A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. A Study of Effectiveness of e-Learning and Blended Learning Among B.Ed. Students Doctoral Thesis DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Patna University Researcher Prabhas Ranjan Supervisor Dr. Lalit Kumar Professor Faculty of Education
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A Study of Effectiveness of e-Learning and Blended ...I, Prabhas Ranjan, hereby declare that this thesis titled, “A Study of Effec-tiveness of e-Learning and Blended Learning Among
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A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Ph.D.
A Study of Effectiveness ofe-Learning and Blended Learning
AcknowledgementsI thank Prof. Rash Bihari Pd. Singh, Vice-Chancellor, Patna University, Prof.Ashutosh Kumar, Dean, Faculty of Education, Patna University, Prof. KhagendraKumar, Head, Patna University for providing conditions supporting research andlearning in the Department. I thank Prof. Lalit Kumar for his supervision andsupport. I thank all the faculty members of the Department of Education, PatnaUniversity, Dr. Munnawar Jahan, Dr. Jessi George Modi, for their encouragingwords. I thank Dr. Sr M. Rashmi, Principal, Patna Women’s College, who pushedus to complete the Ph.D. work. I thank Prof. Yedla C. Simhadri, Ex-Vice Chan-cellor, Patna University, who appreciated the topic and took a particular interestin getting me admitted to the Ph.D. programme. I also thank Dr Ram Ranjan,Asst. Professor, Macquarie University, Sydney for supporting in setting up thewebsite glocaledu.org, this was critical for conceiving this research topic.
I thank Dr. Upasana Singh, Head and Dean, Faculty of Education, PWC for hervaluable suggestions at critical moments. I appreciate all my colleagues at theDepartment, Dr. Anju, Rashmi Sinha, Sr. M. Saroj AC, Dr. Madhumita, MadhuSmita, and Babli Roy for helping me in academic works, directly and indirectly,related to the experiment conducted under this research. I also thank my studentswho were very keen about my research, especially the students of 2015-17 batchwho helped in setting up the project on blended learning. I thank Deepti Shahi,B.Ed. Student (2015-17) for assisting me in pilot testing various research tools andin different jobs. I also appreciate the students of the Department of Education,PWC for their participation in the research, especially Fatima Anjum, Nisha, andSweta Vikram (2017-19 batch) who shared my interest in the topic and conductedresearch under CPE program of UGC under my supervision. My experience withthem was helpful. I thank the vibrant research community who, participating indifferent seminars and at the LinkedIn portal, appreciated and showed interest inmy work. Their comments and questions were helpful.
I thank Dr. Chandra Prabha for her support and Keshav Koushtubh for his curiousinquiries and support in printing.
5.7 Summary of findings of of the third objective (*based on z-scores) . 1185.8 ANOVA result of subject-wise comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Abbreviations
ADDIE Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate
B.Ed Bachelor of Education
DTH Direct To Home
DV Dependent Variable
F2F Face-to-face
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IGNOU Indira Gandhi National Open University
IQ Intelligence Quotient
IV Independent Variable
K-12 Kindergarten to 12th Class
LMS Learning Management System
MAB-II Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II
MCQ Multiple Choice Questions
MOOCs Massive Open Online Cources
NCERT National Council for Educational Research and Training
NCF(SE) National Curriculum Framework (for School Education)
NCFTE National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
NCTE National Council for Teacher Education
NHST Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling
NPTEL National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning
NTA National Testing Agency
OCL Online Collaborative Learning
xix
Abbreviations xx
PIQ Performance Intelligence Quotient
SIQ Sum of Intelligence Quotient
SWAYAM Study Webs of Active–Learning for Young Aspiring Minds
UGC University Grant Commission
UTAUT Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
VIQ Verbal Intelligence Quotient
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Visualising the problem
By the second decade of the 21st century, the use of Information and Communi-
cation Technology (ICT) for education is many decades old. Introduction of new
technologies for supporting education consequently influences the technology of ed-
ucation. In other words, the technology that helps to impart education, influence
how it should be imparted. They raise new questions and create new problems.
