a more

frequent basis and may rejuvenate old repertoire more quickly. Spillman notes that it is

“difficult to be a working musician on any level if you cannot read and absorb music

quickly and efficiently.”6

The ability to sight-read at the piano has been a valued skill throughout history.

Leopold Mozart boasted of his young son’s impressive sight-reading ability, and Czerny,

Beethoven, and Mendelssohn were all praised for their public displays of sight-reading

fluency. 7 Franz Liszt, most renowned for his technical prowess, was also famous for his

superior sight-reading and score-reading skills. Czerny had Liszt practice sight-reading

for one hour every day,8 and he writes that Liszt “finally became such a great sight-reader

that he was publicly capable of sight-reading even compositions of considerable

4 Beryl Rubinstein, The Pianist’s Approach to Sight-Reading and Memorizing (New York: Carl

Fischer, 1950), 28. 5 Lorina Havill, “Sight Reading Can Be Taught,” Clavier 10, no. 2 (February 1971): 32. 6 Spillman, Sightreading at the Keyboard, 2. 7 Andreas Lehmann and K. Anders Ericsson, “Performance Without Preparation: Structure and

Acquisition of Expert Sight-Reading and Accompanying Performance,” Psychomusicology 15 (1996): 3. 8 Marienne Uszler, Stewart Gordon, and Scott McBride Smith, The Well-Tempered Keyboard

Teacher, 2nd ed. (Belmont, California: Schirmer, 2000), 287.

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difficulty, and so perfectly as though he had been studying them for a long time.”9

Anecdotes describe Liszt’s ability to read at sight Grieg’s Piano Concerto in A Minor, op.

16, as well as a manuscript of Mendelssohn’s Piano Concerto in G Minor, op. 25.10

Camille Saint-Saëns also demonstrated a superb sight-reading ability; Hans von Bülow

witnessed his sight-reading of a manuscript score to Wagner’s opera, Siegfried, with

impeccable accuracy and musicianship.11

Piano teachers today may find it difficult to incorporate functional skills such as

sight-reading into lessons as they focus on preparations for recitals, competitions, and

auditions, but it is important for current piano teachers to promote the development of

sight-reading skills with all of their students. Sight-reading chamber music and piano

duets with friends and family is no longer a commonplace activity as it was in the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.12 This results in the piano teacher having to provide

students with sight-reading opportunities and instruction in their weekly lessons and

assignments.

A good sight-reading ability is of great value to piano students. It provides

opportunities to develop technique, coordination, musicianship, style characteristics,

kinetic memory, audiation skills, and tactile sense by exposing students to a great volume

9 Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists: From Mozart to the Present, rev. ed. (New York:

Simon & Schuster, 1987), 163.

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid., 282. 12 Victoria McArthur, “The Lost Arts of Technique and Sight-Reading,” Piano Pedagogy Forum

4, no. 2 (June 2001), http://www.music.sc.edu/ea/keyboard/PPF/4.2/4.2.PPFe.html (accessed January 29, 2009).

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and variety of music.13 The goal of most amateur students is to be proficient enough at

the piano to play music that interests them, so teaching students sight-reading skills

should be a high priority.14

Although the average length of piano study is only three years, many students

may continue to participate in musical activities following lessons if they have been

taught the ability to sight-read.15 Chronister suggests that teaching students sight-reading

skills may actually increase their length of piano study, claiming that a “failure to learn to

sight play is the single most prevalent reason for student dropouts.”16 A good teacher

trains students to become independent learners, and training a student to sight-read gives

him a useful skill that will continue to foster his musical development.

The importance of a musician being able to sight-read fluently is often compared

with the importance of a person being able to read language fluently.17 In school,

students learn to read language because possessing the skill of reading allows them to

continue as students, learn new words and phrases, read what interests them, and acquire

knowledge from print resources. Music students should learn to sight-read so they too

may explore and learn from new music. Lawrence argues that teaching students to sight-

read music with fluency should be the “irreducible minimum goal” of piano teachers.18

13 Deutsch, Guided Sight-Reading, 35. 14 Marjorie Dana Jones, “Sight-Reading All-Important,” Etude 75, no. 3 (March 1957): 17. 15 Celia Mae Bryant, “Sight Reading is an Art,” Clavier 36, no. 2 (February 1997): 42. 16 Edward Darling, ed., A Piano Teacher’s Legacy: Selected Writings by Richard Chronister

(Kingston, New Jersey: Frances Clark Center for Keyboard Pedagogy, 2005), 245.

17 Rubinstein, The Pianist’s Approach to Sight-Reading and Memorizing, 7. 18 Darling, ed., A Piano Teacher’s Legacy, 238.

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Piano teachers have traditionally recognized the benefit of being able to sight-read

with ease. Hardy’s 1992 study found that 86% of MTNA teachers surveyed ranked sight-

reading as either a “highly important” or “the most important” pianistic skill, yet only 7%

of them taught sight-reading in any systemic way.19 Lyke surveyed general music

teachers and class piano teachers to determine which skills should receive the highest

priority in class piano instruction, and both groups ranked sight-reading as one of the top

two most important piano skills.20

Unfortunately, with the average piano lesson in the U.S.A. being only thirty

minutes, sight-reading is often neglected or included only if time remains.21 This practice

implies to the student that sight-reading is not an important or valued skill. Shanaphy has

noticed that sight-reading has become “one of the most ignored aspects of piano

pedagogy,” with most teachers focusing on technique, repertoire, and interpretation,22 and

Chronister observes that “it is the rare teacher who includes a specific program for the

training of sight-reading in his lesson plans.”23 Often in the early stages of lessons, a

teacher will teach a student to “read” for a few weeks, and then turn his attention to other

elements, expecting that the student will naturally acquire good reading abilities.24 Sight-

reading becomes limited to the first playing of an occasional new repertoire piece. As the

19 Hardy, “Teaching Sight-Reading at the Piano.” 20 Alice Watkins and Marie Adele Hughes, “The Effect of an Accompanying Situation on the

Improvement of Students’ Sight Reading Skills,” Psychology of Music 14 (1986): 97. 21 McArthur, “The Lost Arts of Technique and Sight-Reading.”

22 Edward Shanaphy, Stuart Isacoff, and Julie Jordan, Speed-Reading at the Keyboard, Vol. 1

(Katonah, New York: Ekay Music, 1987), 1.

23 Darling, ed., A Piano Teacher’s Legacy, 238. 24 Judith Schumann, “Remedial Sight Reading,” Clavier 8, no. 2 (February 1969): 29.

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student continues, his performance level improves while his reading level remains

stunted. Guy asserts that it is “almost criminal for teachers to stand by and ignore this

downward spiral.”25

Sight-reading fails to play an important role in many teachers’ curricula partially

because of misconceptions about the acquisition of sight-reading ability. The ability to

sight-read has often been considered an innate ability that students are either “born with”

or not, leading many teachers to conclude that the skill cannot be taught.26 Others have

believed that the only way to improve one’s sight-reading ability is to sight-read more

music. Only recently have teachers begun to understand that everyone is born with the

capacity to acquire sight-reading ability, and this ability requires a necessary set of

teachable skills.27 Chronister proposes that teachers begin teaching sight-reading skills at

the very first lesson, yet many teachers fail to emphasize the importance of sight-reading

to their students.28 Often teachers do not know how to teach sight-reading skills, do not

use method books that include sight-reading activities, or feel they are poor sight-readers

themselves.29

To foster the development of sight-reading ability from the very first lesson,

teachers need to have an awareness of what specific skills and concepts promote sight-

reading success and know how to teach these ideas to beginning students. Teaching

students keyboard topography, pattern recognition, directional reading, and good sight-

25 Cited in McArthur, “The Lost Arts of Technique and Sight-Reading.” 26 Lehmann and Ericsson, “Performance Without Preparation,” 3. 27 Deutsch, Guided Sight-Reading, 14. 28 Darling, ed., A Piano Teacher’s Legacy, 245-246. 29 Hardy, “Teaching Sight-Reading at the Piano.”

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reading habits helps prepare them to be fluent sight-readers. A familiarity with keyboard

topography will allow a student to move about the keyboard without looking at his or her

hands. Pattern recognition promotes the ability to process multiple musical symbols as

single units. Directional reading involves a physical and cognitive intervallic awareness,

as well as the ability to process vertical groups as single entities. Good sight-reading

habits include looking ahead while playing, choosing appropriate fingerings, playing

without stopping, and moving the eyes efficiently. Teachers should be aware to what

extent the student’s method book develops these concepts, and they should be able to

incorporate supplemental activities to ensure that the student receives comprehensive

sight-reading training.

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study is to evaluate instructional piano methods for the

average-age beginner based on their inclusion of activities that promote the development

of sight-reading skills. The methods are evaluated based on their inclusion of sight-

reading exercises and activities that foster an understanding of keyboard topography,

pattern recognition, directional reading, and good sight-reading habits. A sample sight-

reading curriculum at the primer level has been created with concepts and activities that

will develop skills that facilitate sight-reading and may be used in correlation with any

primer level method book. This sight-reading supplement contains collections of

activities that aim to enhance students’ topographical awareness of the keyboard, pattern

recognition abilities, directional reading skills, and good sight-reading habits.

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NEED

Deutsch suggests that it is useless to ask students to sight-read if they do not have

the necessary skills and knowledge to be successful.30 Although several instructional

methods include some examples for sight-reading in their early-level curricula, many do

not provide sufficient training in basic keyboard topography, pattern recognition,

directional reading, and effective sight-reading habits.

To date, there is not a published resource that comprehensively evaluates the

manner or degree to which sight-reading preparation occurs in method books. Book

reviews of methods lack the focus and depth needed to help determine which series most

thoroughly develops sight-reading ability. McArthur’s 1996 article, “Piano Methods and

Sightreading,”31 provides only a brief evaluation of certain piano methods. This study

may serve as a resource for piano teachers as they evaluate which method best meets the

needs of their students.

