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Table of contents
1. Introduction......................................................................................5
1.1 Marketing issues ............................................................................................................. 5
1.1.1 Lack of official data on ethnic minorities ..................................................................51.1.2 French Regulations ................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Limitations of previous research .................................................................................. 6
1.3 Commercial importance ................................................................................................ 7
1.4 Purpose of the study ....................................................................................................... 8
2. Literature review and hypothesis development ...........................9
2.1 Key definition.................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 Ethnic minority .......................................................................................................... 92.1.2 Endorsement theories ................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Ethnicity background .................................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 Previous studies on Ethnic minorities’ reactions toward advertising with ethnicminority. ........................................................................................................................... 122.2.2 Previous studies on Whites’ reactions towards advertising with ethnic minority .. 18
2.3 Hypothesis development .............................................................................................. 20
2.3.1 White consumers’ responses to White endorsers .................................................... 212.3.2 White consumers’ response to Asian endorsers ...................................................... 212.3.3 Asian consumers’ response to Asian endorsers ...................................................... 23
2.3.4 Asian consumers’ response to White endorsers ...................................................... 25
3. Method ............................................................................................26
3.1 Research design ............................................................................................................ 26
3.2 Subjects ......................................................................................................................... 27
3.3 Ad stimulus ................................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Questionnaire features ................................................................................................. 29
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10. Appendices....................................................................................77
Appendix 1 - IPSOS survey on ethnic minorities and advertising in France ............... 77
Appendix 2 – Ad stimulus.................................................................................................. 78
Appendix 3 – Questionnaire .............................................................................................. 79
Appendix 4 – Models.......................................................................................................... 84
Appendix 5 – Means on each dependent variables (from SPSS v.14) ........................... 85
Appendix 6 – ANOVA on each dependent measures (from SPSS v.14)........................ 86
Appendix 7 – MANOVA (from SPSS v.14)...................................................................... 88
Appendix 8 – Attitude toward ethnicity........................................................................... 89
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A study of French consumers’ response to
advertising featuring Asian and White endorsers.
Julien MongUniversity of Bath
Abstract : This quantitative study examined the attitudes of White French and AsianFrench consumers when they are exposed to advertising displaying their respectiveethnicity endorser. The context of study differs from past studies on this area as Franceremains a particular society where individuals must disregard their ethnic identity inregards to law. We hypothesised that (1) consistent with previous studies on theimpact of Asian endorsers on White consumers, White French consumers’ favourableresponse towards the Asian endorser ad will not be significantly lower than whiteFrench consumers’ response to the White endorser ad. (2) Finally, we posited that due
to the limited existence of ads featuring Asian endorser, Asian French consumers’favourable response will be significantly higher with the Asian endorser ad than AsianFrench consumers’ response to the White endorser ad.
The present study is a 2 (endorser ethnicity: White or Asian) x 2 (subject ethnicity:White French or Asian French) between-subjects factorial design and aimed atmeasuring attitude toward the model, attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brandand purchase intentions. We found that Asians exhibited more favourable responsetoward the Asian endorser ad. Interestingly, use of an Asian endorser did not result inunenthusiastic reactions from Whites. Involvement was found to have a significantmain effect on attitudes and purchase intentions.
Key words: Advertising, Asian, Endorser, Ethnic minority, France
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1. Introduction
A study conducted by Mercier (2006) for a well-known French survey institute IPSOS
showed that 63% of French people would like a better representation of ethnic minorities on
advertising. 50% of young people share the same opinion (Appendix 1). Although use of
ethnic minorities on advertising has improved in recent years especially on sports’
commercials, advertising is still blamed for causing stigmatisation among the French society
by displaying ethnic minority models in stereotyped situation (e.g. Black playing sport, Asian
cooking food, etc.). This study recommends French advertising agencies to take into account
the weight of ethnic population in their campaign. Recent efforts by several types of
organisation in France have brought direct pressure upon advertisers for action to include
Ethnic Minorities in advertising. However, it seems fair to state that advertisers have not
responded to these advices with great enthusiasm. Indeed, this task faces several challenges
specific to the French society that marketers need to take into account (Secondi, 2006).
1.1 Marketing issues
1.1.1 Lack of official data on ethnic minorities
According to official figures related by the French National Institute of Statistics, INSEE,
there are approximately 4.5 million immigrants in France in 2004 (Borel & Durr, 2005). The
number of none-white immigrants such as North-Africans and Asians has increased faster
than White Europeans, from respectively 40 to 42% (1.89m) and 12% to 14% (0.63m).
Because the INSEE only accounts individuals who were born in a foreign country, regardless
of his/her current nationality and ethnic origin, these figures do not take into account children
who were born in France, naturalised French, and whose parents are none-EU immigrants.
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Therefore, the number of people living in France from a different ethnicity background is
much likely to be higher.
1.1.2 French Regulations
Some researchers such as Treguier & Segati (Chap. 7, 2004) estimated the number of ethnic
minorities to represent 20% of the French population (12m North-Africans and up to one
million Asians). Recently, an association defending the rights of Black people in France,
CRAN, has estimated the number of people considering themselves as “Black” to two
millions. However, these figures have sparked controversy among the French society for
which the law prohibits the count of population by ethnicity (Gilden et. al., 2004). In contrast
to the British and American model of integration, the French Republic principles do not
distinguish human though their ethnic origin. It is qualified as a “color blind” country which
requires individuals to disregard their own specificity in order to fully integrate themselves to
the French society (Fassin, 2007). While this model could be qualified as fairness because it
sets everyone at the same level, it does not recognise the specific needs of each minority and
the importance of cultural background.
1.2 Limitations of previous research
Previous studies on the value of ethnic minorities have mainly focused on English speaking
countries (Whittler, 1991; Setz, 1998; Nwankwo et al., 1998; Green, 1999; Burton, 2000) and
to a lesser extent in Asian countries (Ryu et al. 2006). Unfortunately, this area of research has
received little attention in countries such as France where specific regulations apply. Thus,
knowledge of Asian consumer behaviour in France remains severely limited. While some
scholars (Maheswaran & Shavitt, 2000) have highlighted the importance of conducting
experimental research in different cultures to enrich consumer behaviour knowledge, this
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study will be proven useful in its aim to contribute to the French consumer behaviour
researchers and to enhance our knowledge of this growing ethnic minority way often ignored.
1.3 Commercial importance
Practice of targeting a specific ethnic minority using ethnic minority model has only emerged
recently though some national advertising campaign (e.g. L’Oréal, Western Union) but they
remain very limited. Ignorance of ethnic salience and lack of data prevent marketers from
applying effectively the marketing principles of “segmenting, targeting and differentiation”
(Kotler, 2005). In contrast to the US or the UK, few firms have taken the risk to advertise with
minority ethnic model as to avoid shocking population or being accused of segregation or
stereotyping. Sengès (2003) criticises the French model and argues that the “ Seduction of the
consumer no long occurs by targeting its unified taste but by courting its differences ”.
Blanchard (2003) argues that French firms must recognise the diverse nature of the French
society, not only because of their growing existence but also for their increasing purchasing
power. Indeed, figures and researches show that: (1) As discussed above, Asian represents the
fastest minority growth in France. (2) An increasing number of people ask over more ethnic
minorities on advertising (Fassin, 2007). Ignoring consumers’ trend is loosing a potential
market. (3) Similarly to the American Asian community, the French Asian community in
France is perceived by many French politician leaders as a “model minority” placing a strong
value to work (Cifoa, 2007). They are seen as ambitious and willing to take risk. Between
2002 and 2004, the number of businesses launched by Asian people increased by 18% while it
decreased by 2.9% for French (Charles, 2006). (5) According to a recent study, an increasing
number of young single Asian women work in the well-paid industry of finance (Khoa, 2006).
Consequently, marketers should not ignore Asian minority especially at a time when a large
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majority of French politicians is taking sides for affirmative actions and it is likely that a law
will be voted to allow marketers to collect data on ethnic minorities.
1.4 Purpose of the study
The present study does not aim at debating why ethnic minorities do not come out with more
coverage in France. However, it remains reasonable to observe that French advertisers are still
reluctant to use ethnic minority endorsers as they cannot predict the results, either among
White or Asian consumers. The purpose of this research study is rather to experiment the use
of ethnic minority endorsers, Asian endorser more precisely, in a society where people are
compelled to disregard their ethnic identity. Unlike the United States where the Asian
community is better represented in advertising (Taylor et al., 2005), very few advertising in
France take the risk to display an Asian model. While many studies argued in favour of its
positive benefit, it is consequently worth it to study its real effectiveness in a different context.
Hypotheses were developed, tested and analysed all along this study.
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2. Literature review and hypothesis development
2.1 Key definition
2.1.1 Ethnic minority
A wide range of definition subsists in the literature to define “ethnicity”. Weber (1961) is one
of the very first authors to provide a definition: “ a sense of common descent extending beyond
kinship, political solidarity vis-à-vis other groups, common customs, language, religion,
values, morality, and etiquette ”. In sum, Malesevic (2004) defines it as: “ a social relation in
which social actors perceive themselves and are perceived by others as being culturally
distinct collectivities ”. Deshpandé (1994) argues that one ethnicity can be either minority or
majority upon the context studied. In this study, we discussed Asian as the ethnic minority
and White French as the ethnic majority. We kept the classification criteria of an Asian used
by INSEE as people who were born in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam and will extend our
study to people whose parents are from these countries since these people can hold beliefs
similar to their parents although they were born in France .
2.1.2 Endorsement theories
A large amount of literature has supported the salient role of endorsement in advertising. Most
of researchers agree that in nowadays advertising, the endorser used to promote a product play
a crucial role in determining the extent to which someone will process the ad. This part will
discuss theories and processes mentioned in the literature regarding the use of an endorser.
2.1.2.1 Heuristic processing: Regardless of the endorser type (celebrity, expert or typical
consumer), most of researchers agree that the ad model operate as a valuable strategy to
support the advertising message (Friedman et al. 1979; Agrawal et. al., 1995). Chaiken (1989)
believed that attractive communicators are more persuasive than their counterparts in
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delivering virtually the same message. When considering the validity of a message’s
conclusion, message recipients have recourse to either systematic or heuristic strategies.
When in heuristic processing, the recipient devotes little cognitive effort in analysing the ad
message and tends to accept the conclusion based on simple rules from previous experience
(Chaiken, 1980). In the ethnicity context, a viewer may accept or reject an ad based on a
noticeable cue such as the endorser’s ethnicity. For example, an Asian may accept the ad
simply because the endorser is Asian when in a heuristic processing.
2.1.2.2 Peripheral route and low involvement: Petty et al. (1983) demonstrated that the
model’s race can also operate as an argument quality which in turn may positively influence
consumers’ attitudes and purchasing intention. Indeed, it has been posited that when someone
receives a message, s/he forms or changes attitudes via two routes to persuasion known as the
‘central route’ and the ‘peripheral route’ (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986). In the ‘central route’,
careful and thoughtful consideration occur based on the recipient’s processing of strong and
weak arguments. In the ‘peripheral route’, peripheral cues displayed in the advertising
message such as the endorser permit attitude change without the need for the message’s
recipient to scrutinise the message arguments. Since the ELM was introduced, much of the
work in consumer research has focused on factors or processing antecedents that can
influence the motivation and ability to process ad messages. Several studies have shown that
consumer have greater elaboration on information when they can relate the information to
themselves and their own experiences (Burnkrant and Unnava, 1989-1995).
2.1.2.3 Communicator and peripheral cue: Whittley & Dimeo (1991) argued that the model’s
ethnicity is a salient communicator cue which influences consumers’ attention and recall
towards the product especially among consumers concerned about racial issues. Both studies
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conducted by Whittler (1989; 1991) found that the endorser’s race function as a peripheral
cue in an advertising context. Based on the Elaboration Likelihood Model, Whittler & Spira
(2002) argued that the communicator’s race on advertising is another characteristic’s that may
influence consumers’ responses to advertising.
2.1.2.4 Self-referencing : While most of research has generally not gone beyond offering
support for a positive effect where ethnic models in advertising are viewed by consumers of
the same ethnicity, Lee et al. (2002) examined the impact of using ethnic minority models and
showed that self-referencing occurs when a consumer is able to process information by
relating it to some aspect of his self. Relating information to oneself has been proven to
enhance brand recall and favourable evaluations of the ad (Meyers-Levy & Perrachio, 1996).
It does also lead to more favourable thoughts, attitudes and purchase intentions (Lee et al.
2002). In the ethnicity context, the ethnicity of a model results in consumers of the same
ethnicity self-referencing the ad information and showing more favourable reactions toward
the ad.