But it is also important to see how are they addressing the long-standing ques-
tions and challenges of education. Low learning attainment by students in formal
education (in a classroom setting) is one such long-standing problem. Especially
in a populous country like India, formal education is highly challenged due to lack
of facilities, qualified teachers and quality education. Even in the best conditions,
formal education imparted in the traditional way is not efficient to fulfil the needs
of diverse learners. This problem, though identified long back, is yet elusive of
a direction toward a solution. We always expect new technologies to reflect on
these problems and elaborate on their potentials. The new medium of the Inter-
net is one such technology. We need to explore its potentials regarding solving our
long-standing problems.
1
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1.2 Expanding modes of education
Before the information age, the world of education was marked by two modes of
delivery of education. The first one was the face-to-face or regular mode, and
the other was distance mode. They were the two opposite ends of a continuum
of modes of education. These two modes differ in features like the degree of
resource intensiveness, size of learner group and commitment of the learners in
the context of time and place. The face-to-face mode demands from the students
a commitment to the institutional time table and attendance at a place. On the
other side, the distance mode demands no commitment to institutional time table
and place. The students are widely distributed over a large geographical area.
These two modes are sharply divided. The face-to-face mode is resource-intensive,
whereas the distance mode needs fewer resources.
This dichotomy of modes gets changed with the fusion of online and face-to-face
learning known as blended leading. In recent decades, blended learning is emerging
as an alternative mode that shares features of both of the previous modes. It sits
on the middle ground of the continuum that starts with the face-to-face mode or
regular mode and ends at distance mode. The online learning is mostly conducted
as asynchronous learning, where the teachers and students need not be together at
a given point of time. They may be dispersed over a wide geographical area, as in
the distance learning. But there is a possibility of monitoring the activity of each
of the students in real-time. The study materials also can be tailored according
to the needs of the learner.
In many of the institutions, the continuum is populated by different modes of
learning. For example, Some institutions use classroom aids, computer labs or
laptop instruction, web-enhanced learning, blended learning, and fully online in-
struction as alternatives to face-to-face learning. A number of experiments are
being done in this field and many fanciful terms like Hybrid Learning, Conversed
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Chapter 1. Introduction 3
Figure 1.1: Continuum of mode of delivery before and after information age
Learning, Conflex Learning, etc. are vying for claim a place on the continuum
(Table 1.1).
These new modes are resource-intensive. They need extra investment at the time
of their inception and also for training the teachers for their effective use, though
they are said to be resource effective in the long run. There is a dearth of studies
that identify and compare their strength and weaknesses in different socio-cultural
conditions.
1.3 Uncritical trends of e-learning in India
E-learning, specifically, online learning is a recently emerging trend in India. Indi-
ans are among the largest registrants in Massive Open Online Courses(MOOCs).
In an indigenous development, National Programme on Technology Enhanced
Learning (NPTEL) is jointly initiated by Indian Institute of Technologies (IIT)
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and Indian Institute of Sciences(IISc). They offer online courses for free and cer-
tification at a nominal cost in various topics. IITs have also developed MOOC
software MOOKIT for others to launch new courses with the motto that “creating
online courses should be as simple as taking them”. A MOOC on MOOCs course
has also been started to train teachers and other interested people to teach them
the functioning and pedagogical facets of MOOCs. Courses relating to Sciences,
Engineering, Humanities and Social Sciences have been developed. agMOOCs has
been developed especially for the students of agriculture. IIMs and Commonwealth
of Education are also involved in developing courses in India.
IIT Bombay in “Talk to a Teacher Programme” under National Mission on Educa-
tion through Information and Communication Technology (NME-ICT) has trained
thousands of teachers. There are other private initiatives like www.apnacourse.com
that support skill training and other courses for employs.