Some teachers use one of the many graded sight-reading series to help develop

their students’ sight-reading skills; however, most of these series assume a certain

cognitive or technical background and cannot be commenced until the students have had

several weeks or months of lessons. Thus, much valuable time is wasted in which

students could be starting to develop important sight-reading skills. The proposed sight-

reading curriculum provides activities for developing keyboard topography, pattern

recognition, directional reading, and effective sight-reading habits for beginning students,

so they may build a foundation of sight-reading skills from their first piano lessons.

30 Deutsch, Guided Sight-Reading, 14.

31 Victoria McArthur, “Piano Methods and Sightreading,” Piano & Keyboard no. 179

(March/April 1996): 59-61; Victoria McArthur, “Piano Methods and Sightreading Part II,” Piano & Keyboard no. 181 (July/August 1996): 55-58.

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Although some books and articles suggest sight-reading activities for beginners,32 no

source found presents a comprehensive curriculum preparing sight-reading skills.

LIMITATIONS

The study is limited to a survey of the following instructional piano methods,

from the Primer Level through Level 2: Piano Adventures, Bastien Piano Basics, The

Music Tree, and Alfred’s Premier Piano Course. These are four currently available

methods with different reading approaches. Lesson books, Theory or Activity books,

Performance books, Technique books, At-Home books, supplementary sight-reading

books, and flashcards will be examined for each method. The evaluation criteria are

limited to an examination of each method’s inclusion of sight-reading exercises and

activities that develop the concepts of keyboard topography, pattern recognition,

directional reading, and good sight-reading habits. Only print materials are reviewed.

The sample sight-reading curriculum is limited to activities and exercises that may be

executed with the skills taught in most primer-level lesson books.

RELATED LITERATURE

Books

Several books contain interesting philosophies on sight-reading as well as useful

collections of sight-reading exercises; however, many of these exercises cannot be

commenced at the primer level. In Guided Sight-Reading: A New Approach to Piano

Study, Deutsch explains a sight-reading method that he developed and includes a graded

32 Havill, “Sight Reading Can Be Taught,” 32-36; Sidney J. Lawrence, A Guide to Remedial

Sightreading for the Piano Student: A Study in Corrective Teaching Techniques and Procedures (Hewlett, New York: Workshop Music Teaching Publications, 1964). Havill provides activities to develop keyboard topography and Lawrence addresses vertical reading skills.

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list of sight-reading materials for experienced pianists.33 Lawrence addresses many sight-

reading skills in A Guide to Remedial Sightreading for the Piano Student: A Study in

Corrective Teaching Techniques and Procedures, with a special focus on developing

vertical reading skills.34 In Keyboard Sight Reading, Burmeister offers progressive sight-

reading exercises, with valuable eye-movement and concentration activities.35 A Piano

Teacher’s Legacy: Selected Writings by Richard Chronister contains one chapter devoted

to Chronister’s writings on the topic of sight-reading that emphasize the value of sight-

reading and provide activities for developing sight-reading skills.36

Articles

Piano journals such as Clavier,37 Keyboard Arts, and Piano Pedagogy Forum

contain articles offering pedagogical insight into the art of teaching sight-reading.

McArthur explains how to incorporate sight-reading into the piano lesson in “The Lost

Arts of Technique and Sight-Reading.”38 A two-part article in Piano & Keyboard by

McArthur begins the process of evaluating piano methods on their ability to prepare

students to be effective sight-readers39 and lists several criteria that will be part of the

33 Deutsch, Guided Sight-Reading.

34 Lawrence, A Guide to Remedial Sightreading for the Piano Student.

35 Ellen Burmeister, Keyboard Sight Reading (Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing, 1991).

36 Darling, ed., A Piano Teacher’s Legacy: Selected Writings by Richard Chronister.

37 As of January 2009, Clavier has been published by the Frances Clark Center for Keyboard Pedagogy with the title Clavier Companion.

38 McArthur, “The Lost Arts of Technique and Sight-Reading.” 39 Victoria McArthur, “Piano Methods and Sightreading,” Piano & Keyboard no. 179

(March/April 1996): 59-61; Victoria McArthur, “Piano Methods and Sightreading Part II,” Piano & Keyboard no. 181 (July/August 1996): 55-58.

11

evaluation process for the third chapter of the thesis. In “Sight Reading Can Be Taught,”

Havill provides specific drills and exercises to enhance sight-reading skills.40

Music education journals include studies that identify the relationship between

sight-reading ability and specific variables. Kornicke’s “An Exploratory Study of

Individual Difference Variables in Piano Sight-Reading Achievement,”41 McPherson’s

“Factors and Abilities Influencing Sightreading Skill in Music,”42 and Elliott’s “The

Relationships among Instrumental Sight-Reading Ability and Seven Selected Predictor

Variables”43 examine how sight-reading ability correlates with proficiency in other

musical domains and with emotional and cognitive variables.

Articles in psychology journals have investigated cognitive processes involved in

sight-reading. Sloboda studied the eye-hand span in “The Eye-Hand Span—An

Approach to the Study of Sight Reading” and other publications.44 Goolsby further

examined eye movement in a Music Perception article, “Profiles of Processing: Eye

Movements During Sightreading.”45

40 Havill, “Sight Reading Can Be Taught.”

41 Eloise Kornicke, “An Exploratory Study of Individual Difference Variables in Piano Sight-

Reading Achievement,” The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning 6, no. 1 (1995): 56-79.

42 Gary McPherson, “Factors and Abilities Influencing Sightreading Skill in Music,” Journal of Research in Music Education 42, no. 3 (Autumn 1994): 217-231.

43 Charles Elliott, “The Relationships Among Instrumental Sight-Reading Ability and Seven Selected Predictor Variables,” Journal of Research in Music Education 30, no. 1 (Spring 1982): 5-14.

44 John Sloboda, “The Eye-Hand Span: An Approach to the Study of Sight Reading,” Psychology of Music 2 (1974): 4-10.

45 Thomas W. Goolsby, “Profiles of Processing: Eye Movements During Sightreading,” Music Perception 12, no. 1 (Fall 1994): 97-123.

12

Unpublished Materials

Hardy evaluated the sight-reading abilities of elementary-level pianists in her

1995 dissertation.46 Dissertations by Chang47 and Young48 identified eye-movement

trends among successful and unsuccessful sight-readers. A dissertation by Cox

investigated how score analysis, piano experience, and pattern reading related to sight-

reading ability.49

DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

The thesis consists of four chapters and a bibliography. Chapter one consists of

an introduction including the purpose and need for the study, limitations of the research,

and a survey of related literature. Chapter two summarizes the existing research on sight-

reading. Chapter three consists of a survey of the inclusion of activities and concepts that

promote sight-reading skills in specific average-age piano methods during the first two

years of study. Chapter four consists of a sample sight-reading curriculum.

46 Diane Hardy, “The Construction and Validation of an Original Sight-Playing Test for

Elementary Piano Students” (PhD diss., University of Oklahoma, 1995). 47 Sun-Hee Chang, “A Study of Eye Movement During Sight-Reading of Selected Piano

Compositions” (EdD diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 1993).

48 Leonora Young, “A Study of Eye Movements and Eye-Hand Temporal Relationships of Successful and Unsuccessful Piano Sight-Readers While Piano Sight-Reading” (PhD diss., Indiana University, 1971).

49 Buford Cox, “Factors Associated with Success in Sight Reading Four-Part Chordal Piano Music” (PhD diss., Auburn University, 2000).

13

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF SIGHT-READING RESEARCH

Empirical research on sight-reading reveals certain relationships between specific

skills or habits and good sight-reading ability. Reviews of sight-reading literature exist

for band instruments,50 pianists,51 and general musicians.52 This chapter summarizes

some of the existing sight-reading research to determine what skills students might need

to develop to become successful readers at the piano.

Several researchers have surveyed teachers and students in order to better

understand attitudes about sight-reading. General music teachers and class piano teachers

were asked to rate the importance of twenty different musicianship skills and they

consistently ranked sight-reading as one of the top two skills.53 College faculty and in-

service teachers ranked sight-reading as the second most important piano skill,54 and in a

50 S. Daniel Galyen, “Sight-Reading Ability in Wind and Percussion Students: A Review of

Recent Literature,” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 24, no. 1 (Fall-Winter 2005): 57-70.

51 Brenda Wristen, “Cognition and Motor Execution in Piano Sight-Reading: A Review of Literature,” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 24, no. 1 (Fall-Winter 2005): 44-56; Barbara Fast, “Building Blocks to Effective Sight Reading” Piano Pedagogy Forum 11, no. 1 (July 2008), http://www.music.sc.edu/ea/keyboard/PPF/PPFFast.html (accessed January 13, 2009).

52 Eloise Stebleton, “Predictors of Sight-Reading Achievement: A Review of the Literature,” Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 6, no. 1 (Fall 1987) 11-15.

53 James B. Lyke, “An Investigation of Class Piano Programs in the Six State Universities of Illinois and Recommendations for Their Improvement” (EdD diss., University of Northern Colorado, 1968) cited in Watkins and Hughes, “The Effect of an Accompanying Situation on the Improvement of Students’ Sight Reading Skills,” 97.

14

poll of nationally certified teachers of the Music Teachers National Association, eighty-

six percent of respondents rated sight-reading as a “highly important” or the “most

important” pianistic skill.55 Students also rated sight-reading as the second most valuable

piano skill in a survey of collegiate class piano students.56 These results suggest that

sight-reading is an important skill that is valued by many teachers and students.

Some studies have examined the relationship between performance ability and

sight-reading ability. In a study of high school trumpet and clarinet players, sight-reading

skill was not significantly correlated with the ability to perform a repertoire of rehearsed

music.57 Studies of advanced pianists revealed that neither composite number of pieces

performed nor hours of practice of solo repertoire significantly correlated with sight-

reading achievement, suggesting that learning to sight-read requires skills that are not

automatically transferred from practicing and performing repertoire.58 While some might

assume that musicians with good performance abilities are naturally good sight-readers,

these findings suggest otherwise.

