A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WORK VALUES, JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT AMONG TAIWANESE NURSES BY Chin-Chih HO Bachelor of Business (FCU), Master of Health Administration (USC) A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Health Science in the Centre for Health Research, Queensland University of Technology, Australia November 2006
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A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WORK
VALUES, JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL
COMMITMENT AMONG TAIWANESE NURSES
BY
Chin-Chih HO
Bachelor of Business (FCU), Master of Health Administration (USC)
A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Health
Science in the Centre for Health Research,
Queensland University of Technology,
Australia
November 2006
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature:
Date:
ii
KEY WORDS
Work values
Job involvement
Organisational commitment
Taiwanese nurses
iii
ABSTRACT
Aim: The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between work values,
job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses in Taiwan.
The objectives of this study are to: (1) describe the work values of Taiwanese nurses;
(2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3) describe the organisational
commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables that affect work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses; and (5)
identify the mediating effects of job involvement on work values and organisational
commitment among Taiwanese nurses.
Design: The study utilises a cross-sectional survey design. The sample consisted of
RNs (N=1,047) recruited from a convenience sample in nine regional and teaching
hospitals in Taiwan.
Methods: Data was collected using a survey instrument consisting of 86 questions,
including sociodemographic data, work values, job involvement, and organisational
commitment. The data was analysed using descriptive bivariate analysis, Pearson
Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), General Linear Model (GLM) analysis with
random effect, and structural equation modelling (SEM).
Findings: Four sociodemographic variables, age, SES (i.e., education status, personal
income, and position) were shown to be partially statistically significant to work
values, job involvement and organisational commitment. Subsequent GLM analysis
were shown work values were positively related to job involvement and
organisational commitment, and job involvement is positively related to
organisational commitment. Results of the proposed model using SEM revealed that
job involvement could play an important role with mediation, and that establishing a
higher level of job involvement may be more important than focusing only on
organisational commitment.
Conclusions: This study has implications for organisations attempting to enhance
organisational commitment through increased job involvement. It is anticipated that
by improving these various factors the outcome will be reduced turnover and
iv
absenteeism and more effective organisations. A more effective organisational
environment will be more conducive to good nursing practice.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1 1.1 Research background ........................................................................ 11.2 Research objectives ........................................................................... 31.3 Justification for the research ............................................................. 41.3.1 Areas for further investigation .......................................................... 41.3.2 Implications of successful research ................................................... 51.4 Research questions ............................................................................ 81.5 Benefits of the study .......................................................................... 91.5.1 Theoretical development ................................................................... 91.5.2 Implication towards policy ................................................................ 91.6 Theoretical framework ...................................................................... 101.6.1 Theoretical explanations ................................................................... 121.6.2 Summary of variables investigated ................................................... 131.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................... 16 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 162.2 Work values ....................................................................................... 162.2.1 Work values: Definition and measurement ....................................... 172.2.2 Sociodemographic variables as related to work values ..................... 252.2.3 Summary ........................................................................................... 282.3 Job involvement ................................................................................ 282.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement ................................. 282.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement ...... 322.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement .............. 382.3.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 412.4 Organisational commitment .............................................................. 422.4.1 Organisational commitment: Definition and measurement .............. 432.4.2 Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment ........ 492.4.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to organisational
2.4.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 582.5 The interrelationships between work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment ............................................................... 592.5.1 Research on work values and job involvement ................................. 602.5.2 Research on work values and organisational commitment ............... 622.5.3 Research on job involvement and organisational commitment ........ 652.5.4 Randall and Cote’s original and revised models ............................... 672.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER THREE: STUDY METHODS .............................................. 73 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 733.2 Research structure ............................................................................. 733.3 Recruitment strategy ......................................................................... 743.3.1 Study design and sampling ................................................................ 743.3.2 Sample size ........................................................................................ 753.4 Data collection ................................................................................... 763.5 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 773.6 Research hypotheses ......................................................................... 783.7 Survey instrument ............................................................................. 793.7.1 Survey questionnaire ........................................................................ 793.7.2 Assessments of validity .................................................................... 833.7.3 Assessments of reliability .................................................................. 863.7.4 Testing the research instrument results ............................................. 873.8 Data analysis ..................................................................................... 973.8.1 Descriptive analysis ........................................................................... 973.8.2 Inferential analysis ............................................................................ 973.9 Limitations to the research design ..................................................... 1023.9.1 Internal validity ................................................................................. 1023.9.2 External validity ................................................................................ 1033.10 Data cleaning ................................................................................... 1033.11 Data considerations to improve analysis ........................................... 1053.12 Sociodemographic profile ................................................................. 1063.13 Definition of terms ............................................................................ 1193.14 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 119
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ................................................................. 121 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1214.2 Descriptive statistics for study variables ........................................... 1214.3 Testing of hypotheses ........................................................................ 1254.3.1 Results for research Hypothesis 1 ..................................................... 1314.3.2 Results for research Hypothesis 2 ..................................................... 1344.3.3 Results for research Hypothesis 3 ..................................................... 1384.3.4 Results for research Hypothesis 4 ..................................................... 1414.3.5 Results for research Hypothesis 5 ..................................................... 1444.3.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 1504.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 152 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ..................... 153 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1535.2 Summary of the study ....................................................................... 1535.3 Discussion of the findings ................................................................. 1545.3.1 Relationships of socio-demographic groups with work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment ................................... 1545.3.2 The relationship between work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment ............................................................... 1625.4 Implications for both theory and practice ......................................... 1665.4.1 Implications for theory ...................................................................... 1665.4.2 Implications for practice .................................................................... 1705.5 Strengths of the study ........................................................................ 1815.6 Limitations of the study ..................................................................... 1825.7 Recommendations for further research ............................................. 1835.8 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 187 APPENDICES ............................................................................................ 188 Appendix A: Sociodemographic Profile ...................................................... 188Appendix B: Work Values Inventory (WVI) ............................................... 190Appendix C: Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) ..................................... 195Appendix D: Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) ............... 197
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Appendix E: Sampling Strategy and Sample Size Calculation .......................... 199Appendix F: Cover Letter ............................................................................ 201Appendix G: Ethical Approval Document ................................................... 204Appendix H: Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement Questionnaire ....... 210Appendix I: Correlations of Variables ......................................................... 212 REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 214
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Relevant scales and dimensions of work values ………...... 18Table 2-2 Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory
(WVI) ................................................................................... 23Table 2-3 Relevant scales and dimensions of organisational
commitment ……………………………………………….. 43Table 3-1 Description of instruments used in previous studies ............ 79Table 3-2 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of
Work Values Inventory ........................................................ 88Table 3-3 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for Work Values
Inventory .............................................................................. 90Table 3-4 Measures of reliability for the Work Values Inventory ....... 90Table 3-5 Factor analysis and reliability of Job Involvement
Questionnaire ....................................................................... 92Table 3-6 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of
Organisational Commitment Questionnaire ......................... 95Table 3-7 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for the Organisational
Commitment Questionnaire ................................................. 96Table 3-8 Measures of reliability for the Organisational Commitment
Questionnaire ....................................................................... 96Table 3-9 Identification of outliers ....................................................... 105Table 3-10 New groupings of classes within certain categories ............. 105Table 3-11 Questionnaire response rates ................................................ 107Table 3-12 Comparison between this study and previous studies
showing key demographic features ……………………….. 116Table 4-1 Mean and standard deviation for scales and subscales and
ranking for major variables .................................................. 122Table 4-2 Correlations between sociodemographics and the 17
variables ............................................................................... 132Table 4-3 Correlations between work values and job involvement
variables ............................................................................... 135Table 4-4 Estimated influence of work values on job involvement
after adjusted for demographics, design effect and organisational commitment .................................................. 137
Table 4-5 Correlations between work values and organisational commitment variables .......................................................... 138
Table 4-6 Estimated influence of work values on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and job involvement ............................................................. 140
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Table 4-7 Correlations between job involvement and organisational commitment variables .......................................................... 141
Table 4-8 Estimated influence of job involvement on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and work values .................................................................... 143
Table 4-9 Model fit statistics ................................................................ 145Table 4-10 Model comparisons .............................................................. 145Table 4-11 Relationship regression weight between work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment ...................... 146Table 4-12 Summary of standardised direct, indirect and total effects
for the hypothesised model .................................................. 149
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 The research model .............................................................. 12Figure 2-1 The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964) ................ 33Figure 2-2 The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and
Hall (1977) ........................................................................... 34Figure 2-3 Schematic representation of the motivational approach to
involvement and alienation .................................................. 36Figure 2-4 Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences
of job involvement ............................................................... 37Figure 2-5 Steers’ “causality” model theorem of organisational
commitment .......................................................................... 50Figure 2-6 The “role sense” model theorem of Stevens, Beyre and
Trice ..................................................................................... 50Figure 2-7 Morris and Sherman’s “multiple forecast” model theorem
for organisational commitment ............................................ 51Figure 2-8 Mowday, Porter and Steers’ “causality” of organisational
commitment .......................................................................... 52Figure 2-9 Mathieu and Zajac’s “causality” model theorem of
organisational commitment .................................................. 53Figure 2-10 The causal variables of organisational commitment
proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986) ................................ 54Figure 2-11 A model of relationships among work commitment
constructs .............................................................................. 68Figure 2-12 Randall and Cote’s revised model ........................................ 69Figure 3-1 Age breakdown of respondents ............................................ 108Figure 3-2 Age distribution of the respondents ..................................... 109Figure 3-3 Marital status of respondents ................................................ 109Figure 3-4 Employment status of respondents ....................................... 110Figure 3-5 Education status of respondents ........................................... 111Figure 3-6 Personal income of respondents ........................................... 111Figure 3-7 Occupational position of respondents .................................. 112Figure 3-8 Occupational position tenure ................................................ 113Figure 3-9 Hospital tenure ..................................................................... 113Figure 3-10 Nursing tenure ...................................................................... 114Figure 4-1 A proposed model with latent constructs for exogenous
and endogenous variables ..................................................... 130
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Figure 4-2 Estimated standardized direct, indirect and total effects for the revised model ……………………………………… 148
Figure 5-1 The revised model ................................................................ 167
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KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS
NHI National Health Insurance
PWE Protestant Work Ethic
SES Socioeconomic Status
WVI Work Values Inventory
JIQ Job Involvement Questionnaire
OCQ Organisational Commitment Questionnaire
SET Social Exchange Theory
EFA Exploratory Factor Analysis
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis
SEM Structural Equation Modelling
NFI Normed Fit Index
CFI Comparative Fit Index
GFI Goodness of Fit Index
RMSEA Root-Mean Square Error of Approximation
ICC Intracluster Correlation Coefficient
DEFF Design Effect
PPMC Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
GLM General Linear Model
CLT Central Limit Theorem
SCT Social Cognitive Theory
RJPs Realistic Job Previews
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Brian Oldenburg and Dr.
Gary Day for helping and supporting me through the completion of this dissertation.
I would also like to thank Dr. Diana Battistutta for her kind assistance and
specialised knowledge in statistics.
I would also like to thank Dr. Jing Sun, who assisted me in the use of the LISREL
software program for data analysis in the study. A special thanks to Martin Reese
who was committed to improving my scientific writing skills.
I would like to express my appreciation of my best friend, Dr. Vinesh Oommen,
classmate and room mate during my 3 years of doctoral study, for his strong support
and encouragement in everything I did.
I wish to thank Professor Dang-Ming Horng and Dr. Cheng-I Chu, who allowed me
the necessary time required to study at Queensland University of Technology (QUT).
I plan to apply this knowledge which I have gained from QUT to improve the overall
performance of my organisation.
I would like to acknowledge my heartfelt love to my beloved family, especially to
my wife (Jui Hsin), my daughter (Lee An), my son (Alan), and parents-in-law. Their
love, patience, encouragement, and understanding helped me throughout my course
of study.
Finally, I would like to thank all the lecturers at the School of Public Health who
have taught me and who have guided me during this 3 years of my doctoral studies.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The current research examines the relationships between work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment as evidenced by a population of nurses
in Taiwan. This chapter describes the background and the importance of the present
study. It identifies the importance of understanding more about the relationships
between these variables. The chapter then presents the justification for this research,
the research questions, the benefits of the study, and the research framework.
1.1 Research background
After the implementation of the National Health Insurance (NHI) system in
Taiwan in 1995, successive governments have developed policies which aim to
enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of Taiwan’s healthcare system (Tzeng,
2002). There has been an increase in the health consciousness of the population,
associated with a greater focus on measuring people’s satisfaction with the health
system. Along with the reform of hospital organisations, a higher proportion of
hospital employees have pursued further education. It is also likely employees’
perceptions of work and work organisations have changed.