In the specific field of teacher education, there are Community initiatives like Teach
For India, which with the support of Central Square Foundation, developed an on-
line teacher training portal (www.firki.co). The aim is to empower the teachers,
enhance their pedagogical skills and encourage them to become reflective prac-
titioners. Firki aims to support high-quality in-service professional development
accessible to more teachers.
National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has started
MOODLE-based course ICT in Education for teachers and students for supporting
IT in school programmes.
SWAYAM (Study Webs of Active–Learning for Young Aspiring Minds) is another
programme initiated by Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government
of India to promote MOOCs in India. SWAYAM is conceived as an instrument of
self-actualising and life-long learning. The portal aims to provide all the courses
being taught in schools and universities. These are taught by the teachers of
eminent institutions of India and abroad. If a student is studying any course she
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in any college, she can transfer the credits earned on the portal to her academic
record. This portal provides opportunities for working or non-working as well as
the students studying in educational institutions a unique opportunity to expand
their skills and knowledge base.
Another programme with a similar name, SWAYAM Prabha is a subscription-
free Direct To Home(DTH) educational channels programme which telecasts high-
quality educational content using the GSAT-15 satellite transponders. At present,
there are 32 channels. These channels introduce four hours of new content daily,
which are repeated six times a day to facilitate the learners’ flexibility of time.
The contents for the channel are provided by NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU,
NCERT and NIOS. Thus the channels have contents for both higher education and
school education. All the disciplines like Natural sciences, commerce, performing
arts, social sciences and humanities, engineering, technology, law, medicine, agri-
culture, etc. are covered by them. The courses are related to certification vide the
SWAYAM platform. They have modules for teacher’s training, as well as teaching-
learning aids for students. They support preparation for competitive examinations
for admission in professional courses also. It also offers curriculum-based courses
for life-long learners from India and abroad.
All the instances above are aiming to teach a large mass of students mostly without
teacher’s monitoring. It is assumed that by putting learning material and labs on
the Internet and by making them available free of cost, the learner will start using
them for enhancing their knowledge. This is counter-intuitive, given the learning
habits of mugging up for success in examination acquired by a large number of
school-educated learners in India. The question that emerges here is about the
effectiveness of such endeavours without any institutional integration (in learner’s
educational institution). In other words, should these online learning be blended
with face-to-face learning at the learning institutions?
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1.4 Need for reforms in teaching-learning prac-
tices
A lot has been changing in teacher education recently, but they have little effect on
the teaching-learning practices at the institution level. The curriculum of an insti-
tution (there is little difference in syllabus and curriculum practically) is designed
and defined by autonomous universities and autonomous institutions. They are
provided with a syllabus framework by National Council for Teacher Education
(NCTE) to refer while constructing their curriculum. This National Curriculum
Framework for Teacher Education (NCFTE) . The NCFTE itself refers to con-
current National Curriculum Framework (NCF) for School Education for guiding
principles and objectives. Whereas this web is yet to function in an optimal way,
the policymakers keep on making new frameworks for school education and teacher
education on certain intervals to address the changing needs of society and learn-
ers. Despite this exercise, the present scenario of school education in India is
summarised by NCERT (2006, p.iv)in the best manner:
“... Indian School Education System ... is largely a monolithic sys-
tem perpetuating a kind of education which has resulted in a set of
practices adopted for development of curriculum, syllabus and text-
books that is guided by the patterns and requirements of the examina-
tion system, rather than by the needs determined by a mix of criteria
based on the child’s learning requirement, aims of education and the
socio-economic and cultural contexts of learners. A marked feature of
educational practices in school is a dull routine, bored teachers and
students and rote system of learning.”
An extensive intervention to change the focus of teaching-learning practices from
exam-centric education to learner-centric education is needed. We need to under-
stand the utility of blended learning in this regard.