As the use of models has become more common in advertising, many works have been done
to study consumer reactions to ethnic minority models. To date, researches on minority
models have mainly focused on Black or Hispanic American Models, and Asians to a lesser
extent. Although Black or Hispanic minorities are different from Asians in terms of traditions
and history, researches and theories found among these minorities will surely help us to build
on interesting hypotheses among French Asians along with current findings among American
Asians.
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2.2 Ethnicity background
When studying ethnic model advertising, we shall first divide our ethnicity background
literature onto two different parts. We will first be looking at prior studies on ethnic
minorities’ reactions toward advertising displaying an ethnic minority model [Section 2.2.1].
In a second part, we will explore similar findings on Whites’ responses to advertising with
ethnic minority models [Section 2.2.2]. By investigating these two perspectives, we will then
be able to develop hypotheses adapted to the French market [Section 2.3].
2.2.1 Previous studies on Ethnic minorities’ reactions toward advertising with ethnicminority.
Issues raised by advertisers surrounding the use of ethnic minority models on advertising
began in the mid 60’s with the societal phenomenon of ‘integrated advertising’ and the risk of
causing non-minorities to react unfavourably or alienating white consumers by using ethnic
minority endorser. According to the Melting pot theory which argues that racial and cultural
contacts between ethnic minorities and the society leads to a more white-like society, Western
media advertising has traditionally assumed that both Whites and ethnic minorities can be
reached simultaneously by using white models (Kinra, 1997). This viewpoint of the society
remains a current issue according to Lee et al. (2002). However, the authors view the current
society as composed by two opposing forces: on the one hand, the advancement of our world
communication which has pushed people towards a homogenised society. In the other hand,
an increasing awareness of many groups who become more aware of their self on the basis of
their ethnic background (Costa & Bamossy, 1995). Based on the second force, there is a need
for marketers to advertise different selves on advertising so people can recognise themselves.
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2.2.1.2 Among the Black community: The first needs to determine how best to
advertise to ethnic minorities without creating a White Backlash is not recent: the
primary studies have begun with the American Black community. Barban (1969)
argued that one need to consider the dilemma regarding Black reactions towards
advertising in general. Blacks may be less predisposed to advertising than Whites
because of the predominant white orientation of many advertising. However, earlier
work from Barban (1964) showed that the overall judgement of advertising was almost
identical among both Blacks and Whites college students.
As far as advertising effectiveness is concerned, Whittler and Spira (2002) suggested
that advertisers may be reluctant to include Black models in their messages as this may
adversely affect White consumers, and as Black consumers purchase products
identical to Whites, it is unnecessary to include them in the ad. This affirmation is
somehow similar to the situation that France currently faces, where a large majority of
ads uses White models based on the idea that advertiser can reach a greater audience
(Ammi, -). Though, previous studies done by Whittler and his colleagues showed
more favourable responses from ethnic minorities when facing a commercial with a
spokesperson from the same ethnic background. For instance, Blacks exhibited more
favourable reactions when they saw a commercial with a Black model. An earlier
study (Whittler, 1991) found that both low and high identification Blacks perceived
themselves as more similar to the Black Model than the White Model although clearly,
high identification Blacks had more favourable responses towards the Black model
while low identification Black recipients showed no difference in their ability to
identify to the Black or White model. Finally, Black participants showed a greater
purchasing intention to companies that had Black models promoting their products. In
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addition, it has been previously suggested that racially sensitive viewers tend to
perceive racially dissimilar actor as having different attitudes to their own which lead
to less favourable responses (Goldstein & Davis, 1972). In sum, Whittler (1991)
provided a summary of at least 14 empirical studies and most of them concluded that
viewers prefer ads featuring spokespeople of their own ethnic group and that this
preference is stronger among people who strongly identify themselves to their ethnic
group. In the present study, we hypothesise that Asian will show higher favourable
responses to an Asian model than a White Model.
Despite the fact that a large amount of contribution on the subject of ethnicity has focused on
Blacks, it is only within the last few decades that marketers and advertisers have demonstrated
a real interest to other growing ethnic minorities such as the Hispanic community.
2.2.1.2 Among the Hispanic community: The Hispanic community in the United
States has attracted attention of both marketers and advertisers due to their increasing
presence in the continent. Major studies have been done among this ethnic minority to
assess their reactions to ads featuring Hispanic models. These studies have fairly
supported earlier researches among the American Black community and more
importantly, have given marketers a better understanding of the circumstances under
which use of ethnic minority models is more favourable. Most interesting findings
belonged to the works of Deshpande (1986, 1994) and concerned the value of taking
into consideration ethnic identification differences between and among groups from
the same ethnicity and the role of the distinctiveness theory on advertising
effectiveness. We shall look at these two points now:
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Ethnic identification : When studying consumer behaviour, one need to consider that there
are differences between individuals within the same ethnic group. For instance, Deshpande
(1986) found that strong Hispanic identifiers had a more positive attitude toward advertising
compared to weak identifiers. They are also more brand-loyal and more likely to buy brands
that are advertised to their ethnic group. In contrast, weak Hispanic identifiers are found to be
closer to Anglos in terms of a lesser preference for ethnically advertised products. This
finding provides interesting insights on ethnic minorities’ behaviours towards advertising and
ethnically promoted brand. Although Asians may differ from Hispanic and other minorities in
terms of attitudes, it remains interesting to note that depending upon their degree of ethnic
identification, Asians’ reactions towards an ad may differ significantly. Stayman &
Deshpande (1989) also suggested that strength of ethnic identification not only vary across
persons but also across situations. Antecedent conditions are found to influence ethnic
identification. The present work has taken into consideration this dimension and specific scale
from Phinney (1992) has been used to assess subjects’ strength of ethnic identification, and to
control for extraneous variation in the data using analysis of covariance.
Distinctiveness theory : Ethnicity has been proven to be a clear dimension of the self under
the distinctiveness theory (McGuire, 1984; Lee et al., 2002). This theory proposes that when a
person receives a message related to his/her self; he/she is more likely to notice distinctive
differences and characteristics that have greater information in differentiating them from
others. Building on this influential body of work in social psychology proposed by McGuire
(1984), Desphande (1994) applied this theory to an advertising context and predicted that the
lower the proportion of minority group members in the overall population, the more likely
that ethnically targeted stimuli will be effective. Thus, ethnicity becomes more salient to the
self in a mixed society where there are clearly a majority and a minority ethnic group.
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According to McGuire (1984), an individual’s distinctive traits in relation to other people in
the environment will be more salient to the individual than will be more common traits. The
author demonstrated by an experiment that, being in the majority group, White students were
less likely to mention their ethnic group while Ethnic Minorities (Hispanics, Blacks)
mentioned it more often. For example, a Hispanic living in the US is more likely to introduce
himself by mentioning his ethnicity when being in a minority context. Applying this theory to
an advertising context, Deshpandé provide us with remarkable findings to help us predicting
French Asians’ responses to ads featuring Asian model in a country where Asians are clearly
in minority. For instance, perceived trustworthiness of the spokesman and brand attitude have
been measured among Whites and Hispanics, in two different situations: in Austin (Texas,
USA) where Whites were in a majority and Hispanics in a minority; and in San Antonio
(Texas, USA) where Whites were in a minority and Hispanics in a majority. The study found
strong support to the distinctiveness theory: Hispanic consumers living in a numerically
minority city were more likely than those living in a numerically majority city to have positive
attitudes towards the brand for the ad featuring a Hispanic spokesperson. This finding also
applied to Whites when they were in a numerically minority city. Applying this to our Asian
study context, this research suggests that use of an ethnic endorser in advertising would be the
most effective in a social environment in which the ethnic group is in a proportional minority.
In the beginning of the 90’s, the increasing growth of Asians in the United States has
encouraged marketers to pay further attention to this community.
2.2.1.3 Among the Asian community: As far as Asians are concerned, it has been
found that Asian subjects exposed to an Asian model reported higher self-reference
leading to more favourable reactions towards the ad with the Asian model (Lee et al,
2002). One of the reasons may be explained by the dissimilarity similarity theory
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which suggests that a communicatee’s (e.g. an Asian person) perception of his/her
similarity to a communicator (e.g. Asian model) is one determinant of the
communicator’s effectiveness according to Berscheid (1966). As Debevec & Iyer
(1988) emphasised, the ability of an individual to picture himself with the model in the
ad results in cognitive activity in the form of spontaneous self-referencing. In other
words, an ad displaying Asian endorser increases its effectiveness in the mean of self-
referencing when the endorser is similar to the viewer. Hence, Lee et al. (2002) found
that Asian subjects exposed to the Asian model reported higher self-reference. Self-
reference appeared to influence attitude towards the ad, attitude towards the model and
purchase intentions and produced more favourable thoughts from Asian subjects.
Combining product stereotyped products and self-referencing, Martin (2004) found
that atypical portrayals result in greater self-referencing leading to more favourable
attitudes towards the model and purchase intentions. In manipulating products and
ethnicity, a recent study by Kyu (2006) conducted among Asians also found that for
utilitarian products (i.e. products that are primarily purchased and consumed to satisfy
practical or functional needs), Asians participants showed more favourable responses
when the endorser’s ethnicity was incongruent with the product’s country of origin.
For a U.S brand ad, a Japanese endorser had a more positive impact than an American
endorser on participants’ perceived strength of ad claims. More specifically, when a
US brand (Japanese brand) was endorsed by a(n) Japanese (American) model, it
generated more favourable attitude toward the ad, enhanced brand beliefs and attitude
toward the brand. Although the results may be commented with caution due to the
nature of the study (country’s product origin) , it remains however one study among
many others which supports that use of ethnic minority model can be a good
advertising strategy to reach effectively both Asians and Whites. The present study
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will aim to explore this affirmation in different context. Yet, we shall have a look at
previous on Whites’ reactions toward advertising with ethnic minority models first.
2.2.2 Previous studies on Whites’ reactions towards advertising with ethnic minority
The first studies conducted on model’s race and advertising began in the mid 60’s with
Barban & Cundiff (1964) and have mainly focused on White consumers’ responses to ads
featuring Black spokespersons. These researches primarily originated from marketers’ desire
to appeal the growing black market without negatively affecting the White consumers. For
instance, Bush et al. (1974, 1979) found that there appears to be very little difference in how
White consumers evaluate models of different race regardless of their level of prejudice. By
and large, these researchers have largely revealed that Whites did not react extremely
negatively but responded neutrally (Guest, 1970; Tolley & Goett, 1972; Schlinger &
Plummer’s, 1972) to positively (Szybillo & Jaccoby, 1974) to ads as a result of exposure to
Black models in promotional materials although some negative reactions have been noticed
among White consumers. Interestingly, those studies differ slightly from Whittler & Dimeo
(1991) who found that among southeastern American adults, high prejudice Whites found it
more difficult to identify with the Black than White actors, whereas low prejudice showed no
difference between White or Black actors. Unlike students, this tested sample was probably
unaccustomed to seeing blacks in their everyday activities. In other studies in which white
consumers responded negatively to black model ads, researchers explained this reaction by a
poor ad quality (Stafford et al., 1970). Cagley & Cardozo (1970) findings also reported
negative reactions towards black models and this reaction was explained by a change in the
society’s values.
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Nevertheless, in most experiment involving Whites and ethnic minority models, Whites
responded neutrally or positively to ads featuring an ethnic minority model. However, it is
important to note that Whites may still have higher preference for endorsers of their own
ethnic group. Indeed, Whittler & Dimeo (1991) studied a sample of white adults and found
that White participants identified more strongly with White than with Black. This is in
accordance with the similarity dissimilarity theory which suggests that the perception of
dissimilarity should reduce message persuasion. Consequently, although Whites may show
overall favourable or neutral reactions to endorser that differs from their ethnic group, we
should not ignore the fact that some may still want to see an endorser from their own ethnic
group (i.e. Whites) while others may react favourably or neutrally to ethnic minority
endorsers.
As far as Asians are concerned, many studies showed that Whites did not responded
negatively to ads featuring Asians. Lee et al. (2002) found that using Asian ethnic minority
models raised the attitudes and purchase intentions of the participants of the same ethnicity
without decreasing the attitudes and purchasing intentions of Whites. The latter were not
significantly influenced by the ethnicity of the advertising model. The study suggested that
increase advertising effectiveness can be achievable by varying the model featured without
offending the ethnic majority. A similar study conducted by Martin (2004) testing product
stereotypicality revealed that using an Asian model with atypical products resulted in greater
self-referencing for both Whites and Asians than one using a White model. This resulted in
more favourable responses for both ethnic groups. Earlier researches also suggested that for
many products, advertisers who want to reach both Asians and Whites can use an Asian
model without offending their mainstream White customers (Cohen, 1992). What’s more,
although Cohen (1992) reported a lesser positive reaction from White respondents with the ad
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featuring the Asian model, the reaction still remained positive. In addition, the author argued
that for some traditional products (e.g. toilet soap) in contrast to convenience good, use of an
Asian model can help to create an association among White consumers and the youthful
appearance of Asians and consequently create a more positive reaction to the ad than with a
White model.