Chinese professional journals have recently documented important changes
in work ethics among the Taiwanese workforce. Employees’ belief in the traditional
work ethic, which dictates that hard work is a virtue in its own right and that hard
work and diligence are important attributes, has significantly declined in recent times
(Wang, 2000). Society’s views about employment and organisations have also
1
undergone dramatic changes, due to many different environmental, political, social
1. Terminal values: a comfortable life, an exciting life, a sense of achievement, a world at peace, equality, family security, freedom, happiness, inner harmony, mature love, pleasure, salvation, self-respect, social recognition, true friendship, and wisdom
Miller (1974) 1. Intrinsic: Altruism, Esthetics, Creativity, Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, and Management
2. Extrinsic: Independence, Prestige, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life, and Variety
Kalleberg (1977)
1. Intrinsic work value 2. Extrinsic dimensions: convenience, financial,
relationships with co-workers, the opportunities the job provides for a career, and resource adequacy
Lofquist and Dawis (1978)
Minnesota Important Questionnaire - MIQ (210 items)
12 dimensions: ability utilization, achievement, activities, compensation, independence, security, variety, work condition, advancement, authority, recognition, status, co-worker, moral values, social service, company policies, supervision of human relations, creativity, responsibility, supervision of technical skills
Jurgensen (1978)
10 dimensions: security, hours, pay, benefits, working conditions, advancement, type of work, company, co-workers, and supervisor
18
Table 2-1. Relevant scales and dimensions of work values (continued). Author Work Value Scale Dimensions of Work Values
Pryor (1979) Work Aspect Preference - WAPS (52 items)
4 dimensions: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism and Masculinity
Elizur (1984, 1996)
1. Modality of the outcome: material or instrument (i.e., pay, hours of work, security, and working conditions), affective or social (i.e., co-workers, supervisor, recognition for doing a good job and esteem), and psychological or cognitive (i.e., advancement, type of work, status, achievement, responsibility, independence, influence, use of ability, meaningful work, contribution to society and company)
Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, Independence, Prestige, Management, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life, and Variety
Peirson, Simnett, and Pratt (1989)
4 dimensions: Career Orientation, Certainty Seeking, Altruism, and Conflict-Avoidance
Harrington and O'Shea (1993)
14 dimensions: creativity, good salary, high achievement, independence, job security, leadership, physical activity, prestige, routine activity, supervised work, variety-diversion, work with hands, work with mind and work with people.
Wang (1993) 1.Terminal values: internal remuneration, external remuneration, collective benefit and security
1. Terminal values: self-growth tendency, self-realisation tendency and self-esteem tendency
2. Instrumental values: social interaction tendency, organization security and economic benefit tendency, stability and anxiety-free tendency and recreation health and transport tendency
Meyer, Irving, and Allen (1998)
3 dimensions: Comfort and Security (Comfort), Competence and Growth (Competence), and Status and Independence (Status)
19
Work values are the values that individuals hold a “desired end state” of their
participation at work. Thus these work values assist in defining career paths and
goals (Brown & Assoiates, 2002). An individual entering an organisation will be
affected by their work values and will use these values to guide how they “should”
function. Locke and Henne (1986) suggested that the work values of individuals
affect their work desire or goal, as well as their effort and work performance.
Some researchers (Blood, 1969; Wollack et al., 1971) have focused on work
values as a system of ethics. Blood (1969) argues that work values played a key role
in influencing employees’ affective responses both to work in general and to specific
task characteristics. Zytowski (1970) defines work values as, “a set of concepts
which mediate the person’s affective orientation and classes of external objects
offering similar satisfactions” (p.176). Wollack et al. (1971) defines work values as,
“a person’s attitudes toward work in general, rather than his feelings about a specific
job” (p.133). To summarise, work values refer to the endurable and preferable
thoughts and attitudes an individual creates and applies to specific work, the
formation of which is a gradual accumulative socialization process (Wollack et al.,
1971).
Blood (1969) developed an eight-item scale measuring “pro-Protestant Ethic”
and “non-Protestant Ethic” attitudes. Wollack et al. (1971) went on to establish the
Survey of Work Values (SWV), which was based on elements of the Protestant Ethic,
to evaluate employees’ work values. Three aspects were assessed, intrinsic aspects of
work, extrinsic aspects of work, and mixed characters.
20
Super (1970b) and Holland (1973) have proposed theories of vocational
choice, suggesting that people seek vocations and work environments consistent with
the values and attitudes they hold. According to early authors Paine, Deutsch, and
Smith (1967), the perceptions that an individual has of her/his job and the factors
which satisfy her/his needs are important in goal setting. Further research by Super
(1970a) suggests that a person’s “valued work outcomes” can determine his or her
choice of a career or training program. Chen (1987) argues that work values are the
overall subjective value determination for work experience or work achievement,
and belong to the attitude or emotional response area. As a result, Chen (1987)
suggests that individuals’ assessments of the relative importance of their jobs depend
on the variance between the actual and expected values in their work environments.
The most well-known classification of work values is described in Super
(1970b). Super (1970b) suggests that to understand the values of students, customers,
or employees, it is helpful to identify their goals and establish a variety of training
systems. In order to test the practicability of his own theory, Super (1970a)
developed a set of Work Values Inventory (WVI) undertaken within a career pattern
study, to quantify and evaluate the psychologically systematic ideal for individuals
in their working conditions. The research explored work values as divided into 15
dimensions related to the value of individual life experience. Miller (1974) suggested
that Super’s WVI could be sub-classified into intrinsic and extrinsic scales.
Pryor (1979) focuses on work values in their function as preferences. Pryor
(1979) argues that the term “work value” is poorly formulated and ambiguous, and
to deal with this developed work aspect preferences. They were defined as, “a
statement of the relation between a person (the subject of the relation) and a
21
particular quality of work (the object of the relation). The nature of the relation
between these two is of greater or lesser liking when the person has the opportunity
to make a choice” (p.254). According to Pryor (1979), it is important that work
values should be associated more with “preference” than “moral imperatives”.
However, whenever someone shows preference for a position, work values are
frequently and closely correlative to moral imperatives. Lee (1994) also indicates
that work values can be viewed as a proportion of personal value systems, and that
all evaluations and preferences related to work can be held as the expression of work
values.
Wu (1996) defines work values as endurable beliefs and standards which
judge the worth of what is done through work, justify the work experience and
express one’s working behaviours and the pursuit for work goals whenever the
individual is engaging in his or her own job. Wu et al. (1996) examined college
students and university graduates in order to develop a localised inventory about
work values. They divided work values into two major realms, “terminal values” and
“instrumental values”. The two major realms and seven dimensions are detailed in
Table 2-2.
Chen (1987) modified the dimension-measuring-inventory created by Super
(1970b). They applied this modified dimension-measuring inventory to high school
students preparing for the College Entrance Examination, to serve as a consulting
reference for degree majors and future career options. After the modification, the
dimension-measurement inventory of work values emerged with 15 dimensions.
Wang (1993) adopts the two major realms of “terminal values” and “instrumental
values” to create the dimension-measuring inventory for work values.
22
Table 2-2. Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory (WVI). Realm Dimension Definition
Terminal values
The degree of importance which an individual places on pursuing personal growth, exerting personal talent and creativity, improving quality of life, obtaining a sense of achievement and leadership and also commanding respect and recognition from others during the course of their work.
Self-growth The degree of importance which an individual places on acquiring new knowledge, self growth, exerting creativity, and promoting personal development during the course of their work.
Self-realisation The degree of importance which an individual places on fulfilling their lifelong goals, application of personal talent, improving quality of life and enhancing their social welfare during the course of their work.
Self-esteem The degree of importance which an individual places on a sense of personal achievement, self recognition and autonomy, respect from others and senior management during the course of their work.
Instrumental values
The degree of importance which an individual places on obtaining a level of excellence in social interaction, a harmonious social relationship, freedom from worry, and where their life desires are sufficiently satisfied through balance achieved between services within the organizational systems, and a holistic environment to fulfil their sense of security and to maintain their needs while they are working.
Social interaction considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on achieving an excellent level of social interaction and sharing their daily emotional experiences with colleagues and superiors, as well as establishing harmonious social relationships with others during the course of their work.
Security and economic considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on reaching reasonable economic remuneration through holistic organizational systems, to satisfy their sense of security during the course of their work.
Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on regularly and stably performing his job without tension, anxiety, chaos or fear.
Recreation, health and transport considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on attaining sufficient physical energy, recreation activities and availability of convenient traffic transport options during their work.
Work values, as proposed by Chen (2000), provide an internal impetus, in
that they drive the individual to chase lifelong goals and orient his/her behaviours,
direction and motives. Chen (2000) also argues that they influence personal
standards that allow individuals to measure and prioritise their tasks. On a more
23
personal level, work values include the individual’s overall understanding of,
orientation to, and satisfaction with the workplace.
Rokeach (1973) argues that work values and attitudes are independent
concepts. Researchers have investigated work values as correlates of attitude, and
personal values can help individuals explain and understand their attitudes and the
behaviours in which they engage. However, Rong (1998) states that merely
observing the attitude of an individual cannot help us predict the values one holds.
In summary, a review of the literature has demonstrated the importance of
work values as an influence on attitudes to work. Although researchers have
attempted to establish a consistent definition of the construct, the term work values is
currently used to encompass a variety of notions, ranging from work ethics (Blood,
1969), and personal needs (Super, 1970a), to work preferences (Pryor, 1979). As
discussed earlier, some researchers have posited two themes of work values along an
intrinsic-extrinsic dimension, or a terminal–instrumental dimension. This two-factor
concept of work values has been applied to the majority of the concepts and
instruments researchers have used to measure work values (Miller, 1974; Super,
1970a; Wu et al., 1996). On the basis of the existing literature work values in the
current study are operationally defined as enduring beliefs and standards that
influence an individual when he/she evaluates his/her job and work environment.
Work values was measured using a localised Work Values Inventory (WVI)
developed by Wu et al. (1996), based on Super’s WVI.
24
2.2.2 Sociodemographic variables as related to work values
According to various sociodemographic indicators there has been increase in
the diversity of the work force in recent years, which has raised questions about the
needs and values of diverse groups of employees (Jehn, Chadwick, & Thatcher,
1997). In Taiwan, women constitute about 2.2% of the yearly increment of the
labour force (Taiwan Council of Labour Affairs in Executive Yuan, 2004). Female
nurses form a very high proportion (99.0%) of the healthcare system in Taiwan
(Chen, 1998). Consequently, there is a growing interest in the unique characteristics
of members of this group, as concerns their attitudes towards work, such as work
values. Previous research on the role of various sociodemographic variables in work
values has included examinations of socio-economic status, ethnicity, society and
economic conditions (Torres & Kapes, 1990). Thus these are the types of factors
which may influence the development of an individual’s expectations and work
values. The following section reviews and discusses the key variables viewed as
being important when understanding work values.
Age
Cherrington (1977) reports that senior employees are more work-oriented
than younger staff, due in part to the personal socialisation process, in which a
worker’s experience affects individual work values. Jurgensen (1978) finds that as a
worker’s age increases, some work values undergo enhancement while others are
diminished. Pu (1988) demonstrates that as workers age, they emphasise internal
values of work and social status more, but give remuneration less attention. Chiu
(1993), in contrast, found that younger employees pay more attention to “social
25
relations considerations” than older employees. In another recent study, results
suggested that respondents of different ages showed variance on the dimensions of
“stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” (Lee & Chung, 2001). Liau
(2001) studied 320 nursing staff born between 1965 and 1980, finding that values of
nursing staff did not vary significantly as they age. McNeese-Smith and Crook (2003)
examined 412 nurses in three hospitals in Los Angeles County (California, U.S.A.).
They found that the values of nurses from different generations differed little,
although younger generations placed higher values on economic returns and variety
in employment.
Wu (1996) states that job takers in the 19-30 age bracket, with a bachelor’s
degree, show higher scores on “social interaction considerations”, “security and
economic considerations”, and “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”
than those of job takers in the 31-40 and 41-50 age brackets with similar educational
backgrounds. Chang (2001) concluded that when comparing respondents’ ages, work
values and organizational commitment, there was no significant difference in either
“terminal values” or “instrumental values”.
Education status
Pu (1988) found that employees with higher educational backgrounds were
more attentive to internal values, promotion and social status values of work, while
employees with less education paid more attention to work remuneration values.
Chiu (1993) supported this earlier study by demonstrating that higher educated
employees are more attentive to self-confirmation and performance than lower
educated employees. Lee and Chung (2001) found that employees who only had a
26
high-school level of education were more attentive to “self-growth” and “security
and economic considerations” than those of university-level educated employees.
However, research by Liau (2001) with nursing staff introduced earlier did not show
variance in value measures between employees of different education levels.
Similarly, Chang (2001) found educational preparation had no significant
relationship with “terminal values” or “instrumental values”.
Income
Paine et al. (1967) found a positive correlation between family income and
monetary benefits, and a negative correlation between family income and the need
for security. As might be expected, those respondents who indicated a relatively low
family income tended to place a high emphasis on job security.
Occupational position
Tayyab and Tariq (2001) examined the work values and organisational
commitment of 210 middle level public and private executives in Pakistan. Results
revealed that the private sector executives had higher mean scores on intrinsic work
values. Tang (2000) focused on the interior auditors of private and public
organisations, with the findings showing statistically significant relationships
between different positions and overall work values. Lee and Chung (2001) explored
the relationship between corporate culture, employees’ work values and
organisational commitment in the business cultures of Taiwan. They found that
employees in more senior positions were more attentive to “self-growth” and
“security and economic considerations” than employees with lower positions in the
organisation.
27
2.2.3 Summary
Many studies have been conducted into work values in general, as well as
possible differences in work values across different cultures, socio-economic groups
and gender. The results of some studies (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Hofstede, 1980)
suggest that differences in work values exist. The current study will shed light on the
relationship between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment
among Taiwanese nurses.
2.3 Job involvement
In theory, job involvement is necessary for nurses’ professional growth. It is
assumed that the higher the level of involvement, the higher the degree of
professional growth (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1995). Job-involved individuals who
perceive opportunities for growth in their job have less intention to leave or suffer
burnout (Elloy et al., 1995). However, given that the current nursing workforce
experiences a relatively unstable health field, it is possible that these disturbances
may have a negative affect on how involved nurses are in their jobs (Morrow, 1993).