Because students may not naturally become proficient sight-readers just by

training for performance, sight-reading skills may need to be developed independently

from performance abilities. However, only seven percent of the respondents in a study of

54 Jerry E. Lowder, “Evaluation of Keyboard Skills Required in College Class Piano,”

Contributions to Music Education 10 (1983): 36.

55 Hardy, “Teaching Sight-Reading at the Piano.”

56 Marilyn Kostka, “Effects of Self-Assessment and Successive Approximations on ‘Knowing’ and ‘Valuing’ Selected Keyboard Skills,” Journal of Research in Music Education 45, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 278.

57 McPherson, “Factors and Abilities Influencing Sightreading Skill in Music,” 217.

58 Kornicke, “An Exploratory Study of Individual Difference Variables in Piano Sight-Reading Achievement,” 72; Lehmann and Ericsson, “Performance Without Preparation,” 13.

15

certified MTNA teachers said they taught sight-reading in a systematic way to their

students,59 and sixty-eight percent of advanced pianists surveyed reported that sight-

reading was not included in their lessons.60 These statistics suggest that sight-reading is

often neglected in piano lessons.

Researchers have been able to identify specific skills and habits that correlate with

good sight-reading abilities. These skills and habits seem to fall into four main

categories: topographical awareness of the keyboard, fluency in directional reading,

pattern recognition abilities, and habits of effective sight-reading execution.

KEYBOARD TOPOGRAPHY

Several studies have examined the relationship between pianists’ sight-reading

skill and their topographical awareness of the keyboard. Topographical awareness refers

to a pianist’s ability to navigate the keys without always relying on their eyes to guide

them. A study of auditory and visual feedback on pianists during sight-reading showed

that pianists who reported rarely practicing sight-reading relied more on visual contact

with the keys to execute their movements.61 Wolf attempted to develop a cognitive

model of sight-reading in his qualitative study of four expert sight-readers. Proficient

sight-readers reported having a kinesthetic imagery and precise mental picture of the keys

59 Hardy, “Teaching Sight-Reading at the Piano.”

60 Kornicke, “An Exploratory Study of Individual Difference Variables in Piano Sight-Reading

Achievement,” 71.

61 Louise Banton, “The Role of Visual and Auditory Feedback During the Sight-Reading of Music,” Psychology of Music 23 (1995): 14.

16

that allowed them to move without looking at their hands. They were able to see the

notes on the page as “the keys on the keyboard.” 62

When sight-reading a new piece, most of a pianist’s visual attention must be

focused on the score, leaving less time to look at the keyboard than is available in other

practice or performance situations. These findings suggest that teachers may enhance

their students’ sight-reading ability by helping them develop a topographical awareness

of the keyboard and by providing experiences in which they practice navigating the

keyboard without relying on visual feedback.

DIRECTIONAL READING

Many pedagogues believe that an ability to read directionally and recognize the

relationship between notes is more advantageous than note identification skills. 63 Expert

sight-readers in Wolf’s study claimed they were able to “feel the stretches of octaves and

other intervals” as they read a piece of music.64 This response suggests that in addition to

identifying an interval as a “fourth” or a “seventh,” students’ hands must also be able to

form and play the desired interval without visual feedback.

Often, pianists do not have time to look down to find individual notes when sight-

reading, so being able to read directionally may be an asset to fluently reading a new

piece. If pianists are able to identify quickly the distance between two notes on the page

and immediately transfer that knowledge into a physical movement, then they will read

more fluently than if they must search for each individual note. Teachers may foster

62 Thomas Wolf, “A Cognitive Model of Musical Sight-Reading,” Journal of Psycholinguistic

Research 5, no. 2 (1976): 158-159.

63 Richard Chronister, “How Do You Teach Your Students to Read Intervals Fluently?” Keyboard Companion 14 (Winter 1990) 14.

64 Wolf, “A Cognitive Model of Musical Sight-Reading,” 159.

17

directional reading skills through interval-recognition exercises as well as activities that

technically prepare the hand to form and play intervals with ease.

PATTERN RECOGNITION

The brain must quickly process a large quantity of information while sight-

reading, and evidence suggests that good sight-readers have good pattern recognition

abilities and are able to chunk bits of information into larger groups. Expert sight-readers

in Wolf’s study agreed that sight-reading was “essentially a task in pattern recognition”

and that good sight-readers look for patterns instead of notes.65 Waters, Townsend, and

Underwood administered a pattern-comparison task to collegiate pianists and concluded

that more skilled sight-readers may perceive music in larger chunks than less skilled

readers.66 They suggest that quickly processing groups of notes is the most critical factor

associated with skilled sight-reading.67 Since short-term and working memory may only

hold a limited amount of information, coding several small pieces of stimuli into a single

chunk may allow for the absorption of more information. These mental chunks might

involve rhythmic groupings, pitch patterns, or the recognition of chords.

Studies of wind players indicate a positive relationship between rhythm-reading

ability and sight-reading ability.68 A study examining the effect of the perception of

rhythmic grouping organization on motor patterns in piano playing revealed that

65 Ibid., 145.

66 Andrew Waters, Ellen Townsend, and Geoffrey Underwood, “Expertise in Musical Sight Reading: A Study of Pianists,” British Journal of Psychology 89, no. 1 (February 1998): 135.

67 Ibid., 146. 68 McPherson, “Factors and Abilities Influencing Sightreading Skill in Music,” 228; Elliott, “The

Relationships Among Instrumental Sight-Reading Ability and Seven Selected Predictor Variables,” 5.

18

perceiving rhythm in progressively larger groupings contributed positively to motor

execution during sight-reading.69 Rhythmic errors, the most frequent error types that

occur during sight-reading,70 often involve inaccurate reading of individual note values.

Being able to chunk individual rhythmic values into larger rhythmic groupings could

prevent common rhythmic problems and allow sight-readers to focus on other elements

of reading and execution.

In addition to rhythmic grouping, some researchers have attempted to identify the

relationship between pitch grouping and sight-reading success. Early studies of pattern

recognition showed that good sight-readers were able to grasp more notes per eye

fixation than less-skilled readers.71 A more recent study of eye movements during sight-

reading supported these findings and revealed that less-skilled sight-readers tended to

fixate note-by-note, whereas skilled music readers did not need to fixate on every note to

perform correctly.72 The ability to process several notes as a single unit is not only

important for the horizontal component of reading, but the vertical component as well. A

study of collegiate class piano students showed that chord recognition ability was

significantly correlated with sight-reading scores.73 These findings suggest that

69 Ulrike Halsand, Ferdinand Binkofski, and Max Camp, “The Role of the Perception of

Rhythmic Grouping in Musical Performance: Evidence from Motor-Skill Development in Piano Playing,” Music Perception 11, no. 3 (Spring 1994): 281.

70 Hardy, “The Construction and Validation of an Original Sight-Playing Test for Elementary Piano Students,” viii-ix; Jerry E. Lowder, “Evaluation of a Sight-Reading Test Administered to Freshman Piano Classes,” Journal of Research in Music Education 21, no. 1 (Spring 1973): 72.

71 Irving Jacobsen, “An Analysis of Eye Movements in Reading Music” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1926) cited in Kenneth Bean, “An Experimental Approach to the Reading of Music,” Psychological Monographs 50, no. 6 (1938): 8; Bean, “An Experimental Approach to the Reading of Music,” 33.

72 Goolsby, “Profiles of Processing,” 121.

73 Cox, “Factors Associated with Success in Sight Reading Four-Part Chordal Piano Music,” iv.

19

identifying pitch patterns and processing several notes at once may help facilitate smooth

sight-reading.

Knowledge of theory may be related to an ability to identify patterns, and several

studies have examined the relationship between theory knowledge and sight-reading

ability. Elliott identified a moderately strong relationship between sight-reading scores

and theory grades in undergraduate wind players,74 and Micheletti observed that theory

grades were strong indicators of sight-reading improvement in undergraduate class

pianists.75 Expert sight-readers in Wolf’s study also acknowledged that a knowledge of

harmony aids in successful sight-reading.76 Furthermore, research has shown that

pianists with a background in harmony or counterpoint perform better than those with

only instrumental training.77 Since a background in theory may help students identify

chords and other note patterns, teachers should consider teaching their students about

chords and other theoretical concepts.

EFFECTIVE SIGHT-READING HABITS

Several studies have examined the correlation between specific sight-reading

habits and successful sight-reading. These include scanning the score before playing, not

stopping for mistakes, guessing and improvising, and using effective eye movements.

74 Elliott, “The Relationship Among Instrumental Sight-Reading Ability and Seven Predictor Variables,” 11.

75 Lynn Howe Micheletti, “An Assessment of the Vertical Method and the Ensemble Approach for Teaching Sight Reading to Secondary Class Piano Students” (PhD diss., University of Miami, 1980) cited in Fast, “Building Blocks to Effective Sight Reading.”


77 Bean, “An Experimental Approach to the Reading of Music,” 33.

20

A study of 428 elementary piano students found that older students engaged in

more pre-study of the score and read with fewer errors than younger students.78 The

observation of temporal features (tempo, rhythm, meter, syncopation, etc.) during pre-

study has also been positively correlated with sight-reading success.79 Results from these

studies suggest that teachers should encourage students to effectively use pre-playing

time for score analysis.

One goal of sight-reading is to maintain a steady rhythmic flow and not stop for

mistakes. A study of elementary pianists revealed that most students had not been trained

to maintain a steady tempo in spite of errors.80 Another study found that students who

had attained lower levels in the Associated Board of Piano Examinations were

significantly more likely to stop and correct previous note errors.81 An investigation of

the effect of accompanying on errors during sight-reading found that pianists who

accompanied a tape-recorded soloist while sight-reading had significantly higher

rhythmic accuracy than those who sight-read without accompanying.82 These results

suggest that having piano students sight-read duets with their teacher or engage in other

ensemble or accompanying activities may help improve their rhythmic accuracy and

ability to persist in spite of mistakes.