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Chapter 1. Introduction 7
1.5 Rising needs of inclusive education
Besides, education is perceived as a tool for achieving equity in society by the
policymakers. The biggest challenge is to translate this aim into teaching-learning
practices. The NCERT (2006, p.iv) document identify the challenge as “conceptu-
alising flexibility or diversity” that is limited by the inherent rigidity of the system
and its “inability to define the role of the ‘curriculum’ and its transaction”. In
other words, the curriculum in its construct and transaction has failed to identify
the diversity of learners and learning styles and grooming their potentials. By its
monolithic structure and indiscriminate style of transaction, the education system
in India is recasting the social acceptance of inequality. It is with this view that
the present National Curriculum Framework 2005 and the National Curriculum
Framework of Teacher Education (2009) emphasise on the inclusion and learner-
centric education. The two terms despite different origins have a lot in common.
In the social context, for sustainable and holistic development, the concept of in-
clusion is mandatory. On the other hand, our understanding of the psychology of
learning has convinced us that learning is an individual endeavour, teacher and
any other outside agent has to facilitate it.
With the development of online technologies, a number of options have emerged
to assist the teachers for better support of the individual needs of learners. There
is a need to explore these options.
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Chapter 1. Introduction 8
1.6 Emerging trends of e-learning and blended
learning
1.6.1 What is e-learning?
In early writings, e-learning is often synonymous to online learning. But nowa-
days, it is perceived as any type of learning where digital technology is used as
a primal source of information and knowledge. This is a very broad definition
which includes all types of digital learning in its fold (for example, CAI, Videos,
PPT Presentations, etc.) besides the online learning. Often, the terms of digital
learning and online learning are used for specifying them separately.
Rosenberg (2001, p. 29) defined e-learning as the “use of the Internet technologies
to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance.”
e-learning can be described as a type of resource-based learning in which the
learners get learning content through learning materials rather than via teaching.
“The term ‘resource-based’ is often used as an ‘opposite’ to ‘taught”’ (Race, 2008,
p. 19). In this case, the resource can be accessed through the Internet. “The
learning that happens in resource-based learning usually opens up some freedom
of time and pace, if not always that of place.” In such type of resource-based
learning, the learners themselves have to be more responsible for their learning
than in traditional teaching-learning situations. (Race, 2008, p. 18)
1.6.2 What is blended learning?
The term blended or blending is in use in educational contexts for a long time.
It was used for using different learning environments to facilitate the learners’
construction of their own idea by interacting with different types of resources
and activities. It is an art that has been practised by inspirational teachers for
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Chapter 1. Introduction 9
centuries. In recent decades, the term ‘blend’ is being specifically used to refer to
the blending of e-learning with the traditional face-to-face mode of teaching.
In blended learning, also known as hybrid or mixed-mode learning, a portion of
the traditional face-to-face instruction is replaced by web-based online learning.
Yet, as McGee and Reis (2012, p.18) pointed out that there is consensus about
a number of aspects of blended learning, but he does not show any consensus
about the exact structure of a blended course. He asserts that “a snapshot system
that personifies those unique elements of a blended course can inform, model, and
clarify how blended course differs from other delivery designs.” Educational insti-
tutions generally used ‘blended’ to refer to a combination of face-to-face teaching
and online teaching. Graham et al. (2014) also found that in the research on
blended e-learning, most of the blended models adopted the combining of online
and face-to-face instruction. Blended learning is a widely researched phenomenon.
Drysdale et al. (2013, p. 98) reviewed over 200 masters’ theses and doctoral disser-
tations related to blended learning and have found that the graduate research on
blended learning was increasing. He also identified a growing perception among
researchers that blended learning was superior to predominantly or exclusively
e-learning methods and traditional method as well.