Therefore, continuing job involvement under such circumstances requires close
study, both to determine the salience of the concept of job involvement, and the
factors that affect it. This section introduces definitions of job involvement, together
with measurements of job involvement, relevant theories and empirical studies.
2.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement
The term job involvement is used to refer to many different aspects of
employment (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Newton and Keenan (1983), Saleh (1981),
28
and Saleh and Hosek (1976) have conducted research which explores the complexity
of the concept of job involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) have proposed two
types of definitions for job involvement, one relating to self-esteem, and the other to
self-image. They argue that job involvement is considered by many to be intimately
tied to a strong work ethic and people who place work at, or near, the centre of their
lives (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Lodahl and Kejner (1965) believe the main
determinant of job involvement is a value orientation toward work learned early in
the socialisation process. An individual who has internalised the work ethic will thus
probably be highly “job involved”, regardless of the context within which he or she
might be employed (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977).
Bass (1965) points out that job involvement is representative of the
employee’s ego-involvement in his/her job and is thus related to performance.
Lawler and Hall (1970) argue there was no difference between the two (self-esteem
and self-image) definitions proposed by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). These
researchers believe that the first definition means the real essence of job involvement,
whereas the second definition was in consistent with expectancy theory, namely the
concepts of internal motivation. Lawler and Hall (1970) refer to internal motivation
as the degree to which a jobholder is motivated to perform well because of some
subjective reward or internal feelings they expect to experience as a result of
performing well. Thus, intrinsic motivation is correlated with personal performance.
However, job involvement does not always correlate with personal performance. Job
involvement rather represents personal concentration or emotional commitment to
one’s job. The goal identified by job involvement is the job itself.
29
Both Lawler and Hall (1970), and Blau (1985) propose that job involvement
involves only a single aspect, namely, the degree to which a person perceives the
total work situation to be an important part of life, and to be central to their identity,
because of the opportunity to satisfy important needs. Blau (1985) proposes that an
individual engaged in his/her job would care about the tasks to be undertaken.
Although one might hence conclude that job involvement and job satisfaction are
essentially identical, they have generally been considered distinctly different
concepts. Job involvement is the psychological identification with, or importance of
one’s job, while job satisfaction is the emotional state of liking one’s job (Lawler &
Hall, 1970).
Saleh and Hosek (1976) reviewed a range of literature related to job
involvement and from this formulated four definitions for job involvement. These
were, “the job is of critical importance in personal life”, “the individual will be
actively involved in his/her own job”, “the individual will cognise the influence of
personal performance onto self-esteem”, and “the congruence between work
performance and self-concept”. Saleh and Hosek (1976) suggest that whenever these
four definitions are satisfied, the individual will be involved in his/her own job.
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) also assessed definitions and literature
discussing job involvement. They concluded that, at that early point, more research
needed to be undertaken to isolate dimensions related to job involvement. Their
paper identifies two classes of definitions of job involvement. The first class links
performance to “self-esteem”, essentially the extent to which “self-esteem” is
affected by level of performance. The second class identifies job involvement as a
30
component of an individual’s self-image, that is, the degree to which the individual
psychologically identifies with his/her job.
According to Kanungo (1982), involvement either in the context of a
particular job, or with work in general, can be viewed as a cognitive state of
psychological identification. An individual’s psychological identification with a
particular job (or with work in general) in turn depends on the salience of his or her
needs (both extrinsic and intrinsic) and the perceptions he or she has about the need-
satisfying potentialities of the job (or work) (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo (1982)
further suggested that individuals will be affected by their past socialised
experiences, and that their current social codes are associated with various value
orientations. Thus values drive individuals to develop various external and internal
desires. Whenever the desires are unsatisfied, one’s surroundings will become
alienating. According to Kanungo (1982), job alienation and involvement are two
superficial phenomena of a single object, two polarised trends of one aspect. When
job involvement is decreased to a certain extent, it will trigger job alienation.
However, whenever job alienation is reduced a certain extent, it creates a sense of
job involvement (Kanungo, 1982).
In previous studies, investigating job involvement has been characterised by
conceptual ambiguities and problems related to measurement (Lodahl & Kejner,
1965; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Saleh & Hosek, 1976). Because the construct of job
involvement is associated with many different definitions (as described above), it has
become a major source of conceptual ambiguity (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo
attempted to resolve this uncertainty (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1991). According to
Kanungo (1982), earlier job involvement questionnaires, such as those of Saleh and
31
Hosek (1976) and Lodahl and kejner (1965), did not differentiate between work
involvement and job involvement. Job involvement and work involvement are
hypothesised to be two distinct constructs (Paullay, Alliger, & Stone-Romero, 1994).
One other problem with Lodahl and Kejner’s (1965) scale in particular is that
although the scale has factor stability, because there is some similarity in the factor
structure across different groups, there is no interpretation of the nature of the factors
(Cummings & Bigelow, 1976).
Kanungo (1982) went on to develop another ten-item scale in which job
involvement is defined as the importance of the job to one’s self-image. Kanungo’s
measures are more internally consistent than previous instantiations, even though
many of the items are based upon the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) job
Morrow & Wirth, 1989). According to Blau (1985), the job involvement
questionnaire developed by Kanungo (1982) is more appropriate for assessing job
involvement than the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) measurement. Kanungo’s Job
Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) instrument has been used in many studies and its
reliability and validity examined extensively. The Cronbach’s α across the samples
ranged from .74 to .90.
2.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement
Relevant models for understanding the relationship between job involvement
and its antecedent and outcome variables include Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964),
Integrated Theory (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), the Motivational Approach (Kanungo,
1982) and Causality Theory (Brown, 1996).
32
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory suggests that administrators should make good use of
personal expectancy to inspire employees. This is based on the rudimentary concept
that inclination for an individual’s action is determined by possible expected results
and the relationship between the results and the action adopted. To take a different
approach, job involvement for an employee is determined by his/her expectancy
level, which results in incentives for action. The results of this interaction are
displayed in Figure 2-1. If expectations are lower than the inducement provided by
the organisation, job involvement will increase. On the other hand, when
expectations are higher than the inducement provided by the organisation then job
involvement will decrease.
Figure 2-1. The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964).
Expectancy < inducement offered by organisation = job involvement
Expectancy > inducement offered by organisation = job involvement
Integrated Theory Model
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) reviewed and integrated previous research in this
field and used this basis to develop three major conceptualisations. For Rabinowitz
and Hall (1977), job involvement is related to three classes of working variables, the
dispositional approach held by the individual, the situational determined approach
held, and the influence of the interaction between these approaches. In this model no
single class of variables shows a stronger relationship to job involvement than any
other. That is, dispositional and situational variables are about equally important in
33
explaining job involvement (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). The integrated theory model
of job involvement is depicted in Figure 2-2.
Dispositional
Situation
Interaction: Dispositional Situation
Job involvement
Figure 2-2. The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and Hall (1977).
In the dispositional approach, job involvement is viewed as dependent on
individual personalities. The influence exerted by some stable personal
characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, external and internal control
features, job seniority, dwelling locations, the intensity of high-level work demands
in terms of time and responsibility, and the Protestant work ethic will ensure
individuals hold different work attitudes and behaviours. Two such work attitudes
are job involvement and job satisfaction. The individual is thought to own a certain
amount of desire or value, and the demand or value will drive them to work harder or
impede them from job involvement (Sekaran & Mowday, 1981).
Job involvement is also a personal characteristic, and thus it is never changed
easily within an organization (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). In a situation-determined
approach (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), job involvement can be viewed as the personal
attitude towards the particular job. In this conceptualisation, job involvement will be
affected by leadership style, the opportunities the individual has to be involved in
decision-making, social factors, job features and other conditional influences. Values
are thus internalised with job attitude.
34
The interaction between disposition and situational approaches is labelled the
dispositional situation. In this approach, personal characteristics and the environment
in interaction are used to explain personal work attitudes and behaviours. When
personal characteristics and the situation reach congruence, the individual will
develop high job involvement.
Motivational Approach
The motivational approach of Kanungo (1979, 1982) integrates the different
approaches to job involvement, including both psychological and sociological
factors, using the basic concept that job involvement is affected by the potential for
personal socialisation experience and the likelihood that the work environment can
satisfy personal demand. A diagrammatic representation of Kanungo (1979, 1982)
motivational approach is outlined in Figure 2-3.
Kanungo (1979, 1982) hypothesises that employee perceptions concerning a
job’s potential to satisfy their needs represents a more proximal influence on job
involvement. Kanungo contends that individuals develop beliefs that a job’s context
potentially provides an opportunity for them to satisfy their most important future
needs. Consequently, job involvement depends on employees’ needs (both extrinsic
and intrinsic), as well as their perceptions of the job’s potential to satisfy those needs.
35
Figure 2-3. Schematic representation of the motivational approach to job involvement and alienation. Source: Kanungo, R. N. (1979) ‘The Concepts of Alienation and Involvement Revised’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.86, no.1, pp.119-138.
Causality Theory Model
The job involvement theory proposed by Brown (1996) incorporates the
findings of previous research shown as Figure 2-4. This model includes antecedents
(i.e., personality variables-concept of work ethic), the pivotal mediator role of job
involvement, and its consequences such as organisational commitment. This model
also depicts the relationships between job involvement and organisational
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commitment. In addition, work ethic is shown to play a significant role in job
involvement.
Figure 2-4. Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences of job involvement. Source: Brown, S. P. (1996) ‘A Meta-Analysis and Review of Organizational Research on Job Involvement’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.120, no.2, pp.235-255.
In summary, the antecedents and products of job involvement have been
extensively studied. Available evidence supports the argument that personal and
situational factors are strong influences on job involvement. Job involvement is also
an important factor in other work related attitudes, and is linked to work behaviours.
37
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2.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement
The literature on job involvement highlights the role played by personal and
situational factors, as well as attitudinal concepts such as organisational commitment,
job satisfaction and achievement motives. Individuals are affected by a range of
antecedent variables which may impact on their identification with, and attitudes
towards their job. Although Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) found personal and
situational variables play equally important roles in explaining job involvement,
other researchers have argued that personal factors play a more crucial role than
situation variables in influencing an individual’s job involvement (Lodahl & Kejner,
1965). Personal characteristics examined in this review are sociodemographic
variables. This section focuses on the experimental results of international and local
research projects with particular reference to key variables in the current study.
Age
Lodahl and Kejner (1965) conducted research using 137 nurses, revealing
that the age of nurses was positively correlated with job involvement (r = .26, p <
0.01). While older nursing personnel tended to be more job involved, no relationship
was found between age and job involvement for a different employment group,
engineers. Rabinowitz, Hall, and Goodale (1977) also found a positive relationship
between age and job involvement, but this was not significant. Saal (1978) reported a
significant positive correlation between age and job involvement (r = .34, p < 0.05),
based on the data of 218 employees in a medium-sized company. In a longitudinal
study, Hall and Mansfield (1975) found that job involvement steadily increased with
age, from a sample of professional engineers and scientists. Chuang (2001)
38
conducted research into the correlation between the work values and job
involvement of nurses from Christian hospitals. The findings show that the greater
the nurse’s age, the higher job involvement was shown to be. One possibly
explanation for this is that as age increases, an individual is exposed to more
opportunities for promotion in the organisation. Therefore, older individuals tend to
be more job involved.
Huang (1993) conducted research on nurses from the Taipei Nursing College
Hospital and showed that job involvement of senior employees was higher than that
of younger workers. Tang (2000) focused on the interior auditors of private and
public organisations, with the results again revealing a statistically significant
relationship between age and job involvement. Pan and Yeh (1998) conducted
research on the nursing staff of Taipei Hospital and also demonstrated that age
positively influences the extent of job involvement. In contrast to these studies, a
study conducted by Hu (1999) using nurses from a university hospital in Taiwan
found that age was negatively correlated with job involvement (using a professional
commitment subscale).
Education status
A number of studies have commented on a positive relationship between
education and job involvement (Elloy et al., 1991; Pan & Yeh, 1998; Rabinowitz &
Hall, 1977). Chuang (2001) demonstrated that nursing staff with varying education
levels enter their jobs with varying levels of job involvement. Staff with higher
educational levels generally showed higher levels of job involvement. Abboushi
(1990) also found that education had a positive relationship with job involvement.
39
However, negative correlations between education status and job involvement have
also been reported. Saal (1978) reported a low but a significant negative correlation
between education status and job involvement (r = -.14, p < .05). Shore, Thornton,
and Shore (1990) found a negative but non-significant relationship between
education and job involvement. Similar results were obtained by Chen, Wu, Tsai,
and Chen (1998), who measured job involvement in mass-production workers.
However, Hu (1999), studying employees in a university hospital in Taiwan, found
that education is not necessarily related to job involvement and professional
commitment.
Income
Chen et al. (1998) conducted research on 197 mass-production employees,
finding that the salary of employees was significantly correlated with job
involvement. Other studies have reported similar findings, that higher income
employees tend to demonstrate increased levels of job involvement compared with
McElroy, 1994; Reicher, 1985) and is affective or attitudinally oriented (Tumulty et
al., 1995). Commitment to the organisation as one aspect of commitment is
frequently studied, and is referred to as organisational commitment (Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990). The following section will review a variety of concepts related to
organisational commitment and summarise scales and dimensions of organisational
commitment (as outlined in Table 2-3). Due to the organisation of the model
proposed in the current study, antecedents and consequences of organisational
commitment will be discussed in a short summary of each model, and then presented
together with the relevant sociodemographic variables in organisational commitment.