2.3 Hypothesis development
According to Michalowska and Mazzoli (2004), marketing with minority ethnicity endorser is
way often seen by French intellectuals as unthinkable or unethical since it intentionally goes
against the Republican principles of France. This point of view could be fairly questioned
when a wide range of literature review have positively argued in favour of the benefits of
using ethnic endorsers.
Yet, the Asian population remains an under researched consumer populations. Although some
works have been done in the United States among this community (Cohen, 1992), they remain
largely limited as discussed above in comparison to Black or Hispanic studies. Because
studies on Asians are almost inexistent in France, this part aims at developing hypotheses
based on findings discussed above on attitudes of ethnic minorities (Black, Hispanic, Asians
to a lesser extent) toward advertising featuring their own ethnic group as well as reactions of
White consumers toward advertising displaying Asian model. We will divide this hypothesis
development part onto four parts by looking at both Whites and Asians’ responses to ads with
a White or an Asian model.
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2.3.1 White consumers’ responses to White endorsers
Earlier researches (Burstein et al., 1961; Berscheid, 1966) on similarity and dissimilarity
which suggest that communicators similar to their audience are more likely to effect
persuasion than those dissimilar have received empirical support. In addition to an increasing
persuasion observed among participants (Williams and Qualls 1989), Whittler & DiMeo
(1991) argues that a perceived similarity between the recipient and the communicator
mediates the impact on attitudes changes. The study demonstrates that White participants
perceived themselves as more similar to White than Black and Black participants perceived
themselves as more similar to Black than White. The study concludes that the model race can
enhance positives attitudes if there is a perceived similarity between the endorser and the
target consumers. Furthermore, it has been argued that people pay more attention and
demonstrate quicker recall with trait information that is consistent with their self-schema
(Markus and Sentis, 1982). Finally, Fiske & Taylor (1991) found that individuals tend to
evaluate members of their own group (the “in-group”) more favorably than those of othergroups (the “out-group”). In other words, White consumers are more likely to evaluate a
White endorser (i.e a member of their in-group) more positively than an Asian endorser (i.e. a
member of the out-group). Consequently, we can expect White participants to perceive
themselves as more similar to the White endorser, and thus yielding to higher but not
significantly higher positive attitudes and intentions toward the White model than toward the
Asian model. However, we still posit no unfavourable evaluation from Whites with the Asian
model’s ad as we will discuss below.
2.3.2 White consumers’ response to Asian endorsers
Fewer studies have examined consumers’ responses to Asian endorser. In a study focusing on
white consumers’ reaction towards Asian endorser, Cohen (1992) found that although White
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participants reacted less favourably to an ad featuring an Asian model for status goods, the
result still remains positive. Use of Asian model can enhance positive responses in sales of
high technology goods. More interestingly, results showed that for low involvement product
advertising, the model’s race had no negative impact on consumers’ response to the ad. In a
similar experiment, Martin (2004) demonstrated that use of Asian model in atypical ways can
yield the benefit of higher self-referencing for both Asians and Whites. In other words, use of
Asian endorser can have positive impact for both Asian and White consumers when selling
non-stereotyped product. This study confirms Goodstein (1993) findings who argued that ads
atypical of the schema (ie. cognitive structure representing domain expectations) motivate
more extensive processing and evaluations than typical schema. What’s more, Solomon
(2007) argues that use of unexpected cues (eg. Use of Asian model in France) can enhance
brand recall. Finally, Feick & Higie (1992) found that for products characterised by high
preference heterogeneity products (i.e. products that can be hardly objectively evaluated
across consumers like a hair cut or any other hedonic products or services) consumers showed
higher preference for the endorser that was highly similar to them while for low preference
heterogeneity products or services (i.e. products or services which can be objectively
evaluated by the consumers such as a toothpaste or any other utilitarian products), consumers
were less likely to be influenced by the endorser similarity or dissimilarity. According to this
finding, our study do not expects White consumers to show unfavourable attitudes and
intentions toward the Asian model ad featuring the toothpaste which can be qualified as an
utilitarian product. In sum, all these findings lead us to the following hypothesis:
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H1: Consistent with previous studies on the impact of Asian endorsers on
White consumers, White French consumers’ favourable response towards
the Asian endorser ad will not be significantly lower than white French
consumers’ response to the White endorser ad.
As far as Asian consumers are concerned, although some scholars have warned marketers on
the risk of over representing ethnic minorities on advertising (Taylor and Stern, 1997; Wilkes
and Valencia, 1989), we believe that those critics cannot be entirely applied to France where
use of Asian ethnic minority model is almost inexistent. As a result, this part will rather focus
on the main variables, processes or circumstances highlighted in the literature under which
endorser ethnicity has a positive impact on Asian consumers’ attitudes towards the adverting.
2.3.3 Asian consumers’ response to Asian endorsers
In this study, consistent with the dissimilarity and similarity theory, we posit that comparable
to White consumers’ response to White endorser, what applies for White consumers will
apply for Asians. In other words, Asian consumers will perceive themselves as more similar
to the Asian endorser than the White endorser. What is more, according to the distinctiveness
theory elaborated by McGuire (1978), an individual’s distinctive characteristics will be more
salient to other people in a specific environment than shared characteristics will be. In relation
to past researches on ethnicity, Deshpande et al. (1994) argues that use of ethnic minority
endorser is more likely to be effective in a social environment where the endorser’s ethnicity
is in a “ proportional minority ”. For example, Hispanic consumers, who lived in a city where
Hispanic are in minority, are found to trust more Hispanic endorser leading to positive attitude
toward the brand. Being a numerically minority in France, we anticipate that use of Asian
model on a none-stereotyped utilitarian product, which is atypical of the schema, will lead to
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positive attitudes. More recently, Ryu et al. (2006) have demonstrated that Asian consumers
are more likely to show favourable responses to advertising when the endorser’s ethnicity is
different from the product country of origin (COO) for utilitarian product (ie. Products
purchased to satisfy primary needs). Yet, for hedonic products (ie. Products with symbolic
meanings to the buyer), a match of the endorser with the COO has more positive impact.
Although the majority of researchers offer similar conclusions on the value of ethnicity
endorsement, one believes that its effectiveness is viable with the condition that “ the
consumer processes the ethnic information and relates it to his or her self-concept ”. Indeed,
Forehand & Deshpande (2001) believe that the probability that a person processes the ethnic
information depends on its “ethnic self-awareness” defined as a temporary state dependent on
factors beyond ethnic classification in which a person feels more sensitive to his or her
ethnicity. Thus, Asian consumers exposed to ethnic primes responded more favourably to the
advertising than none target market. One of the reasons used to give explanation to this
finding was the distinctiveness theory as Asian participants were in a numerical minority.
Despite this interesting finding, our research will first intend to explore the effect of Asian
endorser on White French and Asian consumers. Thus, use of ethnic primes will not be
considered for this experiment. However, Forehand & Deshpande (2001) again provides us
with enough evidences to believe that the distinctiveness theory can be applied in France
where Asian consumers are clearly in numerical minority.
Finally, Grier et al. (1999) argued that ads targeting a distinctive market on the basis of a
cultural trait that makes the members distinctive have a greater impact on target viewers’
interpretation of the ad than ads targeting a nondistinctive market. This is consistent with the
distinctiveness theory which suggests that distinctive individuals are more aware of
characteristics that make them distinctive than nondistinctive individuals.
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2.3.4 Asian consumers’ response to White endorsers
Due to the current situation of Advertising in France where a large majority of advertising
features White endorsers, we do not expect White endorser to result in unfavourable
responses from Asian consumers. In addition, no studies argue that use of White endorser can
have negative impact on Asian consumers, unless the ad target specifically Asians.
In sum, consistent with past studies on similarity, we expect Asian consumers to perceive
themselves as more similar to the Asian endorser than White endorser and thus, have more
positive responses to the ad. Under distinctiveness theory, Asian consumers, who are
considered as an ethnic minority in France, will have more favourable attitudes if the ad
displays an Asian endorser. Likewise, we hypothesise that:
H2: Due to the limited existence of ads featuring Asian endorser, Asian French
consumers’ favourable response will be significantly higher with the Asianendorser ad than Asian French consumers’ response to the White
endorser ad.
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3. Method
The research project to be described in this paper was designed to broaden the scope of earlier
studies on use of ethnic minority endorser in advertising. First, the study took place in a
country where very few studies on ethnicity have been done. Second, the subjects live in a
country where people are compelled by law to disregard their ethnic background. Third, the
samples were drawn from people with different occupation, living in different parts of France,
aged from 18 to 35 and there is some assurance that such a selection is more realistic than an
ordinary student population. Finally, there was the opportunity to assess different covariates
such as the degree of involvement as well as the subjects’ ethnic identification by using the
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992) which aimed to measure repondents’
Affirmation and Belonging to their own ethnic group, Ethnic Identity Achievement and
Ethnic behaviours. Yet, it is important to note that the data collected for the present study
mainly focused on Asian consumers as defined by the French authority in order to avoid
strong cultural differences within other Asian groups (e.g. Asian Indian, etc.).
3.1 Research design
The experimental design developed to investigate the above hypotheses is a 2x2 between-
subjects factorial design with endorser ethnicity manipulated at two levels (White or Asian)crossed with subject ethnicity also manipulated at two levels (White French or Asian French)
and in which participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental cells. Data was
collected by means of a questionnaire available online through surveymonkey.com. Subject
sample was randomly asked, regardless of their age and sex, to take part in the survey. Out of
170 respondents who took part in the survey, a total of 133 unpaid adults were retained for
our study.
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3.2 Subjects
In order to identify Asians and Whites, a two-step subjective method of ethnic identification
often used by French survey companies have been used in order to ensure that the ethnic
identification questions were conformed to the French laws which strictly forbid questions
openly related to an individuals’ ethnic background. Participants were first asked if one or
both of their parents were born in France or Asia and were asked to specify when parents
were born in Asia. Then, subjects were asked about foreign languages spoken at home
fluently (e.g. Europeans, Asians) by either the parents or the subject himself. Subjects who
have responded yes to these two questions (i.e. one or both parents were born in Vietnam,
Laos or Cambodia and Vietnamese, Cambodian or Laotian are fluently spoken at home) were
classified as Asian . Subjects that have answered yes to the first question (at least one parent
was born in France and none of them in Asia) and no to “Asian languages are spoken at
home” were classified as White .
Among the 170 subjects that took part in the questionnaire, the following individuals have
been excluded from the sample: individuals who did not complete the full questionnaire
resulting in missing data (10); individuals whose parents were not born either in France or
Asia (4); mixed individuals whose parents were born in both Asia and France (10); Asians
(12) whose parents were born in Asian countries (e.g. China, Japan, Korea, etc.) others than
the ones stated by the French National Statistics administration (i.e. Vietnam, Laos and
Cambodia); Individuals with parents born in Asia but who do not speak an Asian language at
home; and finally, people aged above 35 were also excluded to keep the sample consistent as
age has been found to explain the degree of favourability to ethnic minorities (Whittler,
1991).
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Age repartition : The final sample retained for our study is 133 individuals. It is
mainly composed with young individuals (88.7% of the sample is aged between 18
and 25) likely from diverse background and from different parts of France and aged
from 18 to 35 with a total of 70 whites and 63 Asians (See Table below for further
details).
Subject's ethnicity * Subject's age Crosstabulation
56 7 63
88,9% 11,1% 100,0%
62 8 70
88,6% 11,4% 100,0%
118 15 133
88,7% 11,3% 100,0%
Count% within Subject's
ethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicity
Asian subject
White subject
Subject'sethnicity
Total
18-25 26-35Subject's age
Total
Gender repartition : More precisely, there are 48 men and 85 women. 36% of the
sample was men and women made up 64 percent of the sample. 34 percent of the
White participants were men and 66 percent were women. Finally, 38 percent of the
Asian participants were men and 62 percent were women (See Table below for further
details).
Subject's ethnicity * Subject's sex Crosstabulation
24 39 63
38,1% 61,9% 100,0%
24 46 70
34,3% 65,7% 100,0%
48 85 133
36,1% 63,9% 100,0%
Count% within Subject'sethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicity
Asian subject
White subject
Subject'sethnicity
Total
Male FemaleSubject's sex
Total
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3.3 Ad stimulus
Two identical full-colour printed ads promoting a brand new whitening toothpaste have been
professionally prepared. Both ads contained a high quality picture featuring in the first one a
young smiling Asian woman and in the second one a young smiling White European woman.