Since a main goal of sight-reading is to keep a steady pulse despite note or

rhythmic challenges, sometimes guessing or improvising may be necessary in order to

78 Hardy, “The Construction and Validation of an Original Sight-Playing Test,” ix.

79 Waters, Townsend, and Underwood, “Expertise in Musical Sight Reading,” 130.

80 Hardy, “The Construction and Validation of an Original Sight-Playing Test,” viii. 81 Banton, “The Role of Visual and Auditory Feedback During the Sight-Reading of Music,” 15.

82 Watkins and Hughes, “The Effect of an Accompanying Situation on the Improvement of

Students’ Sight Reading Skills,” 102.

21

maintain an even rhythmic flow. Expert sight-readers in Wolf’s study stated that they

only read a “fraction of the notes” and “guess[ed] at the others.”83 An examination of the

effect of rhythmic improvisation exercises on sight-reading rhythmic accuracy for

collegiate class piano students showed that students who practiced improvising pitches to

given rhythms over a six-week period exhibited greater rhythmic accuracy in sight-

reading fully notated music.84 Incorporating similar improvisation activities into piano

students’ lessons may promote more effective sight-reading.

One area that has received much attention from researchers concerns eye

movement during sight-reading. While sight-reading, the eyes perform many quick

fixations, or pauses of the eyes, usually about 240 milliseconds in length. Skilled sight-

readers have been shown to have fewer fixations than less-skilled readers, as the less-

skilled readers tend to fixate on every note and rest while skilled readers can take in

multiple notes in one fixation.85 An examination of piano performance majors found that

these fixations were shorter for accurate sight-readers; they seemed to be able to process

visual stimuli more quickly than poor readers. Skilled readers also use longer durations

to explore other areas of the score. For example, when playing a whole note, the skilled

reader’s eyes are absorbing the upcoming notation, whereas the poor reader is remaining

fixated on the whole note for most of its duration.86


84 David R. Montano, “Effect of Improvising in Given Rhythms on Piano Students’ Sight Reading Rhythmic Accuracy Achievement,” Missouri Journal of Research in Music Education 5 (1985): 13.

85 Goolsby, “Profiles of Processing,” 102. 86 Goolsby, “Profiles of Processing,” 121.

22

Between fixations during sight-reading, the eyes perform either progressive

saccades (left-to-right eye movement) or regressive saccades (right-to-left eye

movement). Skilled sight-readers tend to have longer progressive saccade lengths and a

greater ratio of regressive to progressive fixations, indicating that skilled sight-readers

look farther ahead and then back to the point of performance.87 Sloboda investigated

how far ahead sight-readers are able to look by identifying their eye-hand span (EHS).

The EHS is the number of notes that can be correctly played following the note on which

the music is made invisible. His studies showed that more accurate sight-readers tend to

have a longer EHS, indicating that EHS may be an important component of sight-reading

competence.88 There also seems to be a tendency for the EHS to extend to a phrase

boundary, especially among skilled sight-readers, suggesting a relationship between

awareness of phrase units and accurate sight-reading.89 Based on these studies, eye usage

seems to play an integral role in the sight-reading process. Therefore, it may be helpful

for students to be taught to use their eyes in appropriate ways that will result in effective

sight-reading.

CONCLUSION

Training students to become familiar with the keyboard topography, engage in

directional reading, chunk bits of information into recognizable patterns, and develop

effective sight-reading habits may increase their chances of becoming fluent sight-

87 Ibid., 114.

88 Sloboda, “The Eye-Hand Span: An Approach to the Study of Sight Reading,” 6. 89 Johh Sloboda, “Music Reading and Prose Reading: Some Comparisons of Underlying

Perceptual Processes” (PhD thesis, London University, 1974) cited in John Sloboda, “Phrase Units as Determinants of Visual Processing in Music Reading,” British Journal of Psychology 68 (1977): 118.

23

readers. Most importantly, students need opportunities to practice sight-reading. A study

of variables that affect sight-reading achievement revealed that sight-reading experience

was the strongest predictor of sight-reading success.90 Another study found sight-reading

and accompanying experience to be a better predictor of sight-reading success than

accumulated piano practice or years of study.91 Therefore, engaging in progressively

difficult sight-reading activities may contribute positively to acquiring a good sight-

reading ability.92

Many pedagogues agree that students should begin to develop sight-reading skills

from the very first lesson. But to what extent do beginning method books actually

include activities and exercises that may develop sight-reading skills? The following

chapter will evaluate four elementary piano methods based on their inclusion of sight-

reading activities and exercises that promote the development of sight-reading skills.

These skills include a topographical awareness of the keyboard, directional reading,

pattern recognition, and effective sight-reading habits. A primer-level sight-reading

curriculum will be created in the final chapter, which offers exercises that aim to promote

the development of these skills.

90 Kornicke, “An Exploratory Study of Individual Difference Variables in Piano Sight-Reading

Achievement,” 64.

91 Lehmann and Ericsson, “Performance Without Preparation,” 22. 92 Ibid., 24.

24

CHAPTER 3

SURVEY OF ELEMENTARY PIANO METHODS

This chapter evaluates the following elementary piano methods based on their

inclusion of sight-reading activities and exercises that promote the development of sight-

reading skills: Alfred’s Premier Piano Course, Piano Adventures, Bastien Piano Basics,

and The Music Tree. Inclusion of the following skills and concepts is addressed:

• Keyboard Topography

o Does the method promote exploration of the entire keyboard?

o How many pieces allow the student to move out of a fixed hand position?

• Directional Reading

o Do the authors encourage reading individual notes or reading

directionally?

o When and how are steps, skips, and intervals introduced?

o Are landmark notes used?

o Are there transposition activities to reinforce intervallic reading?

o How many pieces require students to play out of standard hand positions?

• Pattern Recognition

o Do the authors encourage reading rhythms in patterns or single durations?

o What pitch patterns are students exposed to, and how are they reinforced?

25

o What types of vertical note groupings do students learn, and how are they

reinforced?

• Sight-Reading Habits

o What types of sight-reading exercises occur, and how frequently do they

happen?

o Do the authors encourage effective sight-reading habits such as playing

without stopping to correct mistakes, looking ahead while playing, and

scanning before sight-reading?

o How many duet and accompanying opportunities are offered?

Three charts are included for each piano method. The first chart is located in the

“keyboard topography” section and shows the percentage of pieces in each Lesson book

and Performance book that allow the student to move out of a fixed hand position. The

second chart is located in the “directional reading” section and indicates how many of the

two-hand pieces require standard fixed positions such as middle C position, C position, G

position, F position, and D position. Only the first two levels in each series are included

in these charts, since the increasing complexity of the music in later levels prevents

reliance on ten-note positions. The final chart is located in the “sight-reading habits”

section and reveals what percentage of the musical selections have teacher duets, as these

ensemble opportunities may enhance a student’s ability to maintain a steady tempo

without stopping to correct mistakes.

26

ALFRED’S PREMIER PIANO COURSE

The first two levels of Alfred’s Premier Piano Course consist of Level 1A, Level

1B, Level 2A, and Level 2B. Each level contains a Lesson book, Theory book,

Performance, book, At-Home book, and flashcard set.

Keyboard Topography Table 3.1 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in Alfred’s Premier Piano Course Lesson 1A 21.8%

Performance 1A 24%

Lesson 1B 50%

Performance 1B 55%

Lesson 2A 53.8%

Performance 2A 82.4%

Lesson 2B 90.9%

Performance 2B 100%

The books in this series provide several opportunities for students to explore

different areas of the keyboard. Lesson 1A begins with black-key exercises moving up

and down the piano in octaves. Several white-key pieces encourage a topographical

awareness through changes of hand placement within a musical selection. A total of

twelve pieces in Lesson 1A and six pieces in Performance 1A require students to move

their hand position during performance, and more than half of the selections in the

Lesson and Performance books from Levels 1B, 2A, and 2B have the student move as

well. Several “Workout” exercises occur in the Lesson books that provide practice in

27

finger crossings, hand crossing, and position shifts. While the musical selections require

students to become comfortable moving about the keyboard, the authors do not

encourage the students to keep their visual focus on the music or to attempt playing

without looking at their hands.

Directional Reading Table 3.2 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in Alfred’s Premier Piano Course

Mid. C C / c G / g D / d None

Lesson 1A 3 3 0 0 24

Performance 1A 1 2 0 0 21

Lesson 1B 11 0 4 4 16

Performance 1B 2 1 3 4 11

Alfred’s Premier Piano Course promotes directional reading and does not

encourage students to learn a set of fixed hand positions for pieces. In fact, the word

“position” is never used in the series, and the authors do not associate specific keys with

specific finger numbers. Sometimes students are asked to play a piece again using a

different starting finger.

Steps and repeated notes are introduced while the student is still playing black

keys. Steps and skips are more clearly defined later in Lesson 1A by demonstrating how

they look on the hand, on the staff, on the keyboard, and in the musical alphabet. While

still reading off-staff, students are asked to draw directional lines through the notes of

their pieces, circle steps, skips, or repeated notes in their music, or point to their music

28

and articulate the directional movement (e.g. “repeat” or “step down”). Students are also

asked to identify the directional motion of notes in their theory books and flashcards.

Page 41 of Lesson 1A explains that “landmark notes are important guides to

learning other notes.”93 The students first learn to identify C4, G4, F3 and C3. Then

other notes are introduced as being a step higher or lower than a note the students already

have learned.

Intervals begin to be introduced in Level 1B. Students encounter seconds, thirds,

fourths, and fifths in Level 1B, sixths in Level 2A, and sevenths and octaves in Level 2B.

Students are asked to identify the intervals in their Lesson books, identify, name, and

draw the intervals in their Theory books, and name and play the intervals on their

flashcards. Transposition activities to help reinforce intervallic reading also begin in

Level 1B. By the end of Level 2B, students have transposed pieces between C, G, D, and

A Major, as well as C, G, D, and A minor.

