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Plate I
A Study of the Sanskrit Texts on the lnter-relationsh_ip of the
Performing and the Plastic Arts
(With special reference to the Oevangana-s of Khajuraho)
R. Nath
The Natya Shastra of Bharatal is the earliest text on
Dramaturgy, Dance-, Music etc. and, in fact, a basic treatise on
Fine Arts. It is assigned. to the third century A.D. Its fourth
chapter contains an interesting katha which sheds valuable light on
the inter-relationship of two sets of Fine Arts, the Performing and
the Plastic. The katha states that Brahma took Bharata
and his troupe to Kailash to present a dramatic performance
before Shiva . Two forms of drama, a samavakara entitled
'Amrit-manthana' and a dima
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called-'Tripuradaha ~ . one of Shiva's O\Nn exploits, \Nere
staged there before the Lord . 2 After the drama, Shiva praised
Brahma and the actors . Ho\Never, as
a measure of improvement, he suggested that the beautiful
karana-s and
angahara-s of the Tandava nrtta, \Nhich he himself performed
every eve~ing,3 might be introduced into the Purvaranga of their
drama so that the1r Shuddha-Purvaranga might become a
Chitra-Purvaranga:
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It was thus that the Fine Arts were brought within the Hindu
Temple forum ,
and gradually they assumed a sacred character . This also
suggests that
the Chitra -Sutra is as much a treatise on Scultpure and
Iconography as on
Painting . As a matter of fact, Chitra has been used in the
texts not to denote
pa inting alone, but, in a wider sense, to include Sculpture and
Iconography.
The Second Chapter of the Third Khanda of the VOP further
ela-borates on this subject and vividly explains the inter-relat
ionship of the
Fine Arts . When Vajra asks Markandeya how to make the images of
gods,
the latter replies that he who does not know Chitra-Sutra cannot
understand Sculpture and Iconography:
oca Gf?l'(_ I-I rf 11
(VOP, Ill . 2 .2) .
Chitra-Sutra cannot be understood w ithout Nrtta -Shastra
(Theory of Dance)
as in both these Fine Arts worldly phenomena are imitated :
a of' I qr-fl if ?.~ I -cA '>i ~..., ";>f ~q I 0( C::. ~
""' --._;).._.
(' ..... 0 ___::)._ -f I fh Ul chi .!...II c>: .!-II -<
''-~ Ll ("11 "lq II -"
(VOP, 111.2.4).
Markandeya adds that it is necessary to know Instrumental Music
in order to understand Nrtta, and to know Gita (Theory of Musica l
Composition) to understa nd Instrumental Music . One who knows
Gita-Shas tra knows all the Fine Arts .
A clue to an understanding of the VOP reference,
)agato-anukriva, and the subject-matter of worldly phenomena which
a re stated to be imitated, is provided by the Aparajitaprchchha of
Bhuvanadevacharya 5 of the late twelfth century A .D. In Sutra-224,
Aparajita asks Vishvakarma about the
b . f Ch · h · · · d h types of Chitra existed su ject-matter o
1tra , ow 1t ongmate , ow many . . . . 1 · to him that Chttra and
other quest1ons relatmg to Chttra . The latter exp ams
is the source and the cause of the whole of creation; it is the
origin of all the three Loka-s, subtle and gross worlds, the gods
including the Trinity, the planets including the Sun and the Earth,
vegetation, all species of living beings
etc . , etc . The whole of creation is, in fact, a Chitra and
the Brahm ajnani per-ceives this world in the form of Chitra as one
ordinarily looks at the moon reflected in the water; Chitra is an
image of Brahman itself :
~ 6-1 of I I c:< rl :
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0 ~ 6H -.:...~ 'U.f at II ' ____ '")
(AP, 224 . 11-1 2) . This phenomenal world IS Ch1tra; 1n fact, t
e at er IS · · · h 1 t · the living force of the
former. Water and well are so interconnected as to be two
aspects of the same entity; similarly related are Chitra and the
world and we cannot con-· template the one without the other :
...Q__ I ~Ia;
--'"'- ___:}_ --"'- ..Q.__Q._ l H-4 () Pq~q ("1"-fq -"T-/ II I q
Ql. c;t I -...J :71
(AP, 224.23-24). Apart from expressing the monistic concept of
creation, this Sutra laid down that the rhythm (or Chhandas) of
creation forms the subject-matter ~f Chitra. It is this rhythm,
imitated from the phenomenal world, that consti-
tutes the subject-matter of the Fine Arts. To be precise, it is
the incarnation of the subtle aspect of the gross world. That is
~hat the VOP reference de-notes by jagato-anukriya.