42
Table 2-3. Relevant scales and dimensions of organisational commitment.
Author Organisational Commitment Scale
Dimensions of Organisational Commitment
Etzioni (1961)
moral involvement, calculative involvement and alienative involvement.
Kanter (1968)
continuance commitment, cohesion commitment and control commitment
Hrebiniak and Alutto (1972)
Commitment scale - CS (12 items)
Pay, job freedom, status, friendliness of coworkers
Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian (1974)
OCQ (15 items) 1. a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values 2. willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation 3. a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation
Staw (1977) behavioral commitment and attitudinal commitment Stevens et al. (1978)
Normative commitment and exchange commitment
Wu and Yang (1982)
OCQ (15 items) Values commitment, effort commitment and retention commitment
Reicher (1985)
attributions, exchange and individual/organisational congruent goals
Allen and Meyer (1990)
OCQ (15 items) affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment
2.4.1 Organisational commitment: Definition and measurement
Becker (1960) created the concept of “exchange approach”, suggesting that
commitment is achieved by making “side bets”, which are the losses that might be
incurred if one leaves the organisation (Cohen, 1999). When an individual is
reluctant to lose his or her benefits, and perceives benefits as positive elements in an
exchange, he will be more likely to stay with that organisation because of the side
bets made to that organisation (Stevens et al., 1978). Individuals are willing to utilise
their skills and expertise to further an organisation because this behaviour leads to
benefits for both the employee and the organisation.
According to Etzioni (1961), there are three distinct approaches to
categorising organisational commitment, moral involvement, calculative
43
involvement and alienative involvement. Moral involvement is based on the trend of
internalising organisational goals and values, and makes individuals more likely to
identify with authority. Calculative involvement is based on the reasonable exchange
between interest and reward, namely a relationship of lower intensity. Alienative
involvement often comes within exploitation, which results in negative orientation.
Kanter (1968) proposed that organisational commitment be defined as the
personal loyalty and individual dedication individuals are willing to give to their
organisation. If an employee considers that leaving their current organisation will be
costly, then he/she may be less likely to leave that organisation. Kanter (1968)
proposed three types of organisational commitment, continuance commitment,
cohesion commitment and control commitment. Continuance commitment means the
personal investment and sacrifice an individual will make for the organisation. This
type of commitment means that when an individual leaves an organisation, they do
so either in terms of extremely high cost, or at least with the possibility of
continuous devotion to the organisation. Cohesion commitment means the degree to
which subordination extends to individuals subject to organisational societies.
Because the individual has publicly forsaken formerly existing social relationships, it
thus increases the coherence and sense of subordination within the current
organisation. Control commitment is attached to organisational codes, and also
affects the behavioural desires of the worker.
Sheldon (1971) defines the process of organisational commitment as
individuals dedicating time and effort and make commitments to their own
organisation to create identification. Porter et al. (1974) proposed that organisational
commitment refers to an individual’s overall viewpoint about one particular
44
organization. That is, the committed employee is concerned with the well-being of
the organisation. Staw (1977) integrated previous research and divided
organisational commitment into behavioural commitment and attitudinal
commitment. Stevens et al. (1978) also proposed two types of commitment,
normative commitment and exchange commitment. Normative commitment
emphasises the personal internal idealisation of organisational goals and values, such
that the individual is willing to stay in the organisation to expend individual effort.
Exchange commitment represents the utilisation or calculation of organisational
commitment with an emphasis on personal investment return rate. After an
evaluation of the differences between giving and receiving, the individual can reach
a conclusion as to whether being committed to the organisation is beneficial for
him/her.
Mowday and colleagues have suggested that many of these definitions should
be categorised as behaviours and attitudes (Mowday et al., 1979). Mowday et al.
(1979) argue that behavioural commitment is the external expression of commitment
on the basis of individual investment. Through rationalisation or self-defence, it can
prove the correct rationale to join the organisation. However, attitudinal commitment
emphasises the value of the individual congruent goals’s and the organisation’s
reaching “mental” harmony. Mowday et al. (1982) and Reicher (1985) found that
attitudinal commitment leads to the creation of behavioural commitment, which in
turn reinforces commitment attitudes. Thus an organisational commitment cycle of
attitude-behaviour is formed.
Mowday et al. (1982) suggest that organizational commitment is related to
the relative strength of an individual’s “identification with and involvement in” their
45
workplace. Mowday et al. (1982) divided organisational commitment into three
aspects, including a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and
values, a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation, and a
strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation. Their instrument aims to
measure the extent of the respondent’s commitment to the organisation.
Based on this argument, Reicher (1985) divided organisational commitment
into three forms, attributions, exchange and congruent goals between individuals and
organisations (individual/organisational goal congruence). The concept of attributes
implies that commitment is the link between the individual and their behaviour.
Namely, after devotion to purposeful, obvious and unchangeable behaviours, the
individual will attribute this behaviour to the personal commitment made to his/her
own organisation. The concept of exchange means that employees who receive
benefits from their organisation are likely to perceive it positively, whereas
employees who do not receive benefits are likely to perceive it negatively. When an
individual’s job seniority in the organisation increases, commitment will typically
increase. The concept of congruence between the organisation and the individual
refers to the commitment which is generated when the individual identifies and
dedicates to the common goals and values of the organisation.
Meyer and Allen (1991) have provided yet another view on organisational
commitment. These authors suggest if three different types of organisational
commitment are considered at the same time, the relationship between employees
and their organisation will reach a mutually harmonious agreement. Models of these
three aspects of organisational commitment are now outlined. Firstly, affective
commitment is where employees attach to the organisation emotionally, identify
46
with and involve themselves in the organisation. Continuance commitment is
employees’ knowledge about the cost of leaving their organisation. For employees
with high continuance commitment, the benefits of staying will be higher than that
of leaving. Normative commitment is when employees conceptualise their staying in
the organisation to be an obligation.
One use for the concept of organisational commitment was proposed by Lee,
Chung, and Lin (2000). These authors suggest that organisational commitment is
insightful knowledge about the importance of employee behaviours within the
organisation. Lee et al. (2000) argue that organisational commitment can be viewed
as an indicator of the relationship between employees and their organisation.
Currently, methods for measuring organisational commitment are mainly
undertaken using questionnaires. Among them, the most representative
organisational commitment questionnaires have been developed by Hrebiniak and
Alutto (1972) and Porter et al. (1974).
Hrebiniak and Alutto’s Commitment Scale was developed to describe the
exchange approach, and was refined in terms of Becker’s (1960) side-bet theory
(Homans, 1961). It was designed to measure personal involvement in the
organisation, totalling four items of scale tables. It had a Cronbach’s α value of 0.88.
On this survey the respondents are questioned about pay level, status, professional
creativity freedom, collegial friendships and job retention desires.
The Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) was developed by Porter
et al. (1974) to measure commitment to the organisation. Lee et al. (2000) reported
that this measure yields a three-factor solution, identifying three types of
47
commitment referred to as “value commitment”, “effort commitment” and “retention
commitment”. Factor I reflects the concept of a strong belief in, and acceptance of,
the organisation’s goals and values, and is referred to as a “value commitment”.
Items of Factor II (effort commitment) indicate the employee’s willingness to exert
considerable effort on behalf of the organisation. Factor III is called “retention
commitment”, and indicates an employee’s desire to maintain membership in the
organisation. This instrument is designed to measure an individual’s loyalty to the
organisation, their desire to reach organisational goals, and the individual’s
acceptance of organisational values. The questionnaire covers items about morals
and behaviour and emphasises employees’ moral involvement with the organisation
(Lee et al., 2000).
Ferris and Aranya (1983) did not regard Hrebiniak and Alutto’s instrument as
providing a sufficient basis for the prediction of differential relationships between
their scales (personal factors and other work attitudes). In an effort to resolve this
shortcoming, Porter et al. (1974) created an organisational commitment
questionnaire which used a 15-item Likert scale. This scale has been used in
behavioural studies by other researchers, as an instrument to describe how
committed employees are to their organisation (Ferris & Aranya, 1983). Liang (1989)
conducted a comparison of these two scales, revealing that the reliability, validity
and coverage of OCQ proposed by Porter et al. (1974) is generally superior to the
organisational commitment questionnaires of Hrebiniak and Alutto.
According to Tumulty et al. (1995), most concepts and measurements of
organisational commitment have been influenced by Mowday et al. (1982). In the
current study, the definition of organisational commitment is derived from Porter et
48
al. (1974) and Mowday et al. (1982), and uses Mowday et al.’s measure of
organisational commitment.
2.4.2 Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment
The research on organisational commitment has shown that there is a wide
range of variables that are related to this concept, including job satisfaction,
organisational climate, and organizational citizenship behaviours. However, at
present there is still no complete model to cover all the variables which are
associated with organisational commitment. In the present study, the review of
literature may provide insights into relationships between the pertinent antecedent
variables and organisational commitment, and organisational commitment and
outcome variables. The following section will discuss the breadth of current thinking
on organisational commitment.
“Causality” model theory of organisational commitment (Steers, 1977)
Steers (1977) divided the antecedent variables of organisational commitment
into personal characteristics, job characteristics and working experience. This author
found support for all three categories as influences on organisational commitment.
Consequent variables were divided into desire to remain, attendance, employee
retention and job performance with causality, as shown in Figure 2-5. Among these
outcomes, organisational commitment is moderately related to both desire to remain
and intent to remain. Steers’ theory provided a landmark study in the field and
established the foundation of the organisational theory model (Liu, 1994).
49
Figure 2-5. Steers’ “causality” model of organisational commitment. Source: Steers, R. M. (1977) ‘Antecedents and Outcomes of Organisational Commitment’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol.22, p46-56.
The role sense model (Stevens et al., 1978)
The role sense model of organisational commitment was created by
combining the psychological views and exchange views, as depicted in Figure 2-6.
Stevens et al. (1978) argue that personal attributes, role relevant factors and
organisational factors affect individual roles in the organisation. By means of the
process of exchange and evaluation, attitudinal and behavioural roles are formed,
with ultimate influence on employees’ desires to retain their jobs or leave them.
Figure 2-6. The “role sense” model of Stevens, Beyre and Trice. Source: Stevens, J. M., Beyre, J. M. and Trice, H. M. (1978) ‘Assessing Personal, Role, and Organisational Predictors of Management Commitment’, Academy of Management Journal, vol.21, no.3, p.380-396.
50
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“Multiple forecasts” model theory of organisational commitment (Morris & Sherman,
1981)
Morris and Sherman (1981) developed a theory based on their conclusion
that research into organisational commitment was too narrow at that time. The
exchange viewpoint of models trend proposed by Stevens et al. (1978) refers to the
integration of two models into the “multiple forecast” type model of Morris and
Sherman (1981) shown in Figure 2-7. This model replaces “Task Characteristic” in
the Steers model with “Role Factor”, with Personal Characteristics and Work
Experiences as independent variables. The researchers used multiple regression
analyses to examine the predictive utility of the independent variables for
organisational commitment. The results indicated that there were six independent
variables that were important in the prediction of organisational commitment.
Figure 2-7. Morris and Sherman’s “multiple forecast” model for organisational commitment.
Source: Morris, J. H. and Sherman, J. D. (1981) ‘Generalisability of an organisational commitment model’, Academy of Management Journal, vol.24, pp.512-526.
“Causality” of organizational commitment (Mowday et al., 1982)
This model is similar to the “Causality” framework proposed by Steers
(1977), but is more comprehensive in terms of explaining the development of the
individual factors, and the importance of them at each stage. Mowday et al. (1982)
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proposed that there are four antecedent variables and five consequent variables
within organizational commitment (see Figure 2-8). Antecedent variables are
personal characteristics (age, seniority, education level, race and personality), role
characteristics (including work scope, challenge, role conflict and role confusion)
structure characteristics (organizational normative, association involvement, control
of command, formalization, authority assignment degree and decision-making
involvement degree) and working experience (including dependability, emphasis on
personal sense and group codes). The consequent variables are job performance,
seniority, job absence, job tardiness and resignation.
Figure 2-8. Mowday, Porter and Steers’ “causality” of organisational commitment. Source: Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W. and Steers, L. M. (1982) ‘Employee-Organisation Linkage-The Psychology of Commitment Absenteeism and Turnover’, N.Y.:Academic Press.
Causality model of organisational commitment (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990)
The causality model integrates 26 antecedent variables, 14 correlated
variables and 8 consequent variables (as depicted in Figure 2-9). The antecedent
variables are personal attributes consisting of age, sex, education, marital status,
position tenure, organization tenure, perceived personal competence, ability, salary,
the Protestant work ethic and job level. Role states are role ambiguity, role conflict
and role overload. Job characteristics include skill variety, task autonomy, challenge,
52
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and job scope. Organization attributes consist of organizational size and
organisational centralisation. Group/Leader relations are group cohesiveness, task
and participative leadership. Correlated variables include motivation (consisting of
overall, internal, job involvement, stress, occupational commitment and union
commitment) and job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, extrinsic, supervision, co-
workers, promotion, pay and work itself). Subsequent variables include job
performance, consisting of others’ ratings, output measures, perceived job
alternatives, intention to search, intention to leave, attendance, lateness, and turnover.