Pattern Recognition

The authors of Alfred’s Premier Piano Course emphasize reading rhythms in

patterns rather than single durations, with each level containing three to ten new rhythm

patterns that are one to two measures long. These patterns are introduced in the Lesson

books and incorporated into the musical selections. The Theory books offer

opportunities to clap, tap, and write the rhythm patterns as well as review patterns from

previous levels in the series. The At-Home books encourage parents to ask their children

to teach them how to clap and count each rhythm, and each rhythm pattern is included in

93 Dennis Alexander, Gayle Kowalchyk, E. L. Lancaster, Victoria McArthur, and Martha Mier,

Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Lesson 1A, edited by Morton Manus (Van Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005), 41.

29

the set of flashcards. While these activities seem to provide substantial reinforcement of

each rhythm, the authors rarely ask the students to identify the rhythm patterns in their

repertoire pieces.

Students are also presented with several pitch patterns to learn. These include

major and minor five-finger patterns in the keys of C, G, D, and A, as well as the C

Major and G Major scales. Again, these patterns are introduced in the Lesson books,

reinforced in the Theory books, and included in the flashcard sets; however, the authors

do not ask the students to identify the patterns in their musical selections.

Once students reach Level 2A, they begin to be exposed to vertical note

groupings, including the tonic and dominant seventh chords in the keys of C, G, and D

Major. Dominant seventh chords are first introduced as two-note chords, but three-note

V7 chords appear in level 2B. Cross-hand arpeggios using the tonic chord are also

included in Level 2B. In the Theory books, students receive opportunities to identify the

chords with Roman numerals and chord symbols. The flashcards contain short tonic-

dominant and dominant-tonic progressions for students to identify and play.

30

Sight-Reading Habits Table 3.3 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in Alfred’s Premier Piano Course Lesson 1A 100%

Performance 1A 100%

Lesson 1B 58.3%

Performance 1B 70%

Lesson 2A 30.8%


Lesson 2B 13.6%

Performance 2B 25%

Each Lesson book contains several “Sight-Reading” exercises. There are 2-4

examples in each exercise varying from one note to two measures in length. Students are

instructed to “play as quickly as you can three times each day.”

The Theory books promote sight-reading through “Now Play This” exercises.

These are short musical exercises ranging from 2-4 bars that reinforce recently learned

skills and concepts at an easier level than the students’ repertoire pieces. Book 1A

contains only one-hand activities, and later books add two-hand exercises.

Each level of the Premier Piano Course has an accompanying set of 30-60 sight-

reading flashcards. Students are instructed to play the cards that correlate with their

current page assignments in the lesson book “one time each day.” The musical examples

are usually 1-3 measures long.

31

Although the Lesson books, Theory books, and sight-reading cards offer sight-

reading opportunities, students are not given any instruction in the text in how to sight-

read effectively. Sight-reading habits such as scanning the music, setting a steady beat,

and not stopping for mistakes are not mentioned.

While the authors do not discourage stopping to correct mistakes, the large

amount of teacher-student duets provides students with plentiful ensemble opportunities

that may help develop this skill. There is a teacher duet for every student piece in the

Level 1A Lesson and Performance books, and Level 1B has duets for more than half of

the pieces in the Lesson and Performance books. Duet opportunities significantly decline

in number in the Level 2 books. Once or twice in each Lesson book, a segment entitled

“Imagination Station” requires students to improvise pitches to given rhythmic patterns,

which may promote the ability to maintain a steady pulse and not stop to correct

mistakes.

PIANO ADVENTURES

The first two levels of Piano Adventures consist of Primer Level, Level 1, Level

2A, and Level 2B. The Lesson books, Theory books, Performance books, Technique and

Artistry books, and flashcard set have been examined. The method offers supplemental

Christmas books at each level, and a sight-reading series called Let’s Sightplay! is

loosely correlated with the Piano Adventures course.

32

Keyboard Topography Table 3.4 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in Piano Adventures Lesson Primer 22.4%

Performance Primer 7.1%

Lesson 1 48.9%

Performance 1 39.1%

Lesson 2A 45.2%


Lesson 2B 90.6%

Performance 2B 94.1%

The musical selections provide several opportunities for students to become

familiar with the keyboard orientation. The authors explain at the start of the Primer

Lesson book that the series “orients students to the piano through black-key pieces that

explore the range of the keyboard.”94 Black-key and white-key pieces move up and down

the keyboard in octaves in the Primer Level, and students are often encouraged to play

pieces in different ranges on the piano. Many pieces in the Lesson and Performance

books provide practice in shifting positions while playing, and hand crossings are

introduced in Level 1. The Technique and Artistry books also provide exercises in

playing patterns in different octaves of the keyboard. The authors often encourage

students to keep their eyes on the music and play without looking at their hands, an

94 Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Lesson Book

Primer Level (North Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1996), inside cover.

33

important skill for sight-reading success. One time in Level 2A the student is asked to

play a piece with eyes closed.

Directional Reading Table 3.5 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in Piano Adventures

Mid. C C / c G / g Two positions

None

Primer Lesson 6 13 0 0 18

Primer Performance 8 7 0 0 10

Lesson 1 6 18 6 3 8

Performance 1 3 7 4 3 5

The Piano Adventures series promotes directional reading while also introducing

different playing positions. The authors explain that “special pianistic fingerings are

suggested which prevent the student from equating any specific note with a finger

number” and that “good readers know the note names on the staff…but also read by steps

and skips.”95

While still playing off-staff, students are asked to identify whether notes move up,

down, or repeat. Steps are first introduced off-staff and students learn to read on-staff

steps and skips in the Primer book. “Discovery Questions” and “Reading Alerts” in the

Lesson and Performance books require students to identify or circle steps and skips in

their music, while the Theory book provides additional practice in identifying, drawing,

and playing these directional movements.

95 Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Lesson Book Primer Level, inside cover.

34

Intervals begin to be introduced in Level 1. Students encounter seconds, thirds,

fourths, and fifths in Level 1 and sixths in Level 2B. “Discovery Questions” again ask

students to identify the intervals in the repertoire pieces, while the Theory books offer

opportunities to name and draw the intervals. The flashcard set contains four interval

flashcards, with each interval written in right hand C position.

Transposition activities to help reinforce intervallic reading begin in Level 2A.

The authors explain to the student that transposing means “playing a piece in a different

position…the actual note names will change, but the intervals will stay the same.

Reading the intervals and listening to the sound will help you transpose.”96 Students are

then encouraged to transpose various pieces in each of their books between C, G, D, A,

and F positions. The Technique and Artistry books provide opportunities to transpose

five-finger exercises up and down the keyboard.

The authors do not identify any notes as “landmark” notes. Each new note that is

introduced is not described by its relation to familiar notes, but rather by its precise

location on the staff (e.g. “G is on the 4th space of the bass staff”). Middle C and C

positions are introduced in the Primer Level, and students learn G, D, F, and A positions

by the end of Level 2.

Pattern Recognition

New rhythmic values are introduced as single durations; however, “Discovery

Questions” following repertoire pieces often ask the student to identify different

occurrences of a specific rhythmic pattern. The flashcard set contains eight rhythm

flashcards that present single notes as well as one-hand and two-hand patterns to perform.

96 Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Lesson Book Primer Level (Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1997), 12.

35

Students are presented with several pitch patterns to learn. The flashcard set has

twenty-seven note-reading flashcards containing individual note recognition practice, as

well as short pitch patterns to play. Both major and minor five-finger patterns in the keys

of C, G, D, and A are introduced in the Level 2A Lesson book. The Technique and

Artistry book at this level contains an appendix with all twelve major five-finger patterns

and the seven white-key minor five-finger patterns. The flashcard set contains cards for

each major and minor pattern beginning on a white key, with opportunities to identify the

pattern and use the pattern in a sight-reading exercise. Cross-hand arpeggios and the C,

G, and F-Major scales are introduced in Level 2B. Students are often asked to identify

these pitch patterns in their repertoire pieces, and the Theory books offer opportunities to

identify and draw these patterns.

When students reach Level 1, they begin to be exposed to vertical note groupings,

including the I and V7 chord in the key of C. By the end of Level 2B, students have

learned the primary triads in C, G, and F major, as well as the tonic chords for each of

their major and minor five-finger patterns. The authors encourage the students to analyze

their repertoire by identifying the chords and harmonic patterns that are employed, and

the Theory books offer additional reinforcement of the chords through identification,

drawing, and harmonization exercises. The Level 2B Technique and Artistry book

contains an appendix with the following cadences in all twelve keys: I-V7-I, i-V7-i, and

I-IV-I.

36

Sight-Reading Habits Table 3.6 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in Piano Adventures Lesson Primer 71.4%


Lesson 1 30.4%

Performance 1 50%

Lesson 2A 36.7%


Lesson 2B 31.3%

Performance 2B 35.3%

Most of the sight-reading focus in Piano Adventures occurs in the Theory books.

Each book contains twelve to twenty-two short sight-reading examples that reinforce the

concepts learned in the Lesson book. The authors frequently offer suggestions for a

sight-reading protocol that involves the following steps:

1) Before playing, look through the piece noticing hand position and rhythm.

2) Set a slow steady beat and “think” the rhythm of the first two measures in

your head. Count one “free measure.”

3) Keep your eyes on the music, always moving your eyes ahead.

4) Once you begin playing, keep going no matter what!97

97 Nancy Faber, Randall Faber, and Victoria McArthur, Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method.

Theory Book Primer Level (Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1996), 22; Nancy Faber, Randall Faber, and Victoria McArthur, Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Theory Book Level 1 (North Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1993), 7.

37

These steps suggest several good sight-reading habits, including scanning the

music before playing, looking ahead, and not stopping to correct mistakes. The Lesson

and Performance books also help reinforce some of these good habits. Often students are

asked to scan their music and notice areas of repetition or contrast, and teacher duets are

often provided that may encourage playing without stopping. Level 2B also offers

students one opportunity to serve as an accompanist for their teacher.