The Asian and White models were both featured in a similar commercial message’s ad (“For
perfectly white teethes”) available online through the second page of the questionnaire. The
stimuli presented to participants consisted of a toothpaste ad which fictitious brand name
chosen was “Fluodent” [Appendix 2a & Appendix 2b]. This brand name was used in a
previous academic experiment in France because it was unfamiliar to a large sample of
respondents (Dianoux & Herrmann, 2001). In addition, specific graphic amendments have
been done to ensure that the toothpaste stimuli looked as real as possible.
3.4 Questionnaire features
The questionnaire [Appendix 3a & 3b] consisted of 3 pages with a total of 13 main questions
divided into sub-questions, covering the subject ethnicity identification (2), his/her strength of
ethnic identification (1), his/her perceptions of advertising effectiveness and degree of
involvement (5), subject’s knowledge and viewpoint about ethnicity and advertising in France
(2), demographic information (2) and cognitive thoughts (1). The entire procedure took less
than 6 minutes. On completion of the questionnaire, participants were thanked and those who
wished to have more information about the survey purposes and results were debriefed later
by email. The questionnaire was identical for both ads except for the questions related to
subject’s viewpoint about ethnicity and advertising in France. On the questionnaire with the
Asian (White) model ad, respondents were asked about their perception of Asian (White
European) representation on French advertising.
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3.5 Procedure
After having completed the two ethnicity identification questions and defining their strength
of ethnic identification, the respondents were assigned to answer the survey in group of four
(two groups of approximately 30 Asians and another two of approximately 30 Whites). The
first two groups were composed of 32 Asians and 31 Whites. Respondents were asked to
provide their thoughts and ratings on the toothpaste ad featuring the Asian endorser; the
second sample was composed with 31 Asians and 39 Whites for the ad featuring the White
endorser. After exposure to the Asian (White) model ad, attitude towards the model, attitude
towards the ad, attitude toward the model, purchase intention, level of involvement and
attitudes toward ethnicity as a covariate were then measured.
3.6 Experimental stimuli development
In order to ensure that our study matches procedures used by previous ethnicity studies, four
pre-tests were run before launching the questionnaire:
Pre-test 1 aimed at choosing equally high attractive Asian and White models. Seven
similar facial pictures (2 pictures taken from real consumers, and 5 others from a
professional picture’s website) were selected. A qualitative survey was conducted
among a small sample of 10 students. To a large majority, none of the real consumers’
pictures were selected as the woman displayed did not look sufficiently Asian and he
other picture were qualified as “not being as good quality as other pictures”. Among
the five professional pictures left, two have been selected by most of participants for
being equally comparable [Appendix 4a and Appendix 4b].
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Pre-test 2 ensured that participants truly recognised the two endorsers selected as
being either White or Asian. Once again, due to law restriction, this pre-test could not
have been carried out in France. However, the sample targeted remains similar to the
targeted population in the present study (i.e. Asians and Whites from both sex aged
between 18 and 35). Ethnic identification has been measured by asking an
international sample (from the United Kingdom and the United States) composed with
Whites ( n = 17) and Asians ( n = 16), 16 males and 17 females to identify the model
ethnicity (White, Black, Asian Indian, Asian East Asia, Mixed or Others). We believe
that the criteria of ethnic identification is internationally alike, therefore, a model
perceived as Asian (White) in the UK or the US will also be perceived as Asian
(White) in France. Pre-test 2 showed that 100% of the sample recognised the Asian
model’s ethnicity as being Asian (76.9% of the respondents identified the model as
being Asian from East Asia, 15.4% as being Mixed Asian and 7.7% as being Asian
Indian) and 92.3% recognised the White model ethnicity as being White European or
White American.
Pre-test 3 was conducted through a face-to-face questionnaire among 26 French
persons excluded from the main study but similar to the targeted population.
Participants’ perception of the models was measured, independently of the ad context,
to ascertain that they were comparable in terms of physical attractiveness and
popularity. As to verify the popularity of the White and Asian model, participants had
to choose between (Yes, this person is famous; No, I have never seen this person
before) and rate their physical attractiveness on a seven point scale (1 = very
unattractive, 7 = very attractive). Debevec and Kernan (1987) argue that the model
attractiveness can results in behavioural differences. This pre-test mainly aimed at
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ensuring that model attractiveness will not negatively or positively influence the
purpose of our study and affect the reactions towards the ad, the brand and
respondents’ intentions to purchase. 13 individuals identified as White and another 13
as Asians were asked to rate the White and Asian model’s attractiveness. 92.3%
believed the models were not famous. Finally, there was no significant differences in
perceived attractiveness between the Asian model (M = 4.73) and the White model (M
= 4.81).
Pre-test 4 ensured that the original questionnaire in English [See Appendix 3a] was
comprehensible by French people. The questionnaire was translated from English to
French and then from French to English by bilingual persons who were blind to the
study hypotheses. We used the back-translation method suggested by Green and White
(1976). First, the questionnaire was translated into French. Second, two French-
speaking persons fluent in English who had not seen the English version back-
translated it into English. Back translation did show some minor misunderstanding and
appropriate amendments have been done to make sure that the questionnaire was
comprehensible by the majority of respondents. Some items on the original English
measure scale were deleted as they revealed inappropriate to the context of study and
as some did not have their equivalent in French [See Appendix 3b].
3.7 Independent variables
Endorser ethnicity was manipulated with the help of an expert photographer. Each
ad contained a smiling young French woman, who was either identified as Asian or
White. Similarly to previous studies with Asian endorser (Martin et. al., 2004), we did
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ensure that the ad only displays her face as to avoid any distraction and to ensure that
the only difference perceived is her ethnicity [Appendix 4a et 4b].
Subject ethnicity was determined by using the subjective method of ethnic
identification recommended by French marketers and which procedure was described
above. Once again, due to French regulations which do not allow questions related to
the subject ethnicity, the questionnaire included questions related to the respondents’
family ethnic environment (e.g. Language spoken at home, parents’ place of birth).
French Asians were defined as persons whose ancestry is rooted in any of the
following Asian countries: Vietnam, Laos or Cambodia. Participants were considered
White when at least one of their parents was born in France.
3.8 Dependent variables and covariates
A seven-point semantic differential scale was taken from relevant marketing literature and
adjusted where necessary to fit the research context. It has been argued that a seven-point
scale allows a finer grade of judgment than five-point scale and that it is the most commonly
employed in attitudes studies (Al-Hindawe, 2003). The average of the following items for
each scale was used to represent the overall attitudes and purchase intentions of Asians and
Whites for both ads. More precisely, this study aimed at measuring:
Attitude towards the Model (Am). This scale was adapted from Williams & Qualls
(1989) with a coefficient Cronbach’s α = 0.80 and three items (Not believable/Very
believable; not attractive/very attractive; not likeable/very likeable). – See Appendix
3a.
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Attitude towards the Ad (Aad) adapted from Forehand (2001). This scale has
demonstrated good reliability and construct validity. The coefficient Cronbach’s α is
.91 and the scale has three items (Bad / Good; Dislike / like; Unpleasant / Pleasant). –
See Appendix 3a.
Attitude towards the Brand (Ab) adapted from Batra & Stephens (1994). This scale
had acceptable reliability levels with a coefficient Cronbach’s α = 0.79 with the
anchors Bad/Good, Dislike/Like, Unpleasant/Pleasant. – See Appendix 3a.
Purchase intentions (PI) adapted from MacKenzie et al. (1986) with a good
coefficient Cronbach’s α = .87 and anchored by Improbable/Probable,
Impossible/Possible. – See Appendix 3a.
Covariates were used to measure any variation in the data. The effects of subjects’
sex were examined in an analysis of variance on each dependent measure. Age has also
been tested as a covariate as this variable has explained in previous studies some
disparity on the data between a students and adults’ sample. In addition, consistent
with earlier researches, strength of ethnic identification was employed to check the
probability that ethnic salience could be a predictor of ad ratings. Indeed, many
researches have supported that ethnic salience can affect the relationship between the
independent variables and the dependent variables. Plus, ethnic salience is nowadays
recognised increasingly as a critical component of the self-concept (Roberts et al.
1999). Salience refers to the importance attributed to a person’s own ethnic
background (Alba, 1990). In order to measure salience, it has been suggested the need
to represent both elements of identity (i.e. personal and social identity) to establish a
more fully and integrated view on identity salience (Cheek, 1989; Michalski, -).
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Indeed, identity salience does not consist only of a relationship with oneself but also
with the other through the socialisation process (Dinca, 2005). Similarly, in the
context of ethnic identity salience, one needs to consider both the personal and social
ethnic identity salience of an individual. Phinney (1990) identified a number of factors
that are considered fundamental to the construct of ethnic identity. The author (in
1992) provided a reliable scale (the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure , aka MEIM)
to assess both Asians and Whites strength of ethnic identification . This scale takes into
consideration several dimensions of personal (or developmental) and social ethnic
identity salience. More precisely, the scale contains 12 questions and two core
components: a development and cognitive component (‘ethnic identity search’) and an
affective component (which aims at measuring the subject affirmation and belongings,
ethnic identity achievement and ethnic behaviours). According to Phinney (1992), this
scale has consistently shown good reliability across a wide range of ethnic groups and
ages (but mostly young adults). Recently, the scale has been adapted and improved by
Roberts, Phinney et al. (1999) who confirmed that the MEIM could be used as a global
composite index of ethnic identity and that the MEIM scores were moderately strong
and positive with salience across ethnic groups. As far as our study is concerned, we
have found this scale the most appropriate to our study since we mainly focus on
young adults from two different ethnic groups.
In addition, in the studies the MEIM was used, it has been demonstrated that ethnicity
was usually of low salience and ethnic identity was not strong among Whites when
they were in a majority (Phinney, 1989). In contrast, attention paid to ethnicity is more
likely to be stronger among minority group members (Phinney & Alipuria, 1990).
Therefore, we highly expect that the minority group of our study (i.e. Asians) will
have stronger ethnic identity than would members of the majority group (i.e. Whites).
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The MEIM was measured on a twelve, Likert seven-point scale with a coefficient
Cronbach’s α .90 with college students. Strength of ethnic identification was obtained
by calculating the mean of the following 12 items: “I have spent time trying to find out
more about my ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs.”, “I am
active in organizations or social groups that include mostly members of my own ethnic
group.”, “I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means for me.”, “I
think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership.”, “I
think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership.”, “I am
happy that I am a member of the group I belong to.”, “I have a strong sense of
belonging to my own ethnic group.”, “I understand pretty well what my ethnic group
membership means to me.”, “In order to learn more about my ethnic background, I
have often talked to other people about my ethnic group.”, “I have a lot of pride in my
ethnic group.”, “I participate in cultural practices of my own group, such as special
food, music, or customs.”, “I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group”.
A French version of this scale was already available and tested in a French Canadian
sample, thus no further translation was required.
Ad involvement was also measured owing to the large literature suggesting its
usefulness in assessing the extent to which one processes ad information (in depth vs.
heuristic). The ad involvement scale was adapted from Martin, Wentzel and Tomczak
(Forthcoming JA) with a good coefficient Cronbach’s α = 0.85 and three items (very
little concentrated/very hard concentrated, very uninvolved/very involved, paying very
little attention/paying a lot of attention).
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Attitude towards ethnicity was assessed to measure respondents’ knowledge of ethnic
groups in France. Questions related to the representation of ethnic minorities on
advertising were raised to determine the level of respondents’ favourability towards
ethnic minority endorsers. The survey ended with the subject’s knowledge of the
percentage that the Asian population represents in France according to him/her. Given
that there is no official data on the representation of Asian population in France, it was
interesting to see what importance in terms of demographic population Asians
represent in the mind of the respondents. Finally, participants were asked to assess
whether ethnic minorities and Asians (Whites) were fairly represented on French
advertising. This question along with the strength of ethnic identification described
below may be helpful to assess the respondent perception of ads and ethnic minorities
and may potentially explain any favourable or unfavourable reactions towards an ad
featuring ethnic minority model.
Cognitive responses were collected to analyse participants’ thoughts and explain any
strong variation in the data. At the end of the questionnaire, participants were given
the opportunity to list their thoughts and ideas about the questionnaire itself, the
products, the advertisement or the model.