Figure 2-9. Mathieu and Zajac’s “causality” model of organisational commitment. Source: Mathieu, J. E. and Zajac, D. M. (1990) ‘A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Organisational Commitment’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.108, no.2, pp.171-194.
The causal variables of organisational commitment proposed by Huang (1986)
According to the frameworks of Steers (1977), Stevens et al. (1978), Morris
and Sherman (1981) and Huang (1986), the causal variables of organisational
commitment can be divided into personal attributes and situational variables. Huang
(1986) proposes that organisational commitment will be mutually affected by
53
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personal and situational status, as shown in Figure 2-10. In this model causal
variables include personal attributes (demographic statistical variables such as age,
gender, seniority), personality features (such as achievement motives, personal
values and sex roles), and cognition and expectation (e.g., personal investment
against the organisation and interest received from the organisation for
remuneration). Situational variables consist of the organisational environment (such
as leadership style and organisation climate), work characteristics (autonomy and
priority) and working experience (such as role confirmation, attitude towards groups
against organisation, and emphasis on the individual received from the organisation).
Figure 2-10. The causal variables of organisational commitment proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986). Source: The Research of High School Organisational Commitment proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986), National Chengchi University Academic Report, vol. 53.
To summarise, literature on organisational commitment suggests that it has a
major effect on workers’ behaviour, particularly in relation to resignation and
1977). Studies by Stevens et al. (1978), Mowday et al. (1979), Morrow (1983) and
Buffardi and Niebisch (1988), have found that job involvement has a strong and
positive effect on the forecast of organisational commitment. Knoop (1995)
conducted research using 171 nurse educators and registered nurses, finding that job
involvement was moderately related to commitment to the employing organisation.
Huang (1993) found that organisational commitment was positively correlated with
job involvement, and that job involvement varies across gender, age, marital status,
seniority and salary.
2.5.4 Randall and Cote’s original and revised model
Randall and Cote’s model (see Figure 2.11) of five forms of work
commitment includes the Protestant work ethic, work group attachment, job
67
involvement, organisational commitment, and career commitment. Strong
relationships have been found between job involvement and organisational
commitment, and job involvement and career salience (Randall & Cote, 1991). In
addition, job involvement was significantly influenced by the Protestant work ethic.
Work-group attachment, however, appeared to influence organisational commitment
only through job involvement. This model included only one form of organisational
commitment.
Figure 2-11. A model of relationships among work commitment constructs. Source: Randall, D. M. and Cote, J. A. (1991) ‘Interrelationships of work commitment constructs’, Work and Occupations, vol.18, no.2, pp.194-211.
Randall and Cote’s revised model (see Figure 2.12), proposed by Cohen
(1999) specifies that the Protestant work ethic affects job involvement, which in turn
influences affective organisational commitment directly. Career commitment
mediates the relationship between job involvement and affective organisational
commitment. Job involvement only affects the ‘low alternatives’ dimension of
continuance commitment. Career commitment has a significant negative relationship
with the full scale of continuance commitment. Job involvement is the key focus, as
it mediates the relationship between the exogenous variables, Protestant work ethic,
and the dependent variables, organisational commitment and career commitment.
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Figure 2-12. Randall and Cote’s revised model. Source: Cohen, A. (1999) ‘Relationships among five forms of commitment: an empirical assessment’, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, vol.20, no.3, pp.285-308.
According to these two models, the Protestant work ethic is a personality
variable, one’s belief in the importance of hard work (Cohen, 1999). The Protestant
work ethic is an exogenous variable, directly affecting job involvement. Cohen
(1999) explains that people with a strong work ethic are more likely to be job
involved than those with a lower level of Protestant work ethic. Job involvement is
viewed as an individual’s psychological identification with one’s job (Kanungo,
1982). Job involvement in particular is a powerful influence on commitment to the
organisation.
Shore et al. (1990) collected data from 449 employees (305 men and 144
women) from a medium-sized Western city and examined the relationship between
the four work attitudes, work values, job involvement, organisational commitment
and career salience. Job involvement was measured by a job involvement scale
developed by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). The Organisational Commitment
Questionnaire (Mowday et al., 1979) was used to measure organisational
commitment. Work values were measured by the Protestant Ethic Scale (Blood,
1969). A significant relationship was found between all four variables, and work
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values was a strong antecedent of all three work attitudes, such as job involvement (r
= .39), career salience (r = .52), and organisational commitment (r = .29).
Cohen (1999) compared Morrow’s (1993) model with the conceptualisation
proposed by Randall and Cote (1991). He reports that results of path analysis reveal
that Randall and Cote’s model fits the data much better than Morrow’s model.
According to Cohen (1999), the relation between job involvement and organisational
commitment is based on social exchange theory, where people are likely to
reciprocate to those who benefit them. The model therefore includes a direct link
between job involvement and organisational commitment.
2.6 Conclusion
This chapter has reviewed research and theoretical models related to
sociodemographics, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment
and examined evidence for the relationships between these variables. The first
section presented studies on work values, which appear to support work values as a
potential criteria for selecting employees, and suggests that this construct influences
a variety of organisational behaviour. This was followed by a description of the
categories of work values and associated empirical studies. A brief discussion of the
work values inventory followed. The second section considered job involvement,
which refers to an individual’s psychological identification with a particular job.
Relevant theoretical models suggest that job involvement is positively related to
organisational commitment, and is also influenced by work values. The third section
reviewed organisational commitment, which was viewed as an independent
phenomenon influenced by several factors. The background of the questionnaires
70
was discussed to in order to facilitate understanding of the research leading to
instrument development. The importance of socio-demographic factors has also been
identified. Further investigation of these factors should better indicate the variables
which need to be considered when planning job and career development strategies.
Finally, the chapter looked at relationships among work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment. Relevant theoretical models were
discussed. The research suggests that workplace values and attitudes are strongly
correlated, and that personal values can explain an individual’s attitude and
behaviour. Nearly all of the research reviewed in this chapter indicated a positive
relationship between job involvement and organisational commitment, such that
employees having high job involvement have greater organisational commitment, or
vice versa.
In summary, there is a clear association between work values and job
involvement, work values and organisational commitment, and organisational
commitment and job involvement in the literature. Work values, job involvement
and organisational commitment are three dimensions of the broader framework of
commitment. Lack of any of these elements of work commitment may account for
employee absenteeism, turnover, reduced effort, and job dissatisfaction (Morrow,
1993). In addition, these variables are appropriate for current study because they can
be measured at the individual level, regardless of employment location. However,
there is a dearth of studies which explore the possibility of indirect connections
between work values and organisational commitment through the mediator of job
involvement. Many studies simply combined the results of employees of different
genders, making generalisation difficult to either male or female workers
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independently. These variables have been examined in many different populations,
but the current study proposes that these concepts may be particularly important to a
profession composed primarily of female nurses in Taiwan. The present study will
allow the relationship between these constructs to be explored more deeply. This will
be of immediate value when developing work commitment theories. Additional
study using these constructs is needed to strengthen this field and improve the
generalisability of findings.
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CHAPTER THREE
STUDY METHODS
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the study design and methods that were used to fulfil
the research objectives (section 1.2). Objectives 1 to 3 were met using descriptive
approaches, while objectives 4 to 5 required formal hypothesis testing.
3.2 Research structure
The research was conducted according to the following steps.
1. The literature was reviewed in relation to work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment, including selection and development of the
survey instrument (for more details see stage 5 below).
2. The study was designed based on the research objectives and the literature
review.
3. Ethical approval was obtained from the Queensland University of
Technology.
4. After necessary approval to conduct the investigation was obtained from the
administrators in the Taiwanese hospitals, individuals were given
questionnaires through nursing units within the nursing departments of the
hospitals selected for this study.
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5. The survey instrument was distributed. The instrument was composed of the
following measures.
• A sociodemographic profile was developed by the author to collect
personal data (see Appendix A).
• The Work Values Inventory (WVI) (Wu et al., 1996) was designed to
measure the work values of participants (see Appendix B).
• The Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) (Kanungo, 1982) was included
to measure the job involvement of nurses in the sample (see Appendix C).
• The Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday et al.,
1979) was designed to measure participants’ commitment towards their
employer (see Appendix D).
6. Data analysis.
7. Data interpretation, summarising the findings, drawing conclusions, and
identifying specific implications.
3.3 Recruitment strategy
3.3.1 Study design and sampling
The study utilised a cross-sectional survey design. The samples were
recruited via convenience sampling (see Appendix E). The target population for this
study consisted of Registered Nurses (RN) who worked in regional teaching
hospitals in Taiwan. The samples were recruited using the following strategy. First,
24 hospitals were selected from a list of Hospital Accreditation and Teaching
74
Accreditation issued by the Department of Health, the Executive Yuan, Taiwan,
R.O.C. (2004). There are a total of 67 regional teaching hospitals available in
Taiwan. However, only one-third of the hospitals were selected to participate in this
study due to financial feasibility and accessibility issues. A letter of invitation to
participate in the study was sent out to the selected hospitals. A total of nine agreed
to participate, producing a participation rate of 38%.
In those hospitals that agreed to participate, there were approximately 2800
nurses available. Participants were selected to take part in this survey based on the
following inclusion criteria, (1) be a RN, (2) be employed full-time or part-time and
have to have completed at least three months of service (to ensure that participants
have at least some familiarity with the job and organisation), and (3) be willing to
participate. Subjects who met the inclusion criteria were invited to be part of the
study and asked to fill in the questionnaire.
3.3.2 Sample size
A sample size of 170 was considered the minimum data set for this study
based on a sample size calculation. The minimum sample size was determined by
assuming a difference between groups of 1.0 point on the five point Likert scale
previously used and a standard deviation of 0.9, allowing a 5% type I error and 10%
type II error (statistical power = 90%). The sample size was inflated to 345 subjects
taking into consideration a response rate of 40%, confounder (15%) and contingency
(10%).
Base on the above figure, a minimum sample size of 38 nurses per hospital is
considered sufficient. However, a total of 1300 nurses from the participating
75
hospitals were eligible for the survey. All eligible nurses were surveyed, as a large
sample size provides distinct advantages such as decreasing sampling error and
increasing the power to detect relationships that exist. Of the 1300 questionnaires
distributed, 1053 were completed and returned, a response rate of 81%.
3.4 Data collection
This study was conducted in regional teaching hospitals located across Taiwan.
The principal investigator used the following procedures to collect data.
1. The principal investigator approached selected hospitals and contacted the
nursing manager who was assigned to assist with distributing the
questionnaires.
2. The principal investigator worked with the nursing manager to obtain a list of
nursing units (e.g. medicine, surgery, pediatrics, etc.). This list was used to
randomly select nursing units.
3. Each selected nursing unit was provided with questionnaires for each eligible
nurse. The questionnaires were distributed by the head nurse of the unit.
4. Each nurse from the selected nursing unit was provided with a questionnaire
package. This included a cover letter (Appendix F) explaining the purpose of
the study, details of confidentiality, detailed instructions about completing the
questionnaire, and a request to complete and return the questionnaire within
two weeks. The cover letter also explained procedures for returning the
questionnaire in the envelope provided. Demographic information and all
instruments were incorporated into a single questionnaire. The three-part
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survey questionnaire asked nurses questions concerning their work values,
organisational commitment and job involvement.
5. Respondents were asked to return the completed questionnaire (in a sealed
envelope) to the hospital lodgement box, which was left by the principal
investigator in the office of the Department of Nursing. For those surveys
which were not returned after two weeks, a reminder notice was issued to all
participants by the nursing head of the respective units, followed by a follow-
up communication by the Director of Nursing representing each organisation.
At the end of the data collection period, the completed questionnaires from
each selected hospital lodgement box were collected by the principal
investigator. The data collection was completed over a six week period.
3.5 Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the Queensland University of
Technology Human and Research Ethics Committee. Ethical approval was also
sought from each participating hospital’s Research Committee prior to data
collection commencing. A copy of the application and letter of approval is included
in Appendix G.
Participants were provided with information about the study using an
information sheet. Subject participation was voluntary and anonymity was
maintained (there was no identifiable information on the questionnaire). A
completed questionnaire from the respondent was deemed a sign of their consent to
participate in the study. The principal investigator ensured that participants were
clear that all information collected was confidential and would not be divulged to
77
any third party. Participants were asked to place completed questionnaires in the
envelope provided, and seal it, so that only the principal investigator would have
access to the responses. This study was deemed to not have an adverse impact (either
immediately or in future) on the lives or employment of the respondents. Only de-
identified, aggregated data will be presented in the analysis section of this thesis and
in future reports and publications.
3.6 Research hypotheses
To meet the fourth research objective (section 1.2), the following specific
hypotheses were formally tested in this study.
Hypothesis 1: Age and socioeconomic status (SES) will be positively associated
with work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.
Hypothesis 2: Work values will be significantly associated with job involvement.
Hypothesis 3: Positive work values will be significantly associated with
organisational commitment.
Hypothesis 4: Job involvement will be significantly associated with organisational
commitment.
To meet research objective 5, the following hypothesis was also tested.
Hypothesis 5: Job involvement will mediate any relationship between work values
and organisational commitment.
78
3.7 Survey instrument
3.7.1 Survey questionnaire
This study used an adaptation of the Work Values Inventory (WVI), the Job
Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) and an Organisational Commitment Questionnaire
(OCQ), as well as a sociodemographic questionnaire. Table 3-1 shows the reliability
values of the study instruments that have been previously tested.