Two supplementary items in the Piano Adventures curriculum should also be

noted for their inclusion of sight-reading activities: the Christmas books and the Let’s

Sightplay! series. Each carol in the Christmas book is followed by three or four

“Sightreading Stocking Stuffers.” These are short sight-reading exercises that use the

same rhythms and lyrics as the Christmas carol but contain a different melody. Students

are encouraged to use the following “three C’s” to help them with sight-reading:98

1) Correct hand position

2) Count-off one free measure

3) Concentrate: eyes focused on the music, carefully reading the intervals

The Let’s Sightplay! series by Kathleen Massoud uses the same sequence of concepts as

Piano Adventures, and books one, two, and three of the series may be used in correlation

with the method books discussed. Each of the fourteen units in the Let’s Sightplay!

books contains one “Dialogue,” two “Sightplaying Chimes,” and one “Theme and

Variations.” The “Dialogue” is a short sight-reading exercise, and the “Sightplaying

Chimes” test individual note recognition ability. The “Theme and Variations”

encourages students to recognize similarities and differences in musical patterns.

98 Nancy Faber and Randall Faber, Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Christmas Book

Primer Level (North Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1996), 2.

38

BASTIEN PIANO BASICS

The first two levels of Bastien Piano Basics consist of Primer Level, Level 1, and

Level 2. Each level contains a Piano book, Performance book, Theory book, and Technic

book. Two sets of flashcards and a supplementary sight-reading series have also been

examined.

Keyboard Topography Table 3.7 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in Bastien Piano Basics Lesson Primer 2.0%


Lesson 1 28.9%

Performance 1 25%

Lesson 2 97.0%

Performance 2 100%

The books in this series rarely provide opportunities for the student to explore

different areas of the keyboard. Students play black key groups up and down the piano as

part of a “high” and “low” activity, but none of the black-key pieces require movement

about the keys. Very few of the repertoire pieces in the early levels have students move

out of a fixed hand position. Occasionally, the authors do encourage playing without

looking at the keyboard. When introducing white keys, the students are asked to shut

their eyes, touch a set of black keys with one hand, and find and name nearby white keys

with the other hand. Students are once instructed to “memorize a picture of the

39

keyboard!”99 After chords have been introduced, the students are often asked to “play by

feel” without looking at their hands for the chord changes.

Directional Reading Table 3.8 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in Bastien Piano Basics

Mid. C C / c G / g F/f Two positions

None

Primer Lesson 6 22 7 0 0 5

Primer Performance 4 13 2 0 0 4

Lesson 1 0 21 12 6 3 4

Performance 1 0 4 6 5 4 1

Many of the repertoire pieces in the early levels of Bastien Piano Basics require

the use of one the following fixed positions: Middle C position, C position, G position, or

F position. D, A, and E positions are introduced in Level 2. The playing position is

indicated at the beginning of many selections. New notes are introduced when the new

positions are encountered.

The concepts of steps, skips, and repeated notes are introduced once the students

have been exposed to C position on the staff; however, students are not asked to identify

these directional movements in their music. Seconds, thirds, fourths, and fifths are also

introduced in the Primer Level, and the authors do encourage students to find or identify

certain intervals in their pieces. Sixths and sevenths appear in Level 2, and the students

have opportunities to identify and draw intervals in their Theory books. A supplementary

99 Bastien, James, Bastien Piano Basics: Piano Primer Level (San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos Music, 1985), 15.

40

set of Interval Flashcards is also available. Collectively, the cards in this set contain all

the intervals found in C, G, and Middle C positions as well as sixths, sevenths, and

octaves. Students are encouraged to identify the intervals, sing the intervals, and play

them on the keyboard.

Transposition activities begin in the Level 1 Theory book, and the authors explain

that transposition means “to play in a different key than written. Although different notes

are used, the intervals between the notes remain the same.”100 Students receive more

transposition opportunities in Level 2.

Pattern Recognition

Little or no emphasis is placed on reading rhythmic patterns in Bastien Piano

Basics; however, students are exposed to pitch patterns and vertical note groupings. The

term “five-finger pattern” is not used in the series, although students learn to recognize

the five notes associated with each new position. Level 2 contains one-octave scales in

each of the Group 1 and Group 2 keys, and students have the opportunity to draw these

scales in the Theory books. Students are not asked to identify the scales in their music.

Tonic chords in C and G major are introduced as early as the Primer Level. The

two-note V7 chord appears in Level 1, and three-note primary triads are introduced in all

the positions learned by the end of Level 2. These chords are first encountered in the

Piano books. Students are never asked to identify these chords in their repertoire;

however, they receive opportunities to draw the chords in their Theory books and to play

exercises using the chords in their Technic books. Level 2 contains the first chord

progressions in the series, and by the end of Level 2 students have learned the I-IV-I-V7-I

100 Bastien, James, Bastien Piano Basics: Theory Level 1 (San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos Music, 1985), 25.

41

progression in all the Group 1 and Group 2 keys. None of the pitch patterns or chords are

included in the flashcard sets.

Sight-Reading Habits Table 3.9 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in Bastien Piano Basics Lesson Primer 26.9%


Lesson 1 2.3%

Performance 1 0.0%

Lesson 2 0.0%

Performance 2 0.0%

There are no musical selections designated as “sight-reading” exercises in the

core books of the Bastien Piano Basics series; however, a few effective sight-reading

habits are encouraged. The authors frequently encourage students to keep their visual

attention on the music and not look down at the keyboard while playing. Practice

directions in the Piano books tell the student to “watch the music while you play” and “do

not look down at your hands.”101 Students are occasionally asked to scan the score before

playing, identifying the form of a piece and noting areas of repetition and contrast. The

authors do not encourage performing without correcting mistakes, and there is a low

frequency of teacher duets that might encourage maintaining a steady pulse.

101 Bastien, James, Bastien Piano Basics: Piano Primer Level, 26.

42

A supplementary sight-reading series called A Line a Day by Jane Bastien may be

used in correlation with the Bastien Piano Basics series. Each A Line a Day book

contains two different types of activities: “Daily Note Searches” and four-measure

phrases to sight-read. The “Daily Note Searches” are out of position and encourage

students to locate quickly notes all over the keyboard; however, the four-measure sight-

reading exercises remain in the standard positions that students learned in the method

books. Each book has over twenty-five note searches and eighty sight-reading phrases.

The authors provide sight-reading suggestions that promote effective sight-reading habits

such as scanning the music and keeping a steady tempo.

THE MUSIC TREE

The first two levels of The Music Tree consist of Time To Begin, Part 1, Part 2A,

and Part 2B. Each level contains an Activity book in addition to the main book.

Keyboard Topography Table 3.10 Percentage of pieces not remaining in a fixed position in The Music Tree Time To Begin 57.14%

Part 1 12.2%

Part 2A 33.3%

Part 2B 72.9%

Students receive many opportunities to explore different areas of the keyboard in

The Music Tree series. Twenty-one out of the first twenty-two black key pieces require

students to perform octave shifts, and more than half of the repertoire pieces in the first

43

level require students to move out of a fixed position. Hand crossings and finger

substitutions appear frequently in the level 2 books. “Warm-ups” occur in many units

that have students play a pattern in multiple octaves of keyboard. The authors explain

that one goal of these warm-ups is to promote students’ ability to “move gracefully from

octave to octave.”102 While the musical selections require students to become

comfortable moving around the keyboard, the authors do not encourage students to play

without looking down at their hands, an important component of sight-reading success.

Directional Reading Table 3.11 Use of “Positions” for two-hand pieces in The Music Tree

Mid. C C / c G / g D/d F/f None

Time To Begin 0 0 0 0 0 63

Part 1 5 2 5 6 0 49

The Music Tree promotes intervallic or directional reading and does not

encourage students to learn a set of fixed hand positions. The word “position” is not used

in the series, and the authors do not associate specific keys with specific finger numbers.

The concepts of steps and skips are not introduced in The Music Tree. Students

begin being exposed to intervals as soon as they start playing white keys. Seconds,

thirds, fourths, and fifths are introduced in Time to Begin, and sixths appear in Part 2B.

Students are often asked to identify or circle intervals in their repertoire pieces, and the

Activity books offer opportunities to identify, trace, and draw the intervals.

102 Frances Clark, Louise Goss, and Sam Holland, A Handbook for Teachers: Time to Begin and

Music Tree Part 1. Rev. ed. (Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000.), 14.

44

Transposition activities to reinforce intervallic reading first appear in Part 2A and are

included in both the main books and Activity books.

Students first read on a two-line staff, and additional lines are added as the

students learn to read larger intervals. The first full staff appears at the end of Time to

Begin. Note-reading is confined to a set of “landmark” notes, and other notes are

described as being a certain interval away from a landmark note. Part 1 includes the

landmarks F3, C4, and G4, and Part 2A adds F2 and G5. Students practice identifying

these landmarks in their Activity books and using the landmarks to identify surrounding

pitches.

Pattern Recognition

In Time to Begin, students are often asked to identify groups of notes and look for

pattern similarities and differences between pieces. The first Activity book provides

practice in identifying patterns as being the same or different. The authors do not stress

the recognition of rhythm patterns until dotted quarter notes are introduced in Part 2A.

Pitch patterns are also first introduced in Part 2A, where students have opportunities to

play and draw major and minor five-finger patterns in the keys of C, G, D, F, A, and E.

Part 2B introduces major scales in C, G, F, D, and Bb, although students are not asked to

identify scale patterns in their music. The only vertical note grouping addressed is the

perfect fifth. Students are not asked to recognize or play harmonic triads, although the

authors do encourage identification of melodic triads beginning in Part 2A.