The VDP emphasized the inter-relation, or rather the
inter-dependence :>f the two arts: Nrtta and Chitra. Dance, the
Performing Art, is meant by Nrtta . By Chitra both the Plastic Arts
(the two-dimensional art of Painting and the three-dimensional art
of Sculpture) are denoted. Thus it is stated categorically:
(VDP, 111.35.5). Whatever is prescribed for Nrtta is equally
applicable to Chitra as both imitate
(the rhythm or Chhandas or the subtle aspect of) the phenomenal
world. Movements of eyes, lips and limbs, depiction of Bhava and
Rasa (sentiments)
and the various Mudra-s (postures), prescribed .for Dance are
also followed in Chitra and the same principles govern the practice
of these two sets of Fine Arts, one Performing and the other
Plastic:
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Further:
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'-It c;: I CI-.UI +f ~-.II ._____:) .
(VOP, 111 .39 .50).
The master-artist should always depict female-figures
(Devangana-s) in
sportive (Lila) and erotic ( Vilasa) postures in which one leg
rests gracefully
and her mons veneris is prominently shown . It is more a
prescription for perspective rather than for posture .
It is around the beginning of the fifteenth century A .D ., that
a West Indian Shi!pa text, the Kshirarnava 9 , discussed the
subject in detail and laid down a few general rules for the making
of non-sectarian Devangana
sculptures . For example, the text, in Chapter CXX, laid down
that on the jamgha of the mandovara of the Chaturmukha-Mahaprasada,
divinities and gay sculptures of Devangana-s should be depicted in
Lasya and Tandava
dance postures :
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time, presumably since the Gupta period which set the trend .
This is a uniq~e feature of the art of India which had a sound
theoretical basis. Art in lnd1a
was never an unrestrained and sentimental pursuit of the
'beautiful'; as soon as the climax of aesthetic expression in any
discipline was attained, its in-tellectualisation took over and a
precise Shastra was written down to regulate and control its
course, and to prevent decay and decline. Indian art stood on a
secure and solid foundation of Shastra and this is what we
understand by its classical character .
The Parshvanath .Jaina Temple which is one of the earliest
temples of l
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Plate Ill
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10
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11
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12
r~ ~ b
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Plate VII
13
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14
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Plate IX
15
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Plate X
16
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Plate XI
17
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Plate XII
18
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Plat e X III
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Plate XIV
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ture . The KSV described these figures in dance-postures as
Shubhagamini
and Manahamsa. It is noteworthy that normally a woman engages in
one of these acts in a sitting posture; the artist has always
depicted them here only in a standing posture which is, almost as a
rule, a dance-posture .
(4) Applying kajal : Plate Ill depicts this figure. again
standing in a dance-posture, resting on one leg, the other easily
bending on the knee, with
the whole body inclined on one side for support .
(5) Bearing a kalash on the head or in the hand or
worshipping,
offering water or flowers : Plates IX, XI and XIII depict such
figures. In each
case, the Devangana stands in a dance-posture. It may be
reiterated that each one is a unique adaptation of the prescription
and not a literal imitation . Thus the Devangana is not shown in a
regular dance-act, but engaged in something else with the figure,
head, eyes and legs poised in a dance-posture. These figures, to be
precise, do not stand as they would have in a natural way but
always in a dance-posture . The KSV describes them under Jaya
and other Devangana-s.
(6) Uncovermg under intense Kama-passion: Plate XI depicts two
such figures (middle band, left figure and lowest band, right
figure). In each case, the figure stands on one leg, the other is
slightly raised and bent for-ward and the body bears three curves :
on the knee, waist and neck. Grace-fully poised on its own
pedestal, each one appears to breathe heavily due to an intense
feeling . The artistic posture has lent credence to a lively figure
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(7) Squeezing the hair dry after a bath or dressing: Plates IX,
XI
and XIII depict such figures . As in the foregoing cases, each
one stands in a dance-posture, though she apparently appears to be
busy otherwise. The
KSV text describe d such Devangana-s under various titles.
( 8) Singing, playing the flute or musical instruments or
dancing:
Figures engaged in musical performance and dancing figures have
been used at Khajuraho very frequently. Plate VII depicts a typical
dancing figure. This shows the extent to which a dance-posture
could bestow effect to the
hf 1 • the mass of stone that a sculpture represents . So
faithfully and trut u 1 ~
depiction of the former that the latter is entirely lost; the
sculpture IS so vibrant with the motion of the dance that it is
impossible to believe that it is a . t" f piece of stone! The KSV
text has a general comment on the prescrrp ron ° these dancing
figures.
( 9) Writing a letter: The KSV text described this figure under
Patra-
lekh a; the figure has been frequently depicted at Khajuraho,
standing gracefully
in a dance-posture like other Devangana-s .
( 1 0) W a iting on the threshold or standing by the pillar in
Chinta (an-xiety); or Alasya (indolence); or Vibodha (awakening)
and any one of the 33 Shastric transitory states, e .g . Shank a
(apprehension); Shrama (weariness); Harsha (joy); Autsukya
(impatience); Smrti (recollection); Vrida (bashful-ness); Chapalya
(inconstancy) etc . Such figures, looking pensive or thought-
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ful, have b e en most freque ntly used at Khajuraho and Pl ates
II, IV, IX, XI,
XIII and XIV depict some examples . Each one is a beautiful
figure, standing in a graceful posture which is again a
dance-posture . These have been describ~ ed by the KSV under
various heads.