3.9 Results
3.9.1 Hypothesis 1 (White subject)
Hypothesis 1 posits that consistent with previous studies on the impact of Asian endorsers on
White consumers, White French consumers’ favourable response towards the Asian endorser
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ad will not be significantly lower than white French consumers’ response to the White
endorser ad. This is based on the fact that very few studies have revealed negative reactions of
White consumers towards ad featuring an ethnic minority model. Hypothesis 1 was not
supported. Results showed that White French consumers’ favourable responses to the Asian
model were not significantly lower but in fact revealed to be higher. Interestingly, although
the results are not significant, White respondents showed more favourable reactions towards
the Asian model ad than with the White model ad, for attitudes toward the model ( M white
=5.6455, SDwhite = 1.18 for the Asian model ad [AA] versus M white =5.05, SDwhite = 1.27 for
the White model ad [WA]) attitude toward the ad (AA: M white =4.56, SDwhite = 1.66 for versus
WA: M white =3.75, SDwhite = 1.27), attitude toward the brand (AA: M white =4.26, SDwhite = 1.18
for versus WA: M white =3.88, SDwhite = 1.27) and purchase intentions (AA: M white =4.41, SDwhite
= 1.69 for versus WA: M white =3.82, SDwhite = 1.67). See Appendix 5 for further details.
3.9.2 Hypothesis 2 (Asian subject)
Hypothesis 2 posits that due to the limited existence of ads featuring Asian endorser, Asian
French consumers’ favourable response will be significantly higher with the Asian endorser
ad than Asian French consumers’ response to the White endorser ad. This is owned to a large
majority of researches suggesting that ethnic minorities demonstrate more favourable
reactions toward an advertising displaying a model of their own ethnic group especially under
distinctiveness theory. Although hypothesis 2 was not supported, results clearly confirmed a
predicted trend among Asian consumers and ethnic minorities generally speaking. Indeed,
Asians consumers’ favourable responses to the Asian model were found to be higher for the
Asian endorser ad than for the White endorser ad. More precisely, Asians showed more
favourable reactions towards the Asian model ad than with the White model ad, for attitudes
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toward the model ( M asian =5.05, SDasian = 1.40 for the Asian model ad [AA] versus M asian
=4.75, SDasian = 1.26 for the White model ad [WA]) attitude toward the ad (AA: M asian =4.46,
SDasian = 1.40 for versus WA: M asian =3.93, SDasian = 1.49), attitude toward the brand (AA:
M asian =4.08, SDasian = 1.34 for versus WA: M asian =3.40, SDasian = 1.26) and purchase
intentions (AA: M asian =4.48, SDasian = 1.66 for versus WA: M asian =3.16, SDasian = 1.81).
Please see charts below [Figure 1] for more details. See Appendix 5 for further details.
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White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
5,80
5,60
5,40
5,20
5,00
4,80
E s
t i m a
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i n a
l M e a n s
White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the model
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,50
4,25
4,00
3,75
E s
t i m a
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i n a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the ad
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,25
4,00
3,75
3,50
E s
t i m a
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i n a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the brand
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,40
4,20
4,00
3,80
3,60
3,40
3,20
3,00
E s
t i m a
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i n a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Purchase intentions
Figure 1 – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians and Whitesattitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian model ad versus theWhite model ad.
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3.9.3 Main effects analysis
An analysis of Variance ANOVA was conducted among each dependent variables to disclose
any significant main effects [See Appendix 6 for further details].
Attitude toward the model : An ANOVA revealed that Ad model has a significant main
effect on Attitude toward the model, F(3,987) = 6,567, p = .048. More precisely, this shows
that as the model changes, Attitude toward the model also changes significantly. Subject’s
race also had a significant main effect on A model , F(3,992) = 6,576, p = .048. In other words,
attitude toward the Asian and White model significantly changes depending on whether the
subject is Asian or White.
Attitude toward the ad : A two way analysis of variance yielded a significant main effect for
the Ad model, F(7,090) = 15,023, p < .01, such that Attitude toward the Ad was significantly
higher with the Asian ad model M white
=4.56, SDwhite
= 1.18 than with the White model ad M white =3.75, SDwhite = 1.27. Yet, there was no significant main effect for the subject’s race,
F(,026) = ,056, p = .872.
Attitude toward the brand : An ANOVA indicated that Ad model has a significant effect on
Attitude toward the brand, F(6,245) = 9,160, p = .014. However, no significant differences
were found for the subject’s race F(2,492) = 3,655, p = .117.
Purchase intentions : The ANOVA resulted in a significant main effect for endorser’s
ethnicity on Purchase intentions, F(10,573) = 30,425, p = .001. Yet, the effect of Purchase
intentions was not influenced by subject’s race, F(1,011) = 2,908, p = .317. The model’s race
significantly increases the purchase intentions of one subject.
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In sum, the main effects of endorser’s ethnicity (Admodel) were significant for all of the four
dependent variables (all ps < .05) while subject’s race was only significant on Attitude toward
the model. The present analysis results provide further support for the mediator and moderator
implications of the endorser used in the ad. This finding is supported by Whittler & Spira
(2002) who argued that the spokesperson (the endorser in our case) may be the most widely
noticed element of an advertisement. More precisely, the endorser race can influence
consumers’ responses to advertisements. Further qualitative researches are needed to clearly
determine what factors influence our respondents’ responses.
3.9.4 Interactions analysis
The interactive effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables (Admodel x
Subject’s ethnicity) were not significant on any of the dependent variables ( p > .36). More
precisely, an analysis of multivariate (MANOVA, Appendix 7) revealed that for Attitude
toward the model F(.826) = 1.210, p > .36; for Attitude toward the ad F(1.459) = 2.502, p >
.22, for Attitude toward the brand F(.006) = .007, p > .93 and for Purchase intentions F(.348)
= .845, p > .55. However, the correlations among the variables revealed several trend as
described above and analysis of covariates revealed appealing key facts as we will see below.
3.9.5. Covariates analysis
3.9.5.1 Involvement: Both MANOVA and ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of
involvement on each dependent variables studied (attitudes and purchase intentions) with p <
.001. A separate analysis has been conducted through SPSS to understand the effects of
involvement on attitudes and purchase intentions [See Figure 2a and 2b page 45]. We ignored
people who scored their degree of involvement below 3 on a scale of 7 ( n = 45). People who
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scored involvement equal or superior to 3 on a scale of 7 were considered highly involved.
This analysis revealed no significant interaction between the ad model and the subject’s race
under neither high involvement nor low involvement condition.
However, interesting trends shall be highlighted: highly involved Asians tended to have
greater attitudes (attitude toward the model and attitude toward the ad) for the White model
ad. In contrast, highly involved Whites tended to have more favourable reactions toward the
Asian model for both attitudes (except attitude toward the brand to a lesser extent) and
purchase intentions. Yet, both high and low involvement Asians and Whites had a greater
likelihood of purchasing with the Asian model ad.
Interestingly, attitudes of Asians under high involvement condition and Whites under low
involvement condition toward the fictitious brand “Fluodent” remained nearly similar
regardless of the endorser ethnicity. According to Lee et al. (2002), this could be explained by
the fact that when it comes to making judgements about an advertised brand, the endorser can
be an irrelevant cue for making brand judgement although the Asian subject is highly
involved and probably highly self-referenced to the endorser.
In sum, the results of this analysis can find strong support from Chaiken (1980) who argued
that when a subject is in heuristic processing (low involvement), he/she tends to devote little
cognitive effort in analysing the ad message and tends to accept the conclusion based on
simple rules from previous experience. In the present ethnicity context of our study, the Asian
viewer may have accepted the ad simply based on a noticeable cue (here, the Asian endorser)
that was consistent with his/her schema and previous experience. In other ads, it is highly
possible that our low involved Asians showed favourable attitudes toward the Asian ad simply
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because the ad displayed an endorser of their own ethnic group. The ELM is also supported:
indeed, Petty et al. (1983, 1986) demonstrated that the model’s race operates as an argument
quality which in turn can positively influence consumers’ attitudes and purchasing intention.
It is very likely that when the low involved Asian saw the ad, he / she formed attitudes via the
peripheral route. The peripheral cues displayed in the advertising message (the Asian
endorser) permitted attitude change without the need for the message’s recipient (i.e. the low
involved Asian subject) to scrutinise more deeply the message arguments. In contrast, under
high involvement condition, our Asian subjects took the central route. According to Petty et
al. (1986), in the ‘central route’, careful and thoughtful consideration occur based on
recipient’s processing of strong and weak arguments. Asians may have paid further attention
to the argument presented on the ad rather than focusing on the peripheral cue. The weakness
of the argument of our ad stimuli may have yielded Asians to less favourable attitudes toward
the Asian endorser ad.
Generally speaking, the present study suggests that Asians have more favourable attitudes
toward the Asian model ad under low involvement condition. However, under high
involvement condition, Asians had more favourable attitudes toward the White model ad.
Further qualitative research is needed here to explain such a reaction. White subjects have
more favourable attitudes and intentions for the Asian model ad under both low and high
involvement condition. This may be explained by the fact that the White Model may have not
been processed as a sufficiently meaningful cue and that the toothpaste ad was too common to
result in very positive evaluations. Nevertheless, it remains interesting to note that the Asian
model ad resulted in greater likelihood of purchasing from both Asians and Whites regardless
of their degree of involvement. This study proves once again that ad using ethnic minorities
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do not have a negative impact on White consumers but can benefit both the majority and the
minority group used in the ad.
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White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
6,00
5,80
5,60
5,40
5,20
5,00
E s
t i m a
t e d M a r g
i n a
l M e a n s
White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the model
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
5,00
4,80
4,60
4,40
4,20
E s
t i m a
t e d M a r g
i n a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the ad
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,60
4,50
4,40
4,30
4,20
4,10
4,00
E s
t i m a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the brand
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,60
4,50
4,40
4,30
4,20
4,10
4,00
3,90
E s
t i m a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Purchase intentions
Between-Subjects Factors
Asianmodel 46
Whitemodel 42
Asiansubject 40
Whitesubject 48
1
2
Endorser'sethnicity
1
2
Subject'sethnicity
Value Label N
Figure 2a – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians (blue) andWhites (green) attitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian modelad (left) versus the White model (right) ad under HIGH INVOLVEMENTcondition (involv. >= 3, n = 88)
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White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
5,20
5,00
4,80
4,60
4,40
4,20
4,00
E s
t i m a
t e d M
a r g
i n a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the model
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,50
4,00
3,50
3,00
2,50
E s
t i m a
t e d M
a r g
i n a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the ad
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,00
3,50
3,00 E s
t i m a
t e d M a r g
i n a
l M e a n s
White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the brand
White modelAsian model
Endorser's ethnicity
4,50
4,00
3,50
3,00
2,50
2,00
E s
t i m a
t e d M a r g
i n a
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White subjectAsian subject
Subject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Purchase in tentions
Figure 2b – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians (blue) andWhites (green) attitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian model
ad (left) versus the White model (right) ad under LOW INVOLVEMENTcondition. (involv. < 3, n = 45)
Between-Subjects Factors
Asianmodel 17
Whitemodel
28
Asiansubject 23
Whitesubject 22
1
2
Endorser'sethnicity
1
2
Subject'sethnicity
Value Label N
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3.9.5.2 Strength of ethnic identification: As expected, Asians identified more strongly to their
ethnic group than did Whites: M asian = 4.68, SD asian = 1.16 versus M white = 3.82, SD white = 1.32.
Both White and Asian males identified themselves stronger to their own ethnic group than
females. An ANOVA with Strength of ethnic identification as a dependent variable and
subject’s ethnicity and gender as the fixed factors revealed a significant main effect of the
subject’s ethnicity on the subject’s strength of ethnic identification F(17,704) = 26,829, p <
.001 as well as a significant main effect of Gender F(4,295) = 6,509, p < .05. When ignoring
the main effect of gender, this finding is consistent with Phinney (1992) who argued that in
the studies the MEIM was used, ethnicity was usually of low salience and ethnic identity was
not strong among Whites when they were in a majority (Phinney, 1989). In contrast, attention
paid to ethnicity is more likely to be stronger among minority group members (Phinney &
Alipuria, 1990).
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Strength of ethnic identification
34,226 a 3 11,409 7,528 ,0002275,588 1 2275,588 1501,594 ,000
26,829 1 26,829 17,704 ,0006,509 1 6,509 4,295 ,0403,165 1 3,165 2,088 ,151
195,493 129 1,5152610,998 133
229,719 132
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptRaceGenderRace * GenderErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = ,149 (Adjusted R Squared = ,129)a.
Yet, an analysis of multivariate MANOVA (Appendix 7) revealed no significant main effect
of Strength of ethnic identification on each dependent variable (all ps > .09).
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3.9.5.3 Attitude toward ethnicity: To the question “ How much do you estimate the percent of
Asian population in France? ” 44.4% of our Asians sample believed that Asians represent
more than 11% of the French population against 30% for Whites. More interestingly, 73% of
Asians estimated the weight of Asian population in France to be 6% and above (versus 64.3%
of Whites). Far from being meaningless, these figures show that in the mind of a majority of
French consumers, Asians represent a large ethnic group in France. The estimated weight of
Asian population is to be compared to the United States where Asians only represent 4.2% of
the U.S. population (CIA worldfactbook 2007). Of course, these figures should not be
generalised to all French consumers but remains interesting to be stated [See Annexe 8a for
further details].