45

Sight-Reading Habits Table 3.12 Percentage of pieces with teacher duets in The Music Tree Time To Begin 71.7%

Part 1 37.8%

Part 2A 36.9%

Part 2B 16.7%

Most of the sight-reading activities in The Music Tree take place in the Activity

books. When students reach Part 1, each unit in the Activity books contains a collection

of “Sight-Playing” exercises. Both one-hand and two-hand exercises are offered, each

usually four to eight measures in length. The authors provide the following sight-reading

protocol for the students:103

1) Circle the clef. Then prepare your hand and fingers on the correct keys.

2) Set a slow tempo, counting two measures aloud in a strong rhythmic pulse.

3) Play and count with a full tone, no stopping from beginning to end.

There are fifty sight-playing exercises in Part 1, twenty-five in Part 2A, and eighteen in

Part 2B.

Beginning in Part 2A, the Activity books also contain segments called

“Adventures in Sight-Playing.” These exercises involve several finger substitutions on

repeated notes that allow the student to experience a wide range of notes in one piece.

The authors explain that these exercises are “the most innovative activity in the entire

103 Frances Clark, Louise Goss, Steve Betts, and Sam Holland, The Music Tree: Activities Part 1.

Rev. ed. (Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000), 8.

46

Music Tree” which allow the students to “venture outside their normal reading range”

and “rehearse reading intervals.”104 There are sixteen of these exercises in Part 2A and

nineteen in Part 2B.

The authors also promote several effective sight-reading habits. In addition to

asking students to sight-play without stopping in the Activity books, the authors

frequently offer teacher duets in the main books that encourage maintaining a steady

pulse. Before most repertoire pieces, students are asked a series of questions that

encourage them to scan the music before playing, noting rhythmic features, patterns, and

form. Each unit contains an improvisation exercise, many of which ask the student to

improvise using a given rhythmic pattern.

104 Frances Clark, Louise Goss, and Sam Holland, A Handbook for Teachers: Music Tree Part 2A

and Music Tree Part 2B. Rev. ed. (Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000.), 19.

47

CHAPTER 4

SAMPLE PRIMER-LEVEL SIGHT-READING CURRICULUM

This sample sight-reading curriculum contains activities and exercises that may be

executed with the skills taught in most primer-level lesson books. The activities are

divided into four sections that focus on different sight-reading skills: keyboard

topography, directional reading, pattern recognition, and sight-reading habits.

KEYBOARD TOPOGRAPHY

The activities in this section serve to increase students’ topographical awareness

of the keyboard. They promote exploration of the full range of the keyboard as well as

navigation of the keyboard without relying on visual contact with the hands.

• Activity 1: Black Key Exploration

1) Close your eyes.

2) With your right hand, locate a group of two black keys in the middle of the

piano. Using fingers 2 and 3, play the group of two black keys.

3) Keep your eyes closed. Locate and play the next group of two black keys

going up the keyboard. Continue playing all groups of two black keys going

up the keyboard.

4) Using your right hand fingers 2, 3, and 4, repeat steps 1-3—this time find

groups of three black keys.

5) Repeat steps 1-4 using your left hand and moving down the piano.

48

• Activity 2: White key Exploration

1) Close your eyes.

2) Locate and play a “D” on the keyboard. It is the white key in between a group

of two black keys. Locate and play several more Ds on the keyboard.

3) Repeat the activity—this time locate “Cs” on the keyboard.

4) Continue repeated the activity, finding a different letter each time.

• Activity 3: Octave Jumps

1) Using your right hand, play an open fifth, triad, or pentachord low on the

piano.

2) Find and play the same pitches in every octave moving up the keyboard and

then back down the keyboard. Try to move your hand in smooth arcs. Your

exercise might look like this:

3) Repeat the activity using your left hand.

4) For an extra challenge, try the activity with your eyes closed.

• Activity 4: Eyes on the Page

1) Place your hand in a five-finger pattern.

49

2) Have someone cover your hand with a piece of paper or other object, so that

you cannot see your fingers.

3) Read and play the following series of finger numbers with a steady beat,

always keeping your eyes on the page.

| 1 3 4 2 | 1 5 3 4 | 2 1 3 2 | 1 5 4 3 | 4 1 3 5 | 2 1 3 1 |

• Activity 5: Blind Patterns

1) Close your eyes or have someone cover your hands. Play a C five-finger

pattern without looking at the keyboard. Try to play other five-finger patterns,

scales, or cadences you know without looking at the keys.

• Activity 6: Blind Repertoire

1) Close your eyes or have someone cover your hands. Play one of your

repertoire pieces without looking at the keyboard.

• Activity 7: Interval Preparation, Part A

1) Using your right hand, play a harmonic fifth using C and G.

2) Keeping your hand in the same shape, play many harmonic fifths in different

areas of the keyboard.

3) Close your eyes and repeat step 2.

4) Put your hands in your lap and close your eyes. Then form and play a

harmonic fifth on the keyboard.

50

5) Play ascending melodic fifths by repeatedly substituting finger 1 for finger 5.

Your exercise might look like this:

Try playing descending melodic fifths as well.

6) Repeat steps 1-5 using your left hand.

7) Repeat steps 1-6 using different intervals.

• Activity 8: Interval Preparation, Part B

1) Place your hand in a five-finger pattern and close your eyes.

2) Your teacher will give you a starting finger and a series of interval directions

(e.g. “up a third, down a second, up a fourth, down a third,” etc.). Follow

your teacher’s directions and play the correct intervals.

DIRECTIONAL READING

The following activities prepare students’ eyes to read music both horizontally

and vertically. They include exercises to develop intervallic reading ability as well as

exercises that prepare students to process information presented vertically. All of the

51

musical examples in this section may be played beginning with right hand finger 1 or left

hand finger 5.105

• Activity 1: Reading and Playing Melodic Seconds

An interval of a second goes from a line note to a space note or a space note

to a line note with no lines or spaces in between.

1) Point to the notes in the following exercise and speak the directional

movement. For example, you would start by saying “up a second, up a

second, same note, down a second,” etc.

2) Choose any starting note and play the above exercise, carefully reading the

seconds.

3) Play the exercise again. This time choose a different starting note, or turn the

music upside down.

• Activity 2: Reading and Playing Melodic Thirds

An interval of a third goes from a line note to a line note with a space in

between or from a space note to a space note with a line in between.

105 The musical examples are written without clefs to encourage students to read intervals and not

note names. They may be played starting on any white key on the piano and may be turned upside down for additional practice.

52


movement.


seconds and thirds.


music upside down.

• Activity 3: Reading and Playing Harmonic Seconds and Thirds

1) Point to each of the following intervals and say the name of the interval. For

example, you would start by saying “third, second, third, third,” etc.


seconds and thirds.


music upside down.

53

• Activity 4: Reading and Playing Melodic Fourths

An interval of a fourth goes from a line note to a space note or from a space

note to a line note with a line and space in between.


movement.


seconds, thirds, and fourths.


music upside down.

• Activity 5: Reading and Playing Harmonic Fourths

1) Point to each of the following intervals and say the name of the interval.


seconds, thirds, and fourths.


music upside down.

54

• Activity 6: Reading and Playing Melodic Fifths

An interval of a fifth goes from a line note to a line note with a line in

between or from a space note to a space note with a space in between.


movement.


seconds, thirds, fourths, and fifths.


music upside down.

• Activity 7: Reading and Playing Harmonic Fifths

1) Point to each of the following intervals and say the name of the interval.


seconds, thirds, fourths, and fifths.


music upside down.

55

• Activity 8: Vertical Reading Part A106

1) Read each of the following vertical words out loud.

T

A

C

E

V

I

F

E

S

U

O

H

S

E

L

B

A

T

M

O

O

R

D

E

B

2) Have someone write more vertical words for you to read. See how fast you

can read them.

106 The vertical words in these exercises are written from the bottom up; however, some evidence

also exists supporting the notion that pianists often read from the top down. Similar vertical reading exercises may be found in the following sources: Lawrence, A Guide to Remedial Sightreading for the Piano Student; Jeanine Jacobson, Professional Piano Teaching: A Comprehensive Piano Pedagogy Textbook for Teaching Elementary-Level Students, edited by E. L. Lancaster (Van Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006).

56

• Activity 9: Vertical Reading Part B

1) Read the following vertical sentence out loud.

L

L

I

B

D

N

A

H

A

R

A

S

T

N

E

W

O

T

E

H

T

K

R

A

P

O

T

Y

A

L

P

R

E

C

C

O

S

2) Have someone write more vertical sentences for you to read. See how fast

you can read them.

• Activity 10: Vertical Reading Part C

1) Read the following vertical sentence out loud.

2) Have someone write more vertical sentences on a staff for you to read. See

how fast you can read them.

57

PATTERN RECOGNITION

This section contains a collection of Rhythm Flashes and Pitch Flashes along with

suggestions for using the flashes to promote pattern-recognition and sight-reading ability.

Rhythm Flashes: 107

• Activity 1: Rhythm Flash

1) Your teacher will show you a Rhythm Flash for two seconds. See if you can

accurately tap the correct rhythm.

2) For an extra challenge, see if you can accurately perform the rhythm after

seeing it for only one second.

107 These flashes use common rhythms in 4/4 time. Similar flashes may be made for common

rhythms in 3/4 time. Students should be encouraged to create their own flashes for rhythm patterns in their repertoire.

58

• Activity 2: Rhythm Detective

1) Your teacher will tap or play one of the Rhythm Flashes. See how fast you

can identify which pattern your teacher performed.

• Activity 3: Rhythm Pattern Connection

1) Your teacher will arrange some of the Rhythm Flashes in a row on the music

stand of the piano. Tap or play the correct rhythms from left to right without

stopping.

2) Mix up the flashes in a different order and try again.

59

Pitch Flashes:108

• Activity 4: Pitch Pattern Flash109

1) Your teacher will show you a Pitch Flash for two seconds. See if you can

accurately perform the correct pitches.

108 Students should be encouraged to create their own flashes for patterns that occur in their

repertoire.