As these examples adequately demonstrate, the dance-posture
gives each sculpture a rhythm which is its soul or spirit. It is
this which makes it ~ Chitra in the right sense of the term . The
stone-mass seems to breathe and pulsate like a living organism as a
result of this rhythm arising out of dance-postures . Hence the
dictum of the Shastra.
0
I It is this unique aspect of Indian Art which distinguishes it
from Greek
Art or any other art of the world . Greek Sculpture, for
example, is an art of the Form, excellent Form . But it lacks that
soul or spirit, the rhythm which is the basic characteristic of
Indian Sculpture. The rhythm stems from dance-postures, and instils
life into its form . Over and above the art of Form, Indian Art is
an art of soul and an art of spirit too . The Shastra-s ordained a
little in respect of the Form, they prescribed in detail in respect
of the Soul.
References :
1· The Nat ya S has tra o f B harat a. V ol. 1 l ed . and tr . M
adhusu dan Sh astri, Chowkhumbh ~. V a ra n as i. 19711 her ein
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alt8 r refer red to as NS. 2. NS. IV . 4 -10. 3. Ibid, IV . 1 3.
4
· Vishnudharmottara-Purana, Third Kh anda (ed . Priyabala Sh ah
. G .O .S . N o. CXXX, Orien t al Ins t itute. B arod a, · 195
8 )h erem alter re fer red t o as th e VDP. Th is volum e o f
the VDP d ea ls exclus ively with th e Fine Art s. e .g . Kavya ~nd
Gila (P oetry) ; S angita (Music ): Nrtya (D ance w it h Dram a):
Nrtta (Dance) : Chitra (Pa inting and S c ulp tu r e):
5_ Aratlma (I conog raphy ) and Vastu (Arc hitec ture ).
n'::~a~taprchchha (ed P A M ankad . G.O S No CX V Orient al Inst
itute. B arod a) he r ein aft e r r e f e rred t o as
6· Samarangana-Sutradhara (ed . v ·. S . Ag arwal G 0 S No 2 5 ,
Orient al Insti t ute, B arod a, 1966 ), p. 6 3 5 . her ein ·
aft er re ferred t o as the S S . · · · · · 7
· H ow far Scu lptural A es th et ic ism in India was s imply o
ut lined by the p rescribed ic on and how f a r it w as essent ia
lly th e res ult o f th e art is t's d o ing ( as de t ermin ed by
his genius and training) h as been disc ussed by the prese nt
~uhtho r m hiS pa per : 'Bhu -V araha Scu lpt u res : Indian Art
vis-a-vis the Ic o no g raphic Prescriptio ns ' , Annals of the
andarkar Onental Research In s titute. Pune. Diamo nd Jubilee V
o lum e. 1977-78. p p . 799-811 . 8· For a. study o f t he o rnam
ents of th e Hindu t e m ple ref erence m ay be m ad e t o th e
prese nt auth o r 's 'L ah ara·
V: ll an In lnd1an Art'. Indian Museum Bulletin. Calcutta, Vol.
X, No . 2 (July 1975) pp . 57 -70 . Mithuna -s ca ll for a ext r em
ely lmport an.t and independent study ; this subject has been d ea
lt with separat ely by th e present ~ut~or In hiS art1c les : R a
~so n . d'etre o f Mithuna d epic ti on o n th e Hindu T emple_'. N
ational Museum Bulletm ..
e [~ e lh l _(m P.n nt) and N o t1ce on an impo rt ant r ef
erence to th e e rot1c d ep1ct1o n m th e 15th century Hmd1 wo rk.
Chh1tat·Cnant'. Shodh-Patrika. Udaipur, V o l. 2 8 , N o. 2 (Ap ri
l-June 1977) a nd in great er d et ail in th e m onog r aph en
totled : 'I n troduction to the Art o f Khajuraho' (A bhinav , N ew
D e lhi , in press, t o b e r e leased sh o rtly).
:~~ ~;ii t ~e Ch~tra-Sutra of the VDP, th e SS and oth er text s
d ea l w ith th e S than a-s (pos tu r es-in-perspective) r dp:
Rasa s (se ntiments re lat ed to Plastic Art s) in d et a1l ; th ey
c onst1tut e a separate subject o f mves t1 ga-10 n an ave not been
inc luded in this study . A.n allusion t o the three-dimension al
asp ect o f the Plastic Art s -
how the thmgs and effect thereof h ave differ ed from the
incised-c arving t o bold and rou nd re lief h as been m ade In the
p r esent autho r 's p aper ' Bhu -V ar ah a Sculptures' op. cit .
This, t oo. ca lls for an inde pendent. consistent and det ailed
study, sepa r ately .
9 . T he Kshirarnava (ed. and tr . by P . 0 . S o m pura. Palit
ana. 1967 ) her ein aft er re f erred t o as the KS V . ~0. KSV.CXX
. 1 13-1 3 1 . 1 1 NS. IV. 84·85. 1L . Ibid. IV. 100-10 1 .
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