To the question: “ What do you think about the representation of ethnic minorities on
advertising? ”, a large majority of Asians (74.6%) and Whites (67.1%) believed that ethnic
minorities are not enough represented in advertising. Only 4.8% of Asians and 2.9% of
Whites reported that ethnic minorities were over represented in French advertising [See
Annexe 8b for further details].
To the question: “ What do you think about the representation of Asians (White Europeans) on
advertising? ”,
As for the Asian model ad, 90.6% of our Asians sample thought that Asians were not
enough represented in French advertising and 74.2% of Whites shared the same
thought. Neither Whites nor Asians reported that Asians were over represented [See
Annexe 8c for further details].
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As for the White model ad, Whites and Asians shared the same viewpoint regarding
the representation of White Europeans on advertising: almost half of them believed
that White Europeans are over represented on advertising and 25.8% (30.8%) of
Asians (Whites) thought White Europeans were fairly represented. [See Annexe 8d
for further details].
3.9.5.4 Gender: An analysis of multivariate (MANOVA) with gender as an independent
variable (i.e. Subject’s sex x Endorser’s ethnicity x Subject’s ethnicity) yielded no gender
differences on attitudes ( p > .47) and purchase intentions ( p > .33) [See Annexe 7 for further
details]. However, the effects of subjects’ sex were examined in an analysis of variance
(ANOVA) on each dependent measure to check for any main effects (See Figure 3 below). A
two way analysis of variance yielded a significant main effect for Gender on attitude toward
the brand, F(6,245) = 8,891, p = .014 and purchase intentions F(3,919) = 11,095, p = .05.
Females had significantly higher attitude toward the brand than did males for both the Asian
and White model ad (Asian ad [AA]: M female = 4.38, SD female = 1.33 versus M male = 3.83,
SD male = 1.23; White ad [WA]: M female = 3.87, SD female = 1.15 versus M male = 3.29, SD male =
.95) as well as significantly higher purchase intentions for both ads than did males ([AA]:
M female = 4.58, SD female = 1.69 versus M male = 4.22, SD male = 1.62; White ad [WA]: M female =
3.84, SD female = 1.81 versus M male = 2.91, SD male = 1.29).
3.9.5.5 Age: A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) revealed no significant
main effect of age on each dependent variable (all ps > .098). Age was uncorrelated with any
dependent variables and will be hence excluded from the analysis.
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FemaleMale
Subject's sex
6,00
5,75
5,50
5,25
5,00
4,75 E s
t i m a
t e d M a r g
i n a
l M e a n s White subject
Asian subjectSubject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the model
at Endorser's ethnicity = Asian model
FemaleMale
Subject's sex
5,20
5,00
4,80 E s
t i m a
t e d M a r g
i n a
l M e
a n s White subject
Asian subjectSubject's ethnicity
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t i m a
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Asian subjectSubject's ethnicity
Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the ad
at Endorser's ethnicity = White model
Figure 3 – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians and Whitesattitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian model ad versus theWhite model ad by gender (left = male; right = female).
Asian ad White ad
Attitude toward the model
Attitude toward the ad
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FemaleMale
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at Endorser's ethnicity = Asian model
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E s
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Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the brand
at Endorser's ethnicity = White model
FemaleMale
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Estimated Marginal Means of Purchase intentions
at Endorser's ethnicity = Asian model
FemaleMale
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3,90
3,60
3,30
3,00
2,70
2,40
E s
t i m a
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Estimated Marginal Means of Purchase intentions
at Endorser's ethnicity = White model
Attitude toward the brand
Purchase intentions
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3.9.5.6 Cognitive responses: Participants’ thoughts about the questionnaire, the products, the
advertisement or the model were collected at the end of the questionnaire. Among the
respondents who left a comment, the majority of them did not report unfavourable reactions.
However, it is interesting to notice that Asian thoughts were usually short and concise while
our White respondents reported more thoughtful thinking.
For example, for the Asian model ad, an Asian woman wrote: “ It is true that we do not
sufficiently see ethnic minorities on advertising ”. Another woman claimed: “ Long life to
Asians ”. A White male respondent reported a more thoughtful opinion: “ Regarding the
representation of ethnic minorities on advertising and other media in general, I believe this is
an issue in our society. Yet, this questionnaire has focused on Asians but we should take into
account all ethnic groups. A better representation would be a plus in order for people to
accept our culturally mixed society ”.
For the White model ad, a higher number of respondents mentioned their desire to understand
further the purpose of the study. Such a reaction may be normal and was expected since the
correlation between the ethnicity questionnaire and the White model ad was not as clear as for
the Asian model ad. Nevertheless, reactions of our Asian respondents toward the White ad
included short sentences such as “ I am proud to be Laotian ” (Asian Woman, 18-25 years old).
In contrast, a White woman said: “ It is interesting to see, after a set of questions on ethnicity,
a picture promoting the white teethes of a White woman. This made me think about how
advertising are interpreted by other ethnic groups and whether a White woman can result in
negative reactions ”.
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4. Discussion
4.1 White subjects
Our findings revealed to be consistent with much of the researches that focused on Whites
responses toward Black models. Indeed, researches among the Black community
demonstrated that taken as a whole, Whites did not react negatively to ads or products
featuring a black model. For instance, Bush et. al. (1974, 1979) found that there appears to be
very little difference in how white consumers evaluate models of different race regardless of
their level of prejudice. By and large, diverse researchers have largely revealed that Whites
did not react extremely negatively but responded neutrally (Guest, 1970; Tolley & Goett,
1972; Schlinger & Plummer’s, 1972) to positively (Szybillo & Jaccoby, 1974) to ads as a
result of exposure to black models in promotional materials. More precisely, Szybillo &
Jaccoby (1974) showed that Whites had a greater likelihood of purchase when the
advertisement was either all black, all white or equally integrated. Although Szybillo &
Jaccoby focused on integrated advertising, their findings still demonstrate that reactions of
Whites are not negative toward ads with ethnic minorities. Generally speaking, these different
studies give strong support to our finding showing that French Whites did not react negatively
to the Asian model. The present study revealed higher favourable attitude toward the model,
attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions from White subjects
for the Asian model ad than for the White model ad. This implies that ads displaying Asian
model did not lead to unfavourable reactions from the majority consumer group (i.e. Whites)
as far as our study is concerned. This is similar to Martin et al. (2004) who found that
displaying an Asian model in an atypical way resulted in more favourable attitudes and
purchase intentions for both Whites and Asians as well as Lee et al. (2002) who found that
using Asian ethnic minority models raised the attitudes and purchase intentions of the
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participants of the same ethnicity without decreasing the attitudes and purchasing intentions
of Whites. Our analysis supports previous research into White consumer response to Asian
models in advertising from Cohen (1992) who showed that for low involvement product
advertising, the model’s race had no negative impact on consumers’ response to the ad. This
study is also consistent with Feick & Higie (1992) who argued that consumers tend to prefer
endorsers that are dissimilar to them for utilitarian products.
The fact that White subjects showed less favourable reactions toward the ads endorsed by the
White model but reacted more positively to the ad endorsed by the Asian model could be
explained by the fact the “whiteness” in an ad (i.e. the White model), as suggested by Grier et
al. (1999), is unlikely to be considered as a meaningful cue by the White majority consumers.
Indeed, according to the distinctiveness theory, a racial cue is more likely to be noticed among
the minority ethnic group than the majority ethnic group. This results in using racial cues
more often among distinctive individuals to evaluate advertising than among nondistinctive
individuals. Thus, consistent with Grier et al. (1999) viewpoint, the White model may have
not been enough interpreted as a salient cue to most of our White subjects especially for a
toothpaste ad. Indeed, as our White sample is in the majority ethnic group, the White model
remains a common trait in French advertising to them. We can assume that the White model
ad have not been sufficiently judged as only one of its kind to enhance attitudes and purchase
intentions among white consumers while the ad featuring the Asian model was more widely
and more likely to be noticed among White consumers who are not used to seeing Asians on
French advertising. Therefore, it is highly probable that for the White model ad, our
participants scrutinised more heavily on the ad design rather than the endorser. Finally, it has
been argued that ads atypical of the schema (ie. cognitive structure representing domain
expectations) motivate more extensive processing and evaluations than ad typical of the
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schema (Goodstein, 1993). Undoubtedly, a toothpaste ad with an Asian model is more
atypical of the schema than a White model toothpaste ad and this should have motivated
extensive processing from the viewer regardless of his or her degree of involvement.
4.2 Asian subjects
As far as our Asian sample is concerned, Asians showed more favourable attitude toward the
model, attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions for the Asian
model ad. This finding is consistent with much of the researches on ethnic minorities’
reactions toward ad featuring model of their own group. First of all, the results of our study
are consistent with Deshpande (1994) who found that consumers in a numerically minority
ethnic group were more likely than those being in the numerically majority ethnic group to
have positive attitudes toward the brand for an ad displaying the minority ethnic group. The
results support the idea that under distinctiveness theory, individuals are more aware of
characteristics that make them distinctive from others (McGuire, 1984). Thus, being in a
numerically minority, Asians are more likely to mention their ethnic group than Whites. They
are also more likely to notice the Asian model and to show more positive attitudes. Our
findings are also supported by Grier et al. (1999) who argued that ads targeting a distinctive
market on the basis of a cultural trait that makes the members distinctive from others (i.e.
Asians) have a greater impact on target viewers’ interpretation of the ad than ads targeting a
nondistinctive market (i.e. Whites). Similarly to Whittler & Dimeo (1991), our study gives
strong support to the similarity dissimilarity theory which suggests that a perceived similarity
between the recipient and the communicator can increase persuasion and mediate the impact
on attitudes changes. In the present study, the Asian model race was found to enhance
positives attitudes as there must have had a perceived similarity between the Asian endorser
and our Asian sample. However, the similarity dissimilarity theory was not supported among
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our White sample. As discussed above, this lack of support could be attributed to the fact that
participants did not perceive the White model as a meaningful cue. In sum, our results are
consistent with Ryu et al. (2006) who demonstrated that Asian consumers are more likely to
show favourable responses to advertising when the endorser’s ethnicity is different from the
product country of origin for utilitarian product.
4.3 Main effects
Our study also demonstrated that both Asians and Whites had a greater likelihood of
purchasing for the Asian endorser ad regardless of their level of involvement. As suggested by
Cohen (1992), the endorser’s ethnicity does not have a negative impact on consumers’
response to the ad for low involvement product advertising. This finding has several
implications to marketers. Yet, it remains important to state the significant main effect of
involvement on attitudes and purchase intentions of our Asian sample. Our study showed that
among Asian subjects under high involvement condition, the Asian model ad did not receive
as favourable responses as that of a White model ad. Asians showed less favourable attitudes
toward the Asian model ad although the results revealed similar likelihood of purchasing than
White subjects. However, under low involvement condition, low involved Asians showed
contradictory reactions to high involved Asians yielding to more positive responses toward
the Asian endorser ad than for the White endorser ad. The present study suggests that atypical
ads in advertising can act as persuasive stimulus for consumers in low involvement situations.
Furthermore, it is likely that ads of low involvement products can enhance consumer attitude
and purchasing intentions through associating with atypical depictions and ethnicity minority
portrayals.
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Indeed, the results of our analysis find strong support from Chaiken (1980) who argued that
when a subject is in heuristic processing (low involvement), he or she tends to devote little
cognitive effort in analysing the ad message and tends to accept the conclusion based on
simple rules from previous experience. In the present ethnicity context of our study, the Asian
viewer may have accepted the ad simply based on a noticeable cue (here, the Asian endorser)
that was consistent with his or her schema and previous experience. In other ads, it is highly
possible that our low involved Asians showed favourable attitudes toward the Asian ad simply
because the ad displayed an endorser of their own ethnic group. The ELM is also supported:
indeed, Petty et al. (1983, 1986a, 1986b) demonstrated that the model’s race operates as an
argument quality which in turn can positively influence consumers’ attitudes and purchasing
intention. It is very likely that when the low involved Asian saw the ad, he / she formed
attitudes via the peripheral route. The peripheral cues displayed in the advertising message
(the Asian endorser) permitted attitude change without the need for the message’s recipient
(i.e. the low involved Asian subject) to scrutinise more deeply the message arguments. We
can assume that under high involvement condition, the Asian endorser is not sufficiently a
strong argument to permit attitude changes.