Table 3-1 Description of instruments used in previous studies
Instrument Reliability reported in previous studies (Cronbach’s α) # of items
Wu et al’s (1996) WVI .97 49
Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ .81 10
Mowday et al’s (1979) OCQ .90 15
Prior to the main study, a similar study was conducted using nurses from a
religious hospital in Taiwan at the end of 2002, using identical survey instruments.
In this study, the entire questionnaire was reviewed by four health-related
professionals in order to establish clarity of the instructions, face validity, the
research items, and overall format of the questionnaire. Following the review, items
that were ambiguous were either corrected or deleted. The revised questionnaire was
administered to a sample group consisting of 102 staff nurses working in the hospital
setting. Reliability analysis was conducted. The results showed that for the work
values scale and its subscales, Cronbach’s α ranged from .91 to .98. For job
involvement, Cronbach’s α was .81. For the organisational commitment scale and
associated subscales, Cronbach’s α ranged from .80 to .85. These alphas were
considered relatively high, and so these scales were considered satisfactory in terms
79
of reliability. The results of this preliminary study suggest that reliability was
comparable to other similar studies conducted in this field (see Table 3-1). This
implies that the questionnaire is appropriate for use in the Taiwanese context.
Sociodemographic profile
A sociodemographic profile measure was developed for use in this study.
This survey collected personal data about each subject, including organisation,
gender, age, martial status, employment status, religious affiliation, education status,
personal income, occupational position, position tenure, organisation tenure and
nursing tenure.
Work Values Inventory (WVI)
Work values were measured using a Mandarin translation of a modified
indigenous version (49 items) of Super’s Work Values Inventory (WVI) (Wu et al.,
1996). There are a total of 49 items for measuring the level of work values, rather
than using only the 4 items of Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) (Randall & Cote, 1991).
There were no reverse-scored items, and scores are computed for each value
dimension (refer to p.23) by adding the scores for the seven items representing that
dimension. A response to each statement was made on a 5-point Likert-type scale
ranging from 1, not important to 5, very important. Thus, the maximum score for
each dimension was 35 and the minimum score was 7. A higher score reflects a
higher placing importance on values of work.
According to Wu et al. (1996), the WVI is a reliable instrument with a high
level of construct, content and concurrent validity. Norms on the WVI have been
carefully developed and research has indicated that work values do not seem to differ
80
with age. Recent Taiwanese researchers (Chen, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Lee & Chung,
2001) have reported coefficient alphas ranging from .79 to .94.
Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ)
Job involvement is defined in the current study as the psychological
importance of one’s job, and was measured with the 10-item Job Involvement
Questionnaire (JIQ) (Kanungo, 1982). The JIQ instrument has been used in many
research studies and its reliability (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo, Jaw,
2001; Hu, 1999) have reported coefficient alphas ranging from .81 to .95 for samples
of hospital staff nurses. Results of Ting’s three-factor structure of organisational
commitment will be used in current study. In addition, the inventory used in Randall
and Cote’s organisational commitment items will be used in this study to measure
organisational commitment.
In summary, the questionnaires used here to assess work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment have been frequently used in
organisational behaviour studies in Taiwan in recent years. However, this study is
the first in which the three instruments will be used together in the nursing field.
82
Validity of these measurement scales has been demonstrated in Taiwan in the fields
of education and business (Chen, 2000; Chen et al., 1998; Lee & Chung, 2001;
Wang, Yang, & Wang, 2001; Wu & Lin, 2003), but there is no published evidence
about the JIQ’s construct validity in Taiwan (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo
et al., 2004). Therefore, as a preliminary step in analysis of the current research data,
the validity and reliability of the measures used was established.
3.7.2 Assessments of validity
The WVI and OCQ were analysed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
and the JIQ by using EFA. CFA and EFA are two statistical approaches that can be
used to examine the internal reliability of a measure. CFA was used because it is a
powerful tool for testing an existing theory, allowing the researcher to test and
systematically compare specified a priori models. Most importantly, CFA is a useful
tool that can be used to assess measurement error. This analysis is considered more
appropriate if prior hypotheses exist based on theory or previous analysis (De Vet,
Ader, Terwee, & Pouwer, 2005). EFA was undertaken for the JIQ, as this analysis
does not have well specified a priori restrictions on the structure of the model
(Segars & Grover, 1993). Both statistical approaches can provide strong evidence for
the internal validity and reliability of a measure.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
CFAs using LISREL 8.71 were employed to confirm the factor structure of
work values and organisational commitment constructs. CFA, with maximum
likelihood (ML) estimation, was conducted to specify correlated measurement error
and to estimate the true correlations (factor loadings) between the underlying
83
constructs (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The factor loadings were significant,
meaning that they effectively reflected factor structure. Furthermore, CFA was
performed to determine adequacy of the model’s fit to the data. Structural Equation
Modelling (SEM) is a largely confirmatory technique (Hoyle, 1995), which can be
manipulated by LISREL 8.71. The analysis is reported in detail in the next section.
A factor loadings or factor structure matrix indicating a matrix of correlations
between observed variables and their factors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) was
examined for the study variables (i.e., work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment). The general rule is that factor loadings greater than .3
in absolute value are considered to be significant (Nunnally, 1978). In CFA, a
finding that indicators have high loadings on the predicted factors indicates
convergent validity, which is a form of construct validity, and refers to the principle
that indicators for a given construct should be at least moderately correlated among
themselves. A CFA was used to test the study’s main construct, namely, work values
and organisational commitment.
Goodness of fit (GOF) indicators
When using goodness-of-fit measures, Kline (1998) recommends that a
minimum of four fit indices should be reported. There are six common approaches
reported in the literature to analysing model fit, including Chi square statistics (χ2),
chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ2/df), the Normed Fit Index (NFI; Bentler &
Bonett, 1980), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the Goodness of Fit
Index (GFI) and the Root-Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).
84
A “good fit” is indicated by a nonsignificant χ2. In practice, Chi-square is
sensitive to sample sizes (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). If the chi-square to degrees of
freedom ratio (χ2/df) is around 3, this is generally accepted as a moderate fit. A score
below this suggests good fit of the model to the data (Kline, 1998). The large χ2 and
the likelihood ratio indicate the fit is still not as good as it could be. However,
according to Hertzog (1988), a model can still be considered useful even when the
likelihood ratio chi-square test is statistically significant. Therefore, though the Chi-
square statistic and the likelihood ratio are reported here, these should not be
interpreted as a measure of fit.
The NFI represents a measure of covariance (Hoyle, 1995). NFI appears to
perform well in large samples (n > 400) (Boomsma, 1982, 1983). The CFI performs
a valid index of estimating model fit in all samples (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The
CFI provides a measure of complete covariation in the data (Byrne, 2001). The GFI
is a measure of relative variance and covariance that relates closely to the population
covariance matrix (Byrne, 2001). The GFI values are very susceptible to variations
in sample size (Byrne, 2001).
The NFI, CFI and GFI range between zero and one, with values higher
than .9 generally accepted as representing a reasonable model fit. RMSEA is an
index of model fit, as it corrects for both sample size and degrees of freedom (Brown
& Cudeck, 1993). Values of .05 or less indicate a good fit and a value ranging
from .05 to .1 is indicative of reasonable fit for the RMSEA index (Brown & Cudeck,
1993). A RMSEA value of .10 or higher indicates a poorly fitting model.
85
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
EFA was conducted on job involvement in order to explore this new factor
structure. EFA using SPSS version 13.0 was conducted on JIQ in order to develop a
model that more closely fit the data. EFA seeks to discover the underlying factor
structure of a relatively large set of variables or a construct (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2001). EFA was conducted using a Principal Components Analysis (PCA), with a
varimax rotation. The analysis utilised all of the items that were included in the
scales.
3.7.3 Assessment of reliability
A reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α) was used to measure the reliability of
scales used in the study. A Cronbach’s α of .7 or higher indicates a sufficient level of
internal reliability (Nunnally, 1978). The aim of the questionnaire was to create a
positive scale to measure job involvement and organisational commitment.
Therefore a number of questions were reverse-coded (JIQ’s questions 2, 7, and
OCQ’s questions 3, 7, 9, 11, 12 and 15) to ensure consistency of results. Although
instruments selected in this study were all well-established, it was necessary to
confirm their reliability once again for this study, because of its usage in the
Taiwanese hospital context. This is particularly relevant when new instruments are
being developed, or when previously validated instruments are translated and used in
different countries (Nystedt, Sjoberg, & Hagglund, 1999).
86
3.7.4 Testing the research instrument: Results
Work values
After collecting the data for the study, a maximum likelihood CFA was
conducted to examine the factor structure. Table 3-2 provides the factor loadings of
the resultant model, revealing that the factor loadings were all positive, with most
exceeding .4. No negative error variances were present, and the t-values, which are
the factor loadings divided by the respective standard error, were all statistically
significant.
87
Table 3-2. Factor loadings, measurement errors, and t values for CFA of Work
Values Inventory. Dimensions of work values Dimensions of work values Item
number SG† SR† SE† SI† Item
number SS† SA† RH† 1 loading ME‡ t-value
.59
.22 29.99
29 loading ME t-value
.59
.24 29.19
2 loading ME t-value
.63
.12 35.47
30 loading ME t-value
.67
.21 32.48
3 loading ME t-value
.65
.12 36.16
31 loading ME t-value
.72
.19 34.11
4 loading ME t-value
.64
.15 34.38
32 loading ME t-value
.78
.18 35.95
5 loading ME t-value
.60
.16 32.74
33 loading ME t-value
.77
.18 35.75
6 loading ME t-value
.53
.17 30.51
34 loading ME t-value
.77
.17 36.13
7 loading ME t-value
.55
.29 26.38
35 loading ME t-value
.75
.20 34.44
8 loading ME‡ t-value
.57 .16
32.15
36 loading ME t-value
.70 .22
32.57
9 loading ME t-value
.66 .15
34.60
37 loading ME t-value
.66 .21
31.98
10 loading ME t-value
.64 .17
33.52
38 loading ME t-value
.69 .32
29.37
11 loading ME t-value
.65 .25
30.41
39 loading ME t-value
.64 .37
26.60
12 loading ME t-value
.65 .24
30.77
40 loading ME t-value
.61 .32
27.18
13 loading ME t-value
.54 .21
28.51
41 loading ME t-value
.57 .30
26.56
14 loading ME t-value
.55 .22
28.67
42 loading ME t-value
.54 .31
25.40
Note 1: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Note 2: ‡: ME: measurement error
88
Table 3-2. Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of Work Values Inventory (continued).
Dimensions of work values Dimensions of work valuesItem number SG† SR† SE† SI†
Item number SS† SA† RH†
15 loading ME t-value
.56.16
31.32
43 loading ME t-value
.65.20
32.2716 loading ME t-value
.56.19
30.19
44 loading ME t-value
.66.27
30.0917 loading ME t-value
.59.22
29.38
45 loading ME t-value
.63.23
30.4218 loading ME t-value
.55.22
28.68
46 loading ME t-value
.62.20
31.3619 loading ME t-value
.47.22
25.66
47 loading ME t-value
.64.20
31.8520 loading ME t-value
.59.17
31.89
48 loading ME t-value
.63.21
31.1821 loading ME t-value
.40.37
18.49
49 loading ME t-value
.59.30
27.0522 loading ME t-value
.64.23
31.27
23 loading ME t-value
.63.11
36.18
24 loading ME t-value
.67.13
36.44
25 loading ME t-value
.68.06
40.60
26 loading ME t-value
.66.06
40.63
27 loading ME t-value
.66.07
39.38
28 loading ME t-value
.59.12
34.76
Note 1: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Note 2: ‡: ME: measurement error.
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According to results of the CFA (see Table 3-3), these fit indices (NFI = .97,
CFI = .98, GFI = .73, and RMSEA = .084) indicate a reasonable model fit. The
seven-factor structure hypothesised to underlie the work values scale was confirmed.
Table 3-3. Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for Work Values Inventory.
Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA
7802.86** 1106 7.06 .97 .98 .73 .084
**p < .01
Cronbach’s α for the WVI was calculated. As summarised in Table 3-4, the
reliability coefficient of WVI was .98. The reliability coefficients were also high for
all WVI’s subscales, ranging from .9 to .96. All Cronbach’s α for the WVI were
above .9 and thus were considered adequate for this study.
Table 3-4. Measures of reliability for the Work Values Inventory.
Dimensions of work values
SG† SR† SE† SI† SS† SA† RH†
Subscale α .93 .93 .90 .96 .95 .91 .92
Full scale α .98 Note: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”.
Job involvement
EFA using a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was conducted to
investigate the construct of job involvement (with a varimax rotation) using the JIQ.
The analysis extracted factors with eigenvalues, which indicate the amount of
variance in a set of variables explained by a factor. Results of the EFA were
evaluated by considering the following criteria, (1) the factor loading was lower
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than .3, as well as (2) each item loaded on only factor (even if they loaded higher
than .3). Items meeting these criteria were left out of the analysis.
Before EFA was conducted, two tests assessing the suitability of data for
structure detection were run. As shown in Table 3-5, the high value (ranging
from .88 for the first phase to .89 for the second phase) from the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) test (Kaiser, 1970, 1974), which measures sampling adequacy, indicated that
a factor analysis would be useful with the data. The significant Bartlett’s Test of
Sphericity (ranging from Χ2 = 4453.45, p < .01 for the first phase to Χ2 = 4367.36, p
< .01 for the second phase) (Bartlett, 1954) indicated that the data were suitable for
structure detection. Therefore, EFA was performed.