109 Shanaphy includes pitch flashes in the following source: Shanaphy, Isacoff, and Jordan, Speed-Reading at the Keyboard, Vol. 1.

60

2) For an extra challenge, see if you can accurately perform the correct pitches

after seeing them for only one second.

• Activity 5: Pitch Pattern Detective

1) Your teacher will play one of the Pitch Flashes. See how fast you can identify

which pattern your teacher performed.

• Activity 6: Pitch Pattern Connection

1) Your teacher will arrange some of the Pitch Flashes in a row on the music

stand of the piano. Play each flash from left to right without stopping.

2) Mix up the flashes in a different order and try again.

SIGHT-READING HABITS

The following activities encourage good sight-reading habits, including using the

eyes effectively and not stopping for mistakes.

• Activity 1: Reading Ahead with Finger Numbers

1) Place your hand in a five-finger pattern.

2) Play the following series of finger numbers, keeping a steady beat. While you

are playing, your teacher will be covering the numbers before you play them.

You will have to look ahead and memorize the correct fingers before they

become covered.

| 1 3 4 2 | 1 5 3 4 | 2 1 3 2 | 1 5 4 3 | 4 1 3 5 | 2 1 3 1 |

61

• Activity 2: Reading Ahead with Music

1) Choose one of your repertoire pieces or a new sight-reading exercise to play.

2) While you are playing, your teacher will be covering some of the notes before

you play them. You will have to look ahead and memorize the correct notes

before they become hidden.

• Activity 3: Phrase Arranging110

1) Choose a repertoire piece that you can play fairly well.

2) Use scissors and cut the music up into its different phrases.

3) Your teacher will arrange the phrases in a different order on the piano.

4) Play through the phrases in their new order without stopping.

• Activity 4: Fast Fixations111

1) Perform the following duet all by yourself. The notes in the first half of each

measure are on the score on the left, and the notes in the second half of each

measure are in the score on the right. Your eyes will have to travel quickly

back and forth between the scores to find the next notes.

110 Richard Chronister promotes phrase arranging in the following source: Darling, ed., A Piano

Teacher’s Legacy: Selected Writings by Richard Chronister. 111 Burmeister includes similar duet activities in the following source: Burmeister, Keyboard Sight Reading.

62

• Activity 5: Improvisation112

1) Place your right hand in a five-finger pattern.

2) Improvise pitches in the five-finger pattern using the following rhythm.

• Activity 6: Downbeats

1) Your teacher will play a new piece of music. Your job is to play the

downbeat of each measure with your teacher.

112 Montano suggests that these type of improvisation exercises improve sight-reading ability. For

more information see Montano, “Effect of Improvising in Given Rhythms on Piano Students’ Sight Reading Rhythmic Accuracy Achievement.”

63

• Activity 7: Duets and Ensembles

1) Play duets or ensembles with your teacher or fellow piano students.

Remember to keep a steady pulse and not stop for mistakes.

64

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

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UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Chang, Sun-Hee. “A Study of Eye Movement During Sight-Reading of Selected Piano

Compositions.” EdD diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 1993. Ciepluch, G. M. “Sightreading Achievement in Instrumental Music Performance,

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Clifton, Jane “Cognitive Components in Music Reading and Sight Reading

Performance.” PhD diss., University of Waterloo, Canada, 1986. Cox, Buford. “Factors Associated with Success in Sight Reading Four-Part Chordal

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Hardy, Diane. “The Construction and Validation of an Original Sight-Playing Test for

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University of Chicago, 1926. Lyke, James B. “An Investigation of Class Piano Programs in the Six State Universities

of Illinois and Recommendations for Their Improvement.” EdD diss., University of Northern Colorado, 1968.

Micheletti, Lynn Howe. “An Assessment of the Vertical Method and the Ensemble

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Scripp, Lawrence. “The Development of Skill in Reading Music.” EdD diss., Harvard

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INTERNET RESOURCES

Ensminger, Jon. “Piano Pedagogy Plus.” http://www.pedaplus.com/ (accessed April 21,

2008). Johnston, Philip. “Sightreading Genie.” Practice Spot: Ideas and Resources for Great

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Lewis, Martha Bess. “Teaching Sight-Reading.” Piano Pedagogy, http://www.datarealm.

com/marbeth/teaching_sight_reading.html (accessed April 21, 2008). “MTNA Resource Library.” Music Teachers National Association. http://www.mtna.org

(accessed April 21, 2008). Zeigler, John M. “The Piano Education Page.” West Mesa Music Teachers Association,

http://www.pianoeducation.org/ (accessed April 21, 2008).

PIANO METHODS

PIANO ADVENTURES

Faber, Nancy, and Randall Faber. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Christmas

Book Level 1. North Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1996. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Christmas Book Level 2A. North

Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1996. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Christmas Book Level 2B. North

Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1996.

______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Christmas Book Primer Level. North Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1996.

______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Lesson Book Level 1. North Miami

Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1993. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Lesson Book Level 2A. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1997. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Lesson Book Level 2B. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1997. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Lesson Book Primer Level. North

Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1996.

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______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Performance Book Level 1. North Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1993.

______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Performance Book Level 2A. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1993. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Performance Book Level 2B. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1997. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Performance Book Primer Level.

Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1996. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Popular Repertoire Level 1. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 2000. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Popular Repertoire Level 2A. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 2000. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Popular Repertoire Level 2B. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 2000. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Popular Repertoire Primer Level.

Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 2000. Faber, Nancy, Randall Faber, and Victoria McArthur. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano

Method. Technique & Artistry Book Level 1. Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1994.

______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Technique & Artistry Book Level 2A.

Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1997. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Technique & Artistry Book Level 2B.

North Miami Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1997. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Technique & Artistry Book Primer

Level. Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1995. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Theory Book Level 1. North Miami

Beach, Florida: FJH Music, 1993. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Theory Book Level 2A. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1993. ______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Theory Book Level 2B. Fort

Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1997.

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______. Piano Adventures: A Basic Piano Method. Theory Book Primer Level. Fort Lauderdale, Florida: FJH Music, 1996.

Massoud, Kathleen. Let’s Sightplay!: Creative Exercises to Develop Sightplaying, Book

1. Edited by Victoria McArthur. North Miami Beach, Florida: The FJH Music Company, 1995.

_____. Let’s Sightplay!: Creative Exercises to Develop Sightplaying, Book 2. Edited by

Victoria McArthur. North Miami Beach, Florida: The FJH Music Company, 1995.

_____. Let’s Sightplay!: Creative Exercises to Develop Sightplaying, Book 3. Edited by Victoria McArthur. North Miami Beach, Florida: The FJH Music Company, 1996.

______. Let’s Sightplay!: Creative Exercises to Develop Sightplaying, Book 4. Edited by

Victoria McArthur. North Miami Beach, Florida: The FJH Music Company, 1997.

MUSIC TREE

Betts, Steve, Louise Goss, and Sam Holland. The Music Tree: Time to Begin

Activities. Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000. Clark, Frances, Louise Goss, and Sam Holland. A Handbook for Teachers: Music Tree

Part 2A and Music Tree Part 2B. Rev. ed. Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000.

______. A Handbook for Teachers: Time to Begin and Music Tree Part 1. Rev. ed.

Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000. ______. The Music Tree: A Plan for Musical Growth at the Piano; Part 1. Rev. ed.

Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000. ______. The Music Tree: A Plan for Musical Growth at the Piano; Part 2A. Rev. ed.

Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000. ______. The Music Tree: A Plan for Musical Growth at the Piano; Part 2B. Rev. ed.

Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000. ______. The Music Tree: A Plan for Musical Growth at the Piano; Time to Begin. Rev.

ed. Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000. Clark, Frances, Louise Goss, Steve Betts, and Sam Holland. The Music Tree: Activities

Part 1. Rev. ed. Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard Music, 2000.

76

______. The Music Tree: Activities Part 2A. Rev. ed. Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard

Music, 2000. ______. The Music Tree: Activities Part 2B. Rev. ed. Miami, Florida: Summy-Birchard

Music, 2000.

BASTIEN PIANO BASICS

Bastien, James. Bastien Piano Basics: Piano Level 1. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1985. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Piano Level 2. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos Music,

1985. ______.Bastien Piano Basics: Piano Primer Level. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1985. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Technic Level 1. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1986. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Technic Level 2. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1986. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Technic Primer Level. San Diego, California: Neil A.

Kjos Music, 1986. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Theory Level 1. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1985. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Theory Level 2. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1985. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Theory Primer Level. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1985. Bastien, Jane Smisor. A Line a Day Sight Reading: Level 1. San Diego, California: Kjos

West, 1990. ______. A Line a Day Sight Reading: Level 2. San Diego, California: Kjos West, 1990. ______. A Line a Day Sight Reading: Level 3. San Diego, California: Kjos West, 1990. ______. A Line a Day Sight Reading: Level 4. San Diego, California: Kjos West, 1990.

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______. Bastien Piano Basics: Performance Level 1. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos Music, 1985.

______. Bastien Piano Basics: Performance Level 2. San Diego, California: Neil A. Kjos

Music, 1985. ______. Bastien Piano Basics: Performance Primer Level. San Diego, California: Neil

A. Kjos Music, 1985.

ALFRED’S PREMIER PIANO COURSE

Alexander, Dennis, Gayle Kowalchyk, E. L. Lancaster, Victoria McArthur, and Martha

Mier. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: At-Home 1A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005.

______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: At-Home 1B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: At-Home 2A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: At-Home 2B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Lesson 1A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Lesson 1B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Lesson 2A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Lesson 2B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Performance 1A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Performance 1B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Performance 2A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006.

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______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Performance 2B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006.

______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Theory 1A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Theory 1B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2005. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Theory 2A. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006. ______. Alfred’s Premier Piano Course: Theory 2B. Edited by Morton Manus. Van

Nuys, California: Alfred Publishing Company, 2006.

A Survey of Sight-Reading Activities in Instructional Piano Methods for Average-Age Beginners and a Sample Primer-Level Sight-Reading Curriculum

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