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5. Implications
This study offers several managerial implications that may be of interest to advertisers. First,
this study suggests that use of Asian endorser do not negatively affect French White
consumers’ responses to the ad and their likelihood of purchase. In contrast, a well designed
ad can lead to favourable reactions from both Asians and Whites. There are several reasons
why marketers should have recourse to an Asian model according to the finding of our study:
1) Marketers who wants to reach the majority White consumers without omitting Asian
consumers can use Asian models to reach a wider audience. We found that use of an Asian
model does not lead to unfavourable reactions from White consumers. Indeed, our study
reveals that White consumers prefer the Asian model ad over the White model ad under both
low and high involvement condition. 2) In a world of mass communication, there is plenty of
moment and places where the consumers are under low involvement. Our study suggests that
under low involvement condition, the presence of an Asian endorser may act as an argument
quality among Asian and White consumers which in turn leads to favourable attitudes and
intentions. 3) There are currently an insignificant number of ads featuring Asians in France.
While it is clear that unexpected cues can enhance brand recall, we shall add that ads using an
Asian endorser are more likely to motivate extensive processing among French consumers
since it is atypical of the consumer’s schema. Use of an Asian endorser can be an efficient
strategy to help a brand to distinguish itself from its competitors and increase brand recall
among consumers especially for an ordinary product. Indeed, our study showed that both
Whites and Asians exhibited greater purchase intentions with the Asian model ad than with
the White model ad. This is surely because a toothpaste ad displaying a White model is very
common and that unless the product advertised has a distinctive feature, promoting an
utilitarian product such as toothpaste with a White model is nothing to be out of the ordinary.
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In contrast, an Asian endorser can generate more thoughts and lead to more favourable
reactions. 4) Asians are recognised by politicians and in general as an ethnic minority model.
Using Asians is less likely to result in unfavourable reactions from French consumers. 5)
There is an increasing request from a large majority of French consumers to include more
ethnic minorities on advertising. Displaying an Asian model is one way to respond to this
demand. 6) Finally, the Asian community is one of the fastest growing minorities in France:
excluding them out of the commercial message would mean loosing a potentially profitable
market.
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6. Limitations and future researches
Although this study remains among the very few studies on endorser’s ethnicity in a culture
other than English speaking countries, it has limitations regarding the sample and the research
design that should be acknowledged and which may serve as avenues for future research.
6.1 The sample
The first limitation is linked to the demographic features of our sample. Due to nature of this
study (a student dissertation) which is very restricted in terms of time, it results in having a
sample size constrained and unlikely to be comparable to most popular research methods.
While most researches stand with more than 200 participants, our sample size of 133
individuals is undoubtedly not sufficient to make the appropriate conclusion and reach the
expected results. Future researches should collect sensibly higher amount of participants in
order to get a more reliable data and to manage in obtaining significant results.
The second limitation of our study is linked to the definition of an ethnic group. It is
important to note that this study primarily focused on Asians as defined by French people (i.e.
Vietnamese, Laotian, Combodian) and that we did not take into account other diverse Asian
groups (e.g. Chinese, Thai, etc.). Consequently, the results cannot be generalised to other
Asian groups or ethnic minorities in France. Thus, future researches could replicate this study
among other Asian groups or other growing ethnic minorities in France (e.g. Muslim, North
African) to test advertising effectiveness with using ethnic minority models among different
ethnic groups. This may help to check whether French Whites will react similarly to ads
featuring other ethnic endorser and whether the distinctiveness theory is also applicable
among other ethnic minorities in France. In addition, another limitation of our study regards
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the definition of a “White”. In our experiment, a White was defined as someone who at least
one parent was born in France. It remains probable that someone who has one of his parents
born in another European Member states or a French Black colony do not consider himself or
herself as a White. It would be interesting in the future to have a clear classification of
different ethnic group in France.
The third limitation is the age of our sample which remains in average young (between 18 to
35 years old). Favourable reactions from both Whites and Asians toward the Asian model
may be explained by the ordinary positive reactions of young individuals toward ethnic
minorities. Consequently, some caution remains warranted in the generalisation of the current
finding to other age group. Indeed, Whittler and Dimeo (1991) argued that students’ are more
likely to show favourable reactions toward ethnic endorser due to the fact that they are being
more accustomed to seeing individuals from diverse background in their everyday activities
than older people. In addition, consistent with literature on acculturation, age remains an
important factor influencing consumption patterns (Lee & Tse, 1994). As a result, an
interesting avenue for future research would then be to examine reactions from adults aged 35
and above with ad featuring Asian model. This will surely help marketers to know under
which target segment (i.e. older vs. younger consumers) Asian models or ethnic minority
models should be used or avoid being used in advertising.
Finally, our study showed that gender had a significant main effect on attitudes with females
representing 64% of the sample. Additional research is needed on distinguishing males from
females as it is possible that they process the ad in a different manner depending on the
endorser’s gender.
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6.2 The research design
Another limitation relates to the research design itself. Further research might be directed
profitably at conducting experimental approaches specifically designed in examining the
types of product that are effective with French Asians. Even though this study has taken into
account previous advices in using nonstereotyped product (a toothpaste) to reach a wider
segment (Forehand & Deshpande, 2001; Martin et al., 2004), it would be interesting to
conduct another study to test the validity of this finding in France by using a different product
features. Was the favourable reaction toward the Asian model explained by the fact that the
product used was none stereotyped? How would consumers react toward a stereotyped
product or any other type of products or services? For example, future researches could
investigate French Asians reactions toward stereotyped vs. nonstereotyped ad, ads selling a
service vs. a product, ads promoting an expensive product vs. a cheap product or ads featuring
utilitarian product vs. hedonic products etc.
Another limitation of our study is the analysis of the respondent cognitive responses. In the
present study, we were not able to objectively judge their thoughts by the intermediary of an
independent judge. Thus, we advocate the need for further qualitative studies in order to
explore more deeply cognitive responses of participants and meanings that they attached to
advertising with ethnic minorities in France.
Last, our study did not manipulate participants’ involvement as a dependent variable while a
key finding for our study relates to the significant main effect of involvement on attitudes and
purchase intentions. Additional research may assess the influence of involvement as a
dependent variable on consumers’ attitudes under high and low involvement condition. More
precisely, other potential avenues for future research could include analysing consumer ad
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processing (e.g. involvement, need for cognition, self-referencing) under which ethnicity
endorser would be the most efficient in France.
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7. Conclusion
This study offers insight into the effects of Asian and White endorsers on Asian and White
consumers in France. At the right beginning, we have raised the issue surrounding marketers
in France regarding the lack of data and the current regulations which do not allow marketers
to advertise with ethnic minorities efficiently. The reluctance of marketers to advertise with
ethnic minority models is also an important issue, as many of them, unfortunately, still hold
the belief that displaying ethnic minority models can adversely affect the majority White
consumers. Nevertheless, the actual changing political environment should be an opportunity
for marketers to review their marketing strategy. Given the context of increasing recognition
of ethnic minorities in France wanted by most of politicians, consumers and ethnic minorities,
it is in the interest of both marketers and researchers to continue exploring and contributing to
the French marketing literature on ethnicity and advertising. Increasing our knowledge of
ethnic minorities in France would unquestionably be valuable in a highly multicultural
consumption society like France.
In a world of mass media communication and where it is becoming harder to catch
consumers’ attention, marketers should pay further attention on peripheral cues that are the
most effective and more likely to be remembered by consumers. Although this study did not
reveal significant results because of the condition under which it was conducted, it did
demonstrate interesting trends that most researchers predicted decades ago. The present study
shows incontestably the influence of ethnic minority model on attitudes and purchase
intentions among both the majority and the minority consumer groups. An Asian model could
be one of those peripheral cues used without negatively affecting White consumers’ reactions
since Asians remains a minority model in France. Once again, it is useful to remind marketers
this recent survey conducted in France among a representative sample of the French
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population which showed that 63% of consumers are expecting a better representation of
ethnic minorities. Our sample confirmed this aspiration from both Whites and Asians: 70.7%
of our sample think that ethnic minorities are not enough represented in French advertising.
More precisely, 74.6% of Asians believed that ethnic minorities are not sufficiently
represented in advertising and a large majority of Whites (67.1%) hold the same beliefs.
Marketers simply cannot ignore those critical figures showing the desire of both Whites and
minority ethnic models to see ethnic groups better represented in advertising. In terms of
profitability, ignoring one of the fastest growing minorities in France (i.e. Asians) in their
advertising message represents a potential lost that any conscious marketers would not want
to face.
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8. Acknowledgement
I am personally grateful to my MSc tutor and dissertation supervisor, Ekant Veer, professor of
Marketing at the University of Bath for his very helpful and valuable comments all along my
dissertation period. Ekant Veer was professionally supportive and always showed availability
and efficiency in helping me improve my work as well as promptness in replying to my
questions. A special thanks to Prof. Brett Martin for giving me useful insights in
understanding how to efficiently read marketing articles through the consumer behaviour
classes and to Prof. Avi Shankar for encouraging me in succeeding in my studies. Finally, a
personal thanks to all the persons who showed interest in my dissertation, particularly,
Nicolas Martinez, Elodie Nabeng and Emilie Jane who helped me translate the questionnaire,
building the ad and collecting the data within a short period of time.
Julien Mong
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10. Appendices
Appendix 1 - IPSOS survey on ethnic minorities and advertising in France
Gender AgePopulation
% Male %
Female %
Less than 35 %
Above 35 %
Survey on the representation of ethnic minorities on advertising in France(IPSOS, 2006).Over represented 9 9 8 4 11
Not enough represented 38 35 41 50 32
Well represented 50 53 48 45 53
No answer 3 3 3 1 4
100 100 100 100 100
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Appendix 2 – Ad stimulus
2a. White endorser ad
2b. Asian endorser ad
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Appendix 3 – Questionnaire
3a. Original questionnaire (in English)
Q1 . Do you have anyone (or both) of your parents who were born in:
Yes NoFrance
Asia (eg. Vietnam, Cambodia,Laos, etc.)
If Asian, please state: _______
Q2 . Besides French, do you or your family commonly use the following regional languages at home?
Yes NoOther Europeans (eg. English,
Spanish) Asians (eg. Vietnamese,
Cambodian, Laos, etc)
If Asian, please state: _______
Q3 . Please indicate your agreement or disagreement with the following statements, using a seven-point scale
ranging from: 1 = fully disagree to 7 = fully agree.
Fully disagree Fully agree1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I have spent time trying to find out more about my ethnic group,such as its history, traditions, and customs.
I am active in organizations or social groups that include mostlymembers of my own ethnic group.
I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means for me. I think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership.
I am happy that I am a member of the group I belong to. I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group.
I understand pretty well what my ethnic group membership means to me. In order to learn more about my ethnic background, I have often talked
to other people about my ethnic group. I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group.
I participate in cultural practices of my own group,such as special food, music, or customs.
I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group. I feel good about my cultural or ethnic background.
Q4 . What do you personally think about this woman on the ad?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7This woman is not believable This woman is believable
This woman is not attractive This woman is very attractive
This woman is not competent This woman is very competent
This woman is not persuasive This woman is very persuasive
This woman is not likeable This woman is likeable
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Q5 . What do you personally think about this ad?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7This ad is bad This ad is good
I dislike this ad I like this ad
This ad is useless This ad is useful
This ad is unformative This ad is informative
This ad is unpleasant This ad is pleasant
Q6 . What do you personally think about this brand?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Bad Good
Dislike Like
Unpleasant Pleasant
Inferior Superior
Q7 . Would you buy this product if you had the opportunity to?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Improbable Probable
Unlikely Likely
Impossible Possible
Q8 . Ad involvement
1 2 3 4 5 6 7I am very little concentrated I am very hard-concentrated
I am very uninvolved I am very involved
I am paying little attention I am paying a lot of attention
Q9 . Attitude towards ethnicity
*How much percentage of French population do you think Asian people represent?
0%-5% 6-10% 11%-20% More than 20%
*
*What do you think about the representation of ethnic minorities on Advertising in France?
not enough represented fairly represented over represented I don’t know
*What do you think about the representation of Asians on Advertising in France?
not enough represented fairly represented over represented I don’t know
Q10 . Please indicate your sex:
Male Female
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Q11 . Your age range: 18-25
26-35
35-45
45+
Q12 . Please write here your personal thoughts, if any:
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
3b. Questionnaire translated (in French)
1. Début du questionnaireCe questionnaire vous prendra moins de 6 minutes.SVP, ne commencez jamais un questionnaire sans le terminer.Un GRAND MERCI pour votre intérêt !
1. Merci de répondre aux DEUX questions suivantes et préciser si nécessaire.
L'un de vos parents -ou- tous deux sont-ils nés en :
Oui Non
France
Asie (ex: Vietnam, Cambodge, Laos, etc.) - Si Asie, merci depréciser
Si Asie, merci de préciser le pays (obligatoire si Asie)
2. Merci de répondre aux DEUX questions suivantes et préciser si nécessaire.
Hormis le Français, vous même -ou- votre famille parlent t'ils les langues suivantes -A LA MAISON-:
Oui Non
Langues Européennes (ex. Anglais, Espagnol, etc.)