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Table 3-5. Factor analysis and reliability of Job Involvement Questionnaire.
First phase (N§ = 1038) Second phase (N§ = 1040) Item number
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 1 Factor 2
5 .83 .82
8 .83 .81
4 .79 .80
6 .78 .78
9 .75 .73 .32
3 .38 .74 .32 .73
7 -.45 .71 -.48 .72
10 .51 .60 .50 .61
1 .47 .60 .50 .61
2 .966
Eigenvalues 3.990 1.930 1.083 3.931 1.993
% of Variance 39.90 19.30 10.83 43.68 22.15
Cumulative % 39.90 59.20 70.03 43.68 65.83
Subscale α .88 .63 .88 .76
Full scale α .81 .89
KMO .88 .89
Bartlett’s test Χ2 = 4453.45, p < .01 Χ2 = 4367.36, p < .01 §: N’s vary because of listwise deletion of missing data in SPSS procedure.
In the first phase of PCA analysis (Table 3-5), three factors were extracted.
Factor 3 contained only one item (item 2) and was dropped. In the second phase of
analysis, it was found that the best solution was a two-factor solution. Factor 1
consisted of five items (4, 5, 6, 8 and 9) with a Cronbach’s α of .88, and Factor 2,
included items 1, 3, 7 and 10, with a reliability of .76. Inspection of the corrected
item-total correlation revealed that the coefficient for item 7 was below .3 (-.084)
(see Appendix H). Corrected item-total correlations should be considered the
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minimum acceptable evidence of construct validity (Pallant, 2005). They are
important because they give researchers an indication of the extent to which each
item contributes to a scale or subscale. Item 7 was thus dropped, increasing
Cronbach’s α to .76 for factor 2.
Thus the items loaded on two factors, accounted for 65.83% of total variance,
and had a Cronbach’s α of .89. Factor 1 accounted for 43.68% of the variance
observed and demonstrated high factor loadings (i.e. .60 or greater). Factor 2
accounted for 22.15% of the variance observed and 3 items (1, 3, and 10) loaded
highest.
Once all significant loadings were identified, there was an attempt to assign
some meaning to the factors based on the patterns of the factor loadings. Factor 1
was named “Complete Involvement” (CINV), and is defined as an orientation
toward the job that overlaps strongly with the subject’s life. These individuals derive
the most life fulfilment through their professional role. Factor 2, labelled “Strong
Involvement” (SINV), is defined as an orientation toward the job that, while not
reaching the levels of involvement demonstrated by high CINV participants,
nevertheless derive strong personal fulfilment from achievement of professional
goals. Reliability data for the JIQ’s subscales ranged from a low of α = .76 on
“strong involvement” to a high of α = .88 on “complete involvement”. The
Cronbach’s α of eight items in JIQ was .89, which is presented in Table 3-5. The
instrument was therefore considered acceptable in terms of validity.
Kanungo (1982) had indicated that his 10-item JIQ was a uni-dimensional
construct. However, this study revealed that job involvement involves at least two
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factors in the Taiwanese setting, including complete involvement (i.e., “I live, eat
and breathe my job”, “most of my interests are centred around my job”, “I have very
strong ties with my present job which would be very difficult to break”, “most of my
personal life goals are job-oriented” and “I consider my job to be very central to my
existence”) and strong involvement (i.e., “The most important things that happen to
me involve my present job”, “I am very much involved personally in my job” and “I
like to be absorbed in my job most of the time”). Huang (1986) and Van Wyk,
Boshoff, and Owen (1999) caution that instruments are not generally or necessarily
applicable to different cultures, since there are cultural differences associated with
perceptions of work organisation. Anastasi (1990) and Lee and Tu (1991) argue that
cultural differences may lead to group differences that affect responses to particular
psychometric instruments, thus reducing the validity of an instrument for specific
groups. It is possible that individual items are interpreted differently by persons in
different cultures. In addition, although Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ has previously been
used in other Taiwanese industrial samples (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo
et al., 2004), it had not been implemented in a nursing sample. Therefore,
professional differences may also influence the study findings.
Organisational commitment
After collecting the data, CFA was conducted to examine the factor structure
of organisational commitment. Table 3-6 provides the factor loadings of the resultant
model. The factor loadings were all positive, with most exceeding .4. No negative
error variances were present, and the t-values were all statistically significant.
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Table 3-6. Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.
Item number Values commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment
2 loading ME‡
t-value
.85
.28 35.63
4 loading ME
t-value
.62
.61 20.92
5 loading ME
t-value
.79
.38 27.22
6 loading ME
t-value
.87
.23 25.44
8 loading ME
t-value
.76
.43 27.84
10 loading ME
t-value
.80
.36 36.83
14 loading ME
t-value
.75
.44 26.10
1 loading ME
t-value
.85 .28
35.63
3 loading ME
t-value
.46 .79
10.13
13 loading ME
t-value
.65 .58
18.03
7 loading ME
t-value
.44 .81
11.64 9 loading ME
t-value
.74 .45
28.13 11 loading ME
t-value
.91 .17
52.18 12 loading ME
t-value
.60 .64
21.84 15 loading ME
t-value
.86 .26
42.84 Note: ‡: ME: measurement error
As shown in Table 3-7, the results of CFA revealed that NFI = .97, CFI = .97,
GFI = .81 and RMSEA = .078, thus indicating a reasonable model fit. The three-
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factor structure hypothesised to underlie the organisational commitment scale was
confirmed.
Table 3-7. Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.
Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA
620.29** 87 7.13 .97 .97 .81 .078
**p < .01
Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for the OCQ were calculated (see Table
3-8). The reliability coefficient for OCQ overall was .88. The reliability data for the
OCQ’s subscales ranged from a low of α = .58 on “effort commitment” to a high of
α = .86 on “values commitment”. The relatively lower α obtained from the “effort
commitment” scale could be due to the fact that fewer items are used in this scale
(Omran, 1984), and/or because items in scales can be interpreted differently by
persons in other cultures (Lee & Tu, 1991).
Table 3-8. Measures of reliability for the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.
al., 1979; Stevens et al., 1978). This finding suggests that individuals who had higher
job involvement had more commitment to their organisation. Researchers have
reasoned that needs for achievement and “self-esteem” are satisfied for job-involved
individuals in their workplace. Clear organisational goals give highly job-involved
workers more opportunities to satisfy their needs and build commitment to the
organisation. Thus these individuals exert more effort to achieve these goals than
individuals less involved in their jobs. Highly job-involved individuals may also feel
that they are highly personally invested in their work, and thus in the organisation as
whole, and might therefore place more importance on their organisation’s success.
These individuals may also feel more personally responsible for its success.
According to SET, an alternate explanation for the positive relationship
between job involvement and organisational commitment exists. According to this
theory, individuals bring certain needs and skills to the organisation, and expect that
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the organisation will provide an environment in which those needs are satisfied and
those skills are used. If individual psychological needs are satisfied, employees will
engage themselves more fully and invest greater time and energy on behalf of the
organisation. Therefore, it seems logical that perceptions of a positive work
environment will lead to satisfaction, and less intent to leave the organisation. This is
consistent with Kanungo’s view that high job involvement occurs when the work
environment meets the individual’s needs.
Findings in relation to mediating processes
A structured equation model was proposed to account for the relationships
proposed in this study (Figure 1-1). Specifically, it was hypothesised that job
involvement would have a positive mediating effect on work values and
organisational commitment (Hypothesis 5). The proposed model was evaluated for
goodness-of-fit to determine if these hypothesised relationships were supported. As
discussed in Chapter Four, the final revised model provided a significant
improvement in fit compared to the original and a reversed model, and therefore was
accepted.
In this study, as Randall and Cote (1991) suggested, work values operated
indirectly on organisational commitment via job involvement. Further, as the model
predicted, employees holding higher work values were highly involved in their jobs.
Job involvement appears to directly and strongly influence organisational
commitment. In turn, work values were related to job involvement and
organisational commitment. Moreover, this finding suggests that the indirect
influence of work values on organisational commitment is more important than its
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direct impact. This indicates that job involvement could play an important mediator
role, such that establishing a higher level of job involvement among employees may
be more important than focusing only on improving organisational commitment.
Several conclusions can be drawn from these results. Firstly, work values
show weak or moderate positive correlations with job involvement. Those
individuals who place high importance on values (either terminal, instrumental or
overall measures) are likely to have higher job involvement. Secondly, work values
(except for “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, and “recreation,
health and transport considerations”) also show weak or moderate positive
correlations with organisational commitment (except for “retention commitment”).
This suggests that those individuals who place a higher importance on work values
tend to report higher organisational commitment. Thirdly, job involvement shows
weak positive correlations with organisational commitment, such that those who are
more involved in their jobs are more likely to be committed to their organisations.
Lastly, nurses holding higher work values appear to be highly involved in their jobs,
and job involvement appears to directly and strongly influence organisational
commitment. Job involvement plays an important mediator role in this relationship.
5.4 Implications for theory and practice
The implications of these findings are as follows.
5.4.1 Implications for theory
The major finding of the current study was that the relationships between
work values, job involvement and organisational commitment proposed in the study
166
framework were supported by the data from Taiwanese nurses. The finding that job
involvement played an important mediating role between work values and
organisational commitment deserves further exploration. This study is not able to
confirm Randall and Cote’s predictions regarding the direct effect of work values on
organisational commitment, which was lacking in tests of Randall and Cote’s two
models (both the original and revised models). In Figure 5-1, however, it can be seen
that the current results affirm the basic content of Randall and Cote’s revised model,
although the direct link between work values and organisational commitment is not
clearly drawn. It was anticipated that having strong work values would result in
increased job involvement, which would subsequently lead to increased
organisational commitment. Or it could be the case that employees who are involved
in their job have positive work values which they attribute to their organisation.
Figure 5-1. The revised model.
Work values Job involvement Organisational commitment
However, another test was run on the reverse model, which stated that job
involvement mediates the impact of organisational commitment on work values (i.e.,
organisational commitment → job involvement → work values). The findings
clearly did not support this model (see Chapter Four). One researcher (Rong, 1998)
has argued that merely observing the attitude of an individual cannot allow
prediction of the values one holds within. Values are remarkably stable over time
167
(Rokeach, 1973). Thus this study provided further empirical evidence that
recognising their personal values can help individuals to explain and understand their
possible attitudes and the behaviours in which they engage.
This study utilised Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to link work
values and job-related attitudes (i.e., job involvement, organisational commitment).
SCT has had a considerable influence on the way researchers understand behaviour
within organisations.
Research into job involvement (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965; Shore et al., 1990) and
organisational commitment (Shore et al., 1990) has suggested that work values, as a
result of social learning, are considered a strong antecedent of these two work
attitudes (i.e., job involvement and organisational commitment).
At the individual level, new members imitate other members performing their roles in order to fit in with the work unit and organisation. They are also actively and implicitly taught the skills, behaviours, and values necessary for career advancement in the organisation by imitating hierarchically superior mentors. This involves a complex interplay of cognitive, behavioural, and environmental elements
(Fogarty & Dirsmith, 2001, p.257)
Moreover, based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), individuals seek a balance
in their exchange relationship with the organisation, by having attitudes that are
equivalent to the degree of organisation commitment to them as an individual. When
an organisational environment satisfies employee needs, and provides opportunities
for skill utilisation, it enhances organisation commitment and job involvement.
The framework for this study was based on an integration of the models of job
involvement and organisational commitment. Some positive correlations were found
between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among
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Taiwanese nurses. This indicates that some of their values (both “terminal values”
and “instrumental values”), their job involvement and their organisational
commitment vary with each other, at least to a certain degree.
In Randall and Cote’s two models, Protestant work ethic (PWE) affects job
involvement, which has a stronger influence on organisational commitment. The
revised model shows that work values, with two factors (“self-growth” and “self-
realisation”) of “terminal values” are related to job involvement and organisational
commitment. While PWE suggests that people with a strong work ethic tend to have
contempt for idleness and self-indulgence (Schnake, 1991), measurement of work
values in this study confirmed a relevance to the values of individual life experience.
Employees with a high work ethic are likely to feel guilty when they believe they are
not working as hard as they should (Cohen, 1999), whereas people with high
“terminal values” search for and work in careers that fit their personality and will be
more attached to them. These insights open up new approaches to the study of work
commitment. The findings for of this study, as they are related to these concepts,
affirmed the relevant theoretical proposals.
While it is not possible to ascribe causal direction based on a cross-sectional
study, it can be speculated that individuals with higher work values will have a
higher degree of job involvement and organisational commitment, which in turn
results in lower levels of intention to leave the organisation, and higher levels of job
satisfaction and performance. Furthermore, if performance and job satisfaction lead
to high quality patient care, higher levels of job involvement and organisational
commitment are vital to the organisation. This finding may allow nurse
169
administrators to monitor the level of work commitment among employees, and to
predict staff turnover.
Due to the relatively little research in this field in Taiwan, the findings of the
current study also serve as a starting point for future research. The current findings
provide a basis for further research into the characteristics of the nursing profession
in Taiwan.
5.4.2 Implications for practice
This section focuses upon some practical implications of this study for
workplace planning and policy, healthcare management and administration.
Although many studies have been conducted attempting to clarify the
dimensions and factorial structure of work commitment (Cohen, 1999; Morrow,
1983; Randall & Cote, 1991), this study has explored the practical influence of the
dimensions of work commitment in the workplace. The results provide potentially
valuable information for nurse administrators in terms of understanding what
relationships exist between work values, job involvement and organisational
commitment, and how these might affect retention of staff nurses. This study
supports previous research linking work values with job involvement and
organisational commitment. It is important for individuals to be aware of their own
work values when they work in an organisation. In particular, the findings of this
study revealed that job involvement had a greater effect on organisational
commitment than work values.
Views about work and organisations have dramatically changed over
previous years. This change has impacted on employees’ work attitudes and
170
cognitions about both their job and organisation (Hung & Liu, 2003; Rosina et al.,
1997). It is essential that nurse administrators become more aware of the role of
work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment so as to develop those
elements in their organisation. Specific examples of this are provided later in this
discussion. Nurse administrators therefore need to understand, inspire, and affect the
thinking of their employees, and subsequently generate positive work values in order
to improve job involvement and organisational commitment. Nurse administrators
must examine the nurses they currently employ and work out how to keep their
nurses in the organisation, and also to keep them happy and healthy. Nurse
administrators also need to incorporate programs and systems to increase job
involvement in the daily operations of the organisation. This will, in turn, enhance
employees’ commitment to their organisation. These will be discussed in more detail
later in this chapter.
Potential intervention will have impact all aspects of the organisation, from
the management and policy level right down to the practical work of nurses in wards,
touching on key issues such as turnover, social interaction, training, promotion,
career planning and ownership. The contribution of this research to nurse
administrators’ daily decision-making is summarised below, bringing together the
research hypotheses and the findings by revisiting the key issues of the study.
Staff nurses and work values
The majority of staff nurses who participated in this study had moderate to
high scores on work values, with many nurses favouring “instrumental values” over
“terminal values”. The nurses considered “social interaction considerations”,
171
“security and economic considerations”, “stability and freedom from anxiety
considerations”, and “recreation, health and transport considerations” more
important than “self-growth”, “self-realisation” and “self-esteem”. Work is
particularly important to an individual’s life and many essential values can be
reflected or fulfilled at work. This is particularly true in a competitive marketplace.
However, when work values cannot be fulfilled through work accomplishment, staff
nurses either become less committed and more apt to leave the organisation, or look
for fulfilment of the values in other aspects of life, such as their leisure life and
family life.
This insight is a valuable tool that nurse administrators can use to improve
their working environment, supportive services and provide positive rewards. This
means that efforts to restructure patient care delivery must be more ergonomically
sensitive to nurses, and working areas need to be more comfortable and supportive.
Supportive services which may help employees include childcare, transportation, and
personal growth workshops. Rewards, including an incentive system, can be
effective motivators and can bond employees with their organisations and prevent
them from resigning. However, Webb, Tour, and Hurt (1994) note that nurses
responded positively to public recognition, peer reinforcement and senior
management reinforcement, and that hospitals do not have to recognise their
contributions in terms of a monetary reward.
Furthermore, there are differences among nursing groups at each hospital.
Nurse administrators who integrate the presence and power of generational forces
into their leadership strategies are in a better position to successfully lead the
organisations of the future. Nurse administrators should consider a new approach to
172
selecting employees and encourage similarities in the work values within groups,
because people with similar value systems work more harmoniously and tend to be
more involved in their jobs. There are many means of building effective
communication, such as focus groups and simulations. It is also important to manage
diversity in the workplace including age, culture and gender (Betty, 1998). Though
can be difficult to achieve, better understanding can establish a harmonious
workplace atmosphere.
The role of nursing educators can affect student nurses’ personalities and
achievements. Teachers’ values may influence students’ interpretations of the
material. Society has long held a stereotypical perception of nurses to be
hardworking, considerate, and friendly, and that nurses demonstrate these qualities in
their workplace by being disciplined, insightful, organised, and dedicated (Chinn &
Kramer, 2004). Although nurses are thus generally trusted by the population, there
are new challenges within nursing as to its role within society, as these new
generations are growing up in a very different world. Betty (1998) argues that
society is very important in shaping employees preferred management styles, with
young people particularly willing to change jobs and careers. Today’s employees,
especially younger workers, expect to be treated like partners, and are no longer
satisfied with involvement, rather they want ownership (Izzo & Withers, 2002).
It is therefore critical for nursing educators to teach by relating values to
human differences, and practice enables student nurses to recognize and understand
their own values as well as the values of others. Reutter, Field, Campbell, and Day
(1997) reported that undergraduate nursing students tend to retain their personal
values when they graduate. Further understanding of the work values of student
173
nurses may help deal with potential conflict between various generations in the work
force.
Staff nurses and job involvement and organisational commitment
The majority of nurse participants reported moderate scores on both job
involvement and organisational commitment. This finding may correspond with the
trend in society towards a balancing of all facets f life, in the hope of attaining a
Obtained consent from 9 regional teaching hospitals
Sample size was determined by assuming a difference betweengroups of 1 point on the five Likert scale previously used and astandard deviation .9, and allowing a 5% type I error (2-tail) and10% type II error and the assumptions of a response rate (40%),confounder (15%), and contingency (10%):
Sample size per group => 2 * (3.24)2 * (.9)2 / 12 = 17
Comparing max 9 categories within group => 17 * 10 = 170
Response rate (40%) => 170 * 1.6 = 272
Confounder (15%) => 272 * 1.15 ≈ 313
Contingency (10%) => 313 * 1.1 ≈ 345
200
Appendix F Cover Letter
201
Queensland University of Technology
A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses
Principal investigator: Chin-Chih Ho, School of Public Health, Queensland University of Technology, Australia. Ph. +617 (07) 38645478. Department of Health Administration, Tzu Chi College of Technology, Taiwan. Ph. (03) 8572158 ext. 422.
This research project is being undertaken by Chin-Chih Ho, a Health Service Management doctorate student, School of Public Health at the Queensland University of Technology.
The purpose of this research is to identify nurses work values, whether their work values influence their commitment to the organisation through job involvement and how work values, job involvement and organisational commitment related to one another among Taiwanese teaching hospitals. The study is seen as significant as most of the research come from education or industry. The restricted range of professional fields sampled may limit our understanding, because findings from education or industry may not be generalisable to the healthcare system. Research in diverse professions may be needed to fully describe the relationship of these concepts.
The research findings may be used to improve recruitment and training and assist managers and organisations in developing strategies to ensure better alignment of work values between the organisation and individuals.
Your hospital is one of the organisations selected for this study and all Registered Nurses here are being approached for their views in this regard. Your participation will be a valuable contribution to this significant research project. If you agree to participate, you would be asked to complete a questionnaire and return the same in the attached stamped envelope. The questions are three scales and tick boxes that require you to record your perceptions and thoughts. There are also a few standard questions about your social demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, income and length of service. The questionnaire will take approximately 25 minutes of your time, with the information used to develop a clearer understanding of what associates organisational commitment positively or negatively. Participation in the research is voluntary and there is no obligation or penalty for not participating. The survey will be completely anonymous, with your information de-identified and aggregated with other nurses. The findings of this research will be published in peer reviewed journals, however no individual comments or results will be reported. Aggregated data will be available to organisations to assist in improving the workplace.
Should you become distressed as a result of participating this research, you may wish to contact the Nursing Department within your organisation. The contact details for this services can be accessed by referral through your supervisor. Any question concerning the project can be directed to chief investigator, Chin-Chih Ho, at the School of Public Health, Queensland University of Technology on +617 (07) 38645460, Australia, or the department of Health Administration at Tzu Chi College of Technology, Taiwan, on (03) 8572158.
202
This research project has been approved by the University Human Research Ethics Committee at Queensland University of Technology. You may contact the Research Ethics Officer on +617 (07) 38642340 or email [email protected], should you have any complaints about the conduct of the research, or wish to raise any concerns. All complaints will be treated in confidence, investigated full and you will be informed of the outcome.
Dear Chin Chih I write further to the application for expedited ethical clearance requested for your project, "A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses" (QUT Ref No 3794H). This application was recently considered by the University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) Expedited Ethical Review Panel. On behalf of the Panel I wish to advise that your project has been granted conditional ethical approval. This approval is subject to clarification regarding the names of the 10 participating hospitals (these are provided in the appendices, but no English translation of the name of the person providing the approval or the name of the institution has been included). Please provide me with the revisions/additional information outlined in the above by 24 December 2004. Failure to submit this information by the due date may result in withdrawal of this conditional ethical approval. Please do not hesitate to contact me further if you have any queries regarding this matter. Regards Wendy Wendy Heffernan Research Ethics Officer Office of Research O Block Podium Tel: 07 3864 2340 Fax: 07 3864 1304
Date: Mon 13 Dec 13:29:50 EST 2004 From: Wendy Heffernan <[email protected]> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: Re: Expedited Ethical Review - 3794H To: [email protected] Cc: [email protected] Dear Chin Chih I write further to the response received in relation to your project, "A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses" (QUT Ref No 3794H). On behalf of the Chair, University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC), I wish to advise that this response has addressed the additional information required for your project. Consequently, you are authorised to immediately commence your project on this basis. The decision is subject to ratification at the 15 February 2005 meeting of UHREC. I will only contact you again in relation to this matter if the Committee raises any additional questions or concerns in regard to the clearance. The University requires its researchers to comply with:
• the University’s research ethics arrangements and the QUT Code of Conduct for Research;
• the standard conditions of ethical clearance;
• any additional conditions prescribed by the UHREC;
• any relevant State / Territory or Commonwealth legislation;
• the policies and guidelines issued by the NHMRC and AVCC (including the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans).
Please do not hesitate to contact me further if you have any queries regarding this matter. Regards Wendy
University Human Research Ethics Committee Information in relation to ethical clearance
What is the duration of my ethical clearance? The ethical clearance awarded to your project is valid for three years commencing from 1 December 2004. Recruitment, consent and data collection / experimentation cannot be conducted outside the duration of the ethical clearance for your project. Please note that a progress report is required annually on 1 December or on completion of your project (whichever is earlier). You will be issued a reminder around the time this report is due. The progress report proforma can be located on the Research Ethics webpage. Extensions to the duration of your ethical clearance within the 3-5 year limit must be made in writing and will be considered by the Chair under executive powers. Extensions beyond 5 years must be sought under a renewal application. Standard conditions of approval The University’s standard conditions of approval require the research team to: 1. conduct the project in accordance with University policy, NHMRC / AVCC guidelines and regulations, and the provisions of any relevant State / Territory or Commonwealth regulations or legislation; 2. respond to the requests and instructions of the University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) 3. advise the Research Ethics Officer immediately if any complaints are made, or expressions of concern are raised, in relation to the project; 4. suspend or modify the project if the risks to participants are found to be disproportionate to the benefits, and immediately advise the Research Ethics Officer of this action; 5. stop any involvement of any participant if continuation of the research may be harmful to that person, and immediately advise the Research Ethics Officer of this action; 6. advise the Research Ethics Officer of any unforeseen development or events that might affect the continued ethical acceptability of the project; 7. report on the progress of the approved project at least annually, or at intervals determined by the Committee; 8. (where the research is publicly or privately funded) publish the results of the project is such a way to permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge; and 9. ensure that the results of the research are made available to the participants. Modifying your ethical clearance The University has an expedited mechanism for the approval of minor modifications
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to an ethical clearance (this includes changes to the research team, subject pool, testing instruments, etc). In practice this mechanism enables researchers to conduct a number of projects under the same ethical clearance. Any proposed modification to the project or variation to the ethical clearance must be reported immediately to the Committee (via the Research Ethics Officer), and cannot be implemented until the Chief Investigator has been notified of the Committee’s approval for the change / variation. Requests for changes / variations should be made in writing to the Research Ethics Officer. Minor changes (changes to the subject pool, the use of an additional instrument, etc) will be assessed on a case by case basis and interim approval may be granted subject to ratification at the subsequent meeting of the Committee. It generally takes 5 -10 days to process and notify the Chief Investigator of the outcome of a request for a minor change / variation. Major changes to your project must also be made in writing and will be considered by the UHREC. Depending upon the nature of your request, you may be asked to submit a new application form for your project. Audits All active ethical clearances are subject to random audit by the UHREC, which will include the review of the signed consent forms for participants, whether any modifications / variations to the project have been approved, and the data storage arrangements. Wendy Heffernan Research Ethics Officer Office of Research O Block Podium Tel: 07 3864 2340 Fax: 07 3864 1304 At 12:04 PM 11/12/2004 +1000, you wrote: Hi Wendy I am Chin Chih. I have sent 10 copies of revision statement of project agreement in those days. Each e-mail represents one revision statement of project agreement for one hospital. If these are available, please print them out. If not, please let me know. Thank you. Kind regards, Chin Chih
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Date: Fri 24 Mar 10:44:12 EST 2006 From: "Janette Lamb" <[email protected]> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: PROGRESS REPORT -- 3794H To: <[email protected]> Dear Mr Chin Ho
Thank you for providing the Progress Report in relation to ethical clearance for your project, QUT Ref 3794H – A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses, which has ethical clearance until 1 December 2007.
In accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans and QUT policy, I have noted the following on the ethics database:
The Progress Report will be provided to the University Human Research Ethics Committee at its next meeting. I will only contact you again in relation to this matter if the Committee raises any additional questions or concerns.
Ø The project is in progress; Ø The project is being carried out in accordance with the original application; Ø Any unforeseen risks have been identified and managed; and Ø No other ethical concerns have emerged from the study.
Please do not hesitate to contact me if you have any further queries in relation to this matter.
Yours sincerely
Janette Lamb
Research Ethics Support Officer Office of Research | Level 3 O Block Podium