Langues Asiatiques (ex. Vietnamien, Laotien, Cambodgien,etc.) - préciser si Asiatique
Si Asiatiques, merci de préciser la langue
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3. Veuillez indiquer votre accord ou désaccord avec les affirmations suivantes, selon une échelle en sept points, allant de 1= Toutà fait en désaccord à 7= tout à fait d’accord :
Définition de "Groupe ethnique" :- si l'un de vos parents ou tous deux sont nés en France, votre groupe ethnique est Européen Français.- si l'un de vos parents ou tous deux sont nés en Asie, votre groupe ethnique est Asiatique.
1- Tout à fait
enDESACCORD 2 3 4 5 6
7- Tout à
faitD'ACCORD
J’ai consacré du temps à me renseigner davantagesur mon propre groupe ethnique, entre autres surson histoire, ses traditions, ses coutumes.
Je participe activement à des organismes ou à desassociations qui compte surtout des membres demon propre groupe ethnique
J’ai une idée précise de mes antécédentsethniques et de ce qu'ils signifient pour moi
Je réfléchi beaucoup à l'influence quel'appartenance à mon groupe ethnique exercerasur ma vie
Je suis heureux(se) d'être membre du groupeethnique auquel j'appartiensJ’ai un profond sentiment d'appartenance à monpropre groupe ethnique
Je comprends assez bien ce que signifie pour moile fait d'appartenir à mon groupe ethnique
Pour me renseigner davantage sur mesantécédents ethniques, j'ai souvent parlé à d'autrespersonnes de mon groupe ethnique
Je suis très fier(e) de mon groupe ethnique et deses réalisations
Je participe aux pratiques culturelles de monpropre groupe ethnique, par exemple sa cuisine,sa musique ou ses coutumes particulières
Je ressens un profond attachement envers mongroupe ethnique
Je me sens bien par rapport à mes antécédentsethniques ou culturels
1. Les questions suivantes comporte des questions sur votre pensée personnelle.
L'échelle de réponse est de 1 à 7 (1= votre pensée est très négative et 7= votre pensée est très positive)
On commence... Personnellement, que pensez-vous de cette femme sur la publicité ?
1-Négative 2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive
1= Cette femme n'est pas du tout crédible / 7 =Cette femme est tout à fait crédible
2= Cette femme n'est pas du tout séduisante / 7=Cette femme est tout à fait séduisante
3= Cette femme n'est pas du tout sympathique / 7=Cette femme est tout à fait sympathique
2. Que pensez-vous de cette publicité ?
1-Negative 2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive
1- C’est une mauvaise publicité / 7- C’est unebonne publicité
1- Je n’aime pas cette publicité / 7- J’aime cettepublicité
1- Cette publicité est désagréable / 7- Cettepublicité est agréable
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3. Que pensez-vous de cette marque (Fluodent) ?
1-Négative
2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive
1- Cette marque est mauvaise / 7- Cette marque estbonne
1- Je n’aime pas cette marque / 7-J’aime cettemarque
1- Cette marque est désagréable / 7- Cette marqueest agréable
4. Achèteriez-vous ce produit, si vous en aviez l’opportunité ?
1-Négative
2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive
1- Improbable / 7- Probable
1- Impossible / 7- Possible
3. Dernière section - Merci !Il n'y a rien de pire au monde que de commencer un questionnaire sans le terminer, car vos réponses seront insignifiantes...
Ceci est la DERNIERE section. Merci à vous.
1. Ceci est la dernière partie. Merci de répondre à ces quelques dernières questions restantes:
En regardant cette publicité, diriez vous que :
1-Négative 2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive
1- Je suis très peu concentré(e) / 7- Je suis trèsconcentré(e)
1- Je suis très peu impliqué(e) / 7- Je suis trèsimpliqué(e)
1- Je suis peu attentif(ive) / 7- Je suis t rès
attentif(ive)
2. D'après vous...
Quel pourcentage de la population française représentent les Asiatiques ?
3. Selon vous...
Que pensez-vous de la représentation des -minorités ethniques- dans lapublicité en France ?
Enfin, que pensez-vous de la représentation des -Européens- dans lapublicité en France ?
4. Vous êtes âgé(e) de :
18 à 25 ans
26 à 35 ans
35 à 45 ans
45 et plus
5. Votre sexe :
Masculin
Féminin
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Appendix 4 – Models
4a. White models
TYPICAL CONSUMER SELECTED
4b. Asian models
SELECTED
TYPICAL CONSUMER
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Appendix 5 – Means on each dependent variables (from SPSS v.14)
Descriptive Statistics
5.0513 1.40642 32
5.6455 1.18287 315.3437 1.32503 634.7523 1.26180 315.0515 1.27156 394.9190 1.26693 704.9041 1.33495 635.3146 1.25980 705.1202 1.30728 1334.4681 1.40637 324.5694 1.66898 314.5179 1.52950 633.9352 1.49162 313.7518 1.27437 393.8330 1.36754 704.2059 1.46207 634.1139 1.50757 704.1574 1.48129 1334.0834 1.34652 324.2687 1.29817 314.1746 1.31557 633.4084 1.26384 313.8892 .95332 393.6763 1.11931 70
3.7513 1.33984 634.0573 1.12662 703.9123 1.23701 1334.4844 1.66309 324.4194 1.69360 314.4524 1.66490 633.1613 1.81837 313.8205 1.62419 393.5286 1.73181 703.8333 1.85133 634.0857 1.67022 703.9662 1.75615 133
Subject's ethnicityAsian subject
White subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotal
Endorser's ethnicityAsian model
White model
Total
Asian model
White model
Total
Asian model
White model
Total
Asian model
White model
Total
Attitude toward the model
Attitude toward the ad
Attitude toward the brand
Purchase intentions
Mean Std. Deviation N
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Appendix 6 – ANOVA on each dependent measures (from SPSS v.14)
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Attitude toward the model
13,086 a 3 4,362 2,648 ,0523461,672 1 3461,672 2101,451 ,000
6,567 1 6,567 3,987 ,0486,576 1 6,576 3,992 ,048
,717 1 ,717 ,435 ,511212,499 129 1,647
3712,305 133225,585 132
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptAdmodelRaceAdmodel * RaceErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = ,058 (Adjusted R Squared = ,036)a.
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Attitude toward the ad
16,298 a 3 5,433 2,564 ,0582303,874 1 2303,874 1087,292 ,000
,056 1 ,056 ,026 ,87215,023 1 15,023 7,090 ,009
,667 1 ,667 ,315 ,576273,339 129 2,119
2588,454 133289,637 132
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptRaceAdmodelRace * AdmodelErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = ,056 (Adjusted R Squared = ,034)a.
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Attitude toward the brand
12,768 a 3 4,256 2,901 ,0372017,304 1 2017,304 1375,308 ,000
3,655 1 3,655 2,492 ,1179,160 1 9,160 6,245 ,014
,720 1 ,720 ,491 ,485189,217 129 1,467
2237,727 133201,985 132
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptRaceAdmodelRace * AdmodelErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = ,063 (Adjusted R Squared = ,041)a.
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Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Purchase intentions
35,870 a 3 11,957 4,155 ,0082078,544 1 2078,544 722,285 ,000
2,908 1 2,908 1,011 ,31730,425 1 30,425 10,573 ,001
4,320 1 4,320 1,501 ,223371,228 129 2,878
2499,250 133407,098 132
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptRaceAdmodelRace * AdmodelErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = ,088 (Adjusted R Squared = ,067)a.
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Appendix 7 – MANOVA (from SPSS v.14)
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
42.399a
7 6.057 4.133 .00075.261 b 7 10.752 6.269 .00043.472 c 7 6.210 4.897 .000
103.754 d 7 14.822 6.108 .00017.494 1 17.494 11.937 .001
5.978 1 5.978 3.486 .06410.183 1 10.183 8.030 .005
8.758 1 8.758 3.609 .0604.075 1 4.075 2.781 .0982.224 1 2.224 1.297 .257
.002 1 .002 .002 .9672.490 1 2.490 1.026 .3132.177 1 2.177 1.486 .2253.621 1 3.621 2.112 .149
9.280 1 9.280 7.318 .00811.313 1 11.313 4.662 .033
4.276 1 4.276 2.918 .090.361 1 .361 .210 .647.162 1 .162 .128 .722.177 1 .177 .073 .788
18.772 1 18.772 12.809 .00051.904 1 51.904 30.264 .00021.285 1 21.285 16.785 .00054.382 1 54.382 22.409 .000
2.824 1 2.824 1.927 .1686.209 1 6.209 3.620 .0594.756 1 4.756 3.751 .055
16.820 1 16.820 6.931 .0108.556 1 8.556 5.838 .017
.085 1 .085 .050 .8242.953 1 2.953 2.329 .1302.114 1 2.114 .871 .3521.210 1 1.210 .826 .3652.502 1 2.502 1.459 .229
.007 1 .007 .006 .939
.845 1 .845 .348 .556183.187 125 1.465214.377 125 1.715158.513 125 1.268303.343 125 2.427
3712.305 133
2588.454 1332237.727 1332499.250 133
225.585 132289.637 132201.985 132407.098 132
Dependent Variable
Attitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the ad
Attitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentions
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
Age
Sex
Ethnid
Involv
Admodel
Race
Admodel * Race
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = .188 (Adjusted R Squared = .142)a.
R Squared = .260 (Adjusted R Squared = .218)b.
R Squared = .215 (Adjusted R Squared = .171)c.
R Squared = .255 (Adjusted R Squared = .213)d.
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Appendix 8 – Attitude toward ethnicity
8a. Representation of Asian population in France
Subject's ethnicity * % of Asians in France Crosstabulation
11 18 15 13 6 63
17,5% 28,6% 23,8% 20,6% 9,5% 100,0%
37,9% 42,9% 50,0% 68,4% 46,2% 47,4%
18 24 15 6 7 70
25,7% 34,3% 21,4% 8,6% 10,0% 100,0%
62,1% 57,1% 50,0% 31,6% 53,8% 52,6%
29 42 30 19 13 133
21,8% 31,6% 22,6% 14,3% 9,8% 100,0%
100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within % ofAsians in FranceCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within % of
Asians in FranceCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within % ofAsians in France
Asian subject
White subject
Subject'sethnicity
Total
0% to 5% 6% to 10% 11% to 20%More than
20% I don't know
% of Asians in France
Total
8b. Representation of Ethnic minorities on French advertising
Subject's ethnicity * Representation of ethnic minorities in advertising Crosstabulation
47 11 3 2 63
74,6% 17,5% 4,8% 3,2% 100,0%
50,0% 40,7% 60,0% 28,6% 47,4%
47 16 2 5 70
67,1% 22,9% 2,9% 7,1% 100,0%
50,0% 59,3% 40,0% 71,4% 52,6%
94 27 5 7 133
70,7% 20,3% 3,8% 5,3% 100,0%
100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof ethnic minorities inadvertisingCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof ethnic minorities in
advertisingCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof ethnic minorities inadvertising
Asian subject
White subject
Subject'sethnicity
Total
Not enoughFairly
representedOver
represented I don't know
Representation of ethnic minorities in advertising
Total
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8c. Asian model ad: Asians on advertising
Subject's ethnicity * Representation of Asians on adv. Crosstabulation
29 1 2 32
90,6% 3,1% 6,3% 100,0%
55,8% 16,7% 40,0% 50,8%
23 5 3 31
74,2% 16,1% 9,7% 100,0%
44,2% 83,3% 60,0% 49,2%
52 6 5 63
82,5% 9,5% 7,9% 100,0%
100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Asians on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Asians on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Asians on adv.
Asian subject
White subject
Subject'sethnicity
Total
Not enoughrepresented
Fairlyrepresented I don't know
Representation of Asians on adv.
Total
8d. White model ad: White Europeans on advertising
Subject's ethnicity * Representation of Europeans on adv. Crosstabulation
4 8 15 4 31
12,9% 25,8% 48,4% 12,9% 100,0%
80,0% 40,0% 44,1% 36,4% 44,3%
1 12 19 7 39
2,6% 30,8% 48,7% 17,9% 100,0%
20,0% 60,0% 55,9% 63,6% 55,7%
5 20 34 11 70
7,1% 28,6% 48,6% 15,7% 100,0%
100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Count
% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Europeans on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Europeans on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Europeans on adv.
Asian subject
White subject
Subject's
ethnicity
Total
Not enoughrepresented
Fairlyrepresented
Overrepresented I don't know
Representation of Europeans on adv.
Total