Blended learning is defined as a mixed-mode of learning in which both face-to-
face and online learning are used. Spiliotopoulos (2011) in Towards a Technology-
Enhanced University Education defines “blended learning as a learning model or
approach that mixes both web-based, mobile technologies, and classroom tech-
nologies for on-campus courses or programs (with or without a reduction in ‘seat
time’)”. According to the Sloan Consortium (Sloan-C), a leading professional or-
ganisation dedicated to promoting and supporting online education, “a blended
course is one in which 30 per cent to 70 per cent of the instruction is delivered
via technology. Sloan-C further defines this type of course as one “that blends on-
line and face-to-face delivery. A substantial proportion of the content is delivered
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Chapter 1. Introduction 10
online, typically uses online discussions, and typically has some face-to-face meet-
ings” (Sloan Consortium’s Definition),(Dziuban et al., 2011). Thus, e-learning and
blended learning can be identified separately with reference to the use and non-use
of face-to-face learning.
A blended learning course combines the best features of in-class teaching with the
best features of online learning to promote active, self-directed learning opportu-
nities for students with added flexibility (Garnham and Kaleta, 2002). Garrison
and Vaughan operationally define blended learning as “the organic integration of
thoughtfully selected and complementary face-to-face and online approaches and
technologies”. Face-to-face activities can support online activities or vice versa,
depending on the emphasis placed on the two options for engagement (Crichton
and Childs, 2008)
1.6.3 Face-to-face learning
Face-to-face learning is an institution-based instructor-mediated learning which
can be both teacher-centric (for example, lecture method, demonstration method,
etc.) and learner-centric (for example, project method, source method etc.). Face-
to-face learning is generally conducted at a classroom, which means any learning
space where learning can take place without interruption by outside distractions.
The greatest challenge in learner-centric methods in face-to-face mode is monitor-
ing and evaluation of learner’s participation and achievement.
1.6.4 Defining e-learning and blended learning for the study
In this work, we adopted the meaning of e-learning that specifically referred to
it as online learning. As such, e-learning is described as an electronically carried
out learning facilitated and supported by the use of computers, networking and
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Chapter 1. Introduction 11
multimedia. In this perception of e-learning, the use of networking (Internet or
intranet) is crucial.
For the purpose of this study, the blended course was one in which a part of the
instruction (30% to 70%) is delivered via online modules, and face-to-face activities
are designed to initiate, motivate and consolidate that learning by discussion.
In this study, face-to-face learning was the lecture-discussion method with chalk-
board and textbooks as teaching aids.
1.7 Features of e-learning and blended learning
The main feature of blended learning is effectively proportioning of e-learning
(online) and face-to-face learning on the basis of the needs of the learner, the
objectives of the instructor and the aims of the institution. The other features are
• E-learning is a type of resource-based learning in which the subject content
is provided to learners through materials rather than via classroom teaching.
The term ‘resource-based’ is often used as an ‘opposite’ to ‘taught’ (Race,
2008).
• The e-learning and the part of blended learning that is conducted through
resource-based learning provide some freedom of time, pace, and place for
the learner.
• In all varieties of resource-based learning, the learners themselves are more
responsible for their learning than in traditional teaching-learning conditions.
• In a blended learning course, the best aspects of classroom teaching is com-
bined with the best features of online learning. It promotes active, self-
directed and flexibility of learning for students. (Garnham and Kaleta, 2002).
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1.8 Can e-learning and blended learning support
learner-centric education?
Blended learning has many features of a learner-centric education. The learner-
centric education has emerged out of constructivism. In this approach to teaching-
learning, it is believed that the learners construct their knowledge themselves.
Each learner individually constructs meaning as he or she learns. E-learning com-
ponent of blended learning is oriented towards constructivism as it gives some
control over time and place of learning to the learner. The learners get a variety
of learning material in various formats and media. There are a number of gen-
eral principles of learning that are derived from constructivism, and that can be
supported through e-learning.
According to the proponents of constructivism:
• Learning is an active process in which the learner engages with ideas. By
providing online interactive resources for learning, e-learning gives an oppor-
tunity for learners to engage with the ideas.
• Reflection on learning is a key component of the learning experience. It
helps in both constructing meaning and constructing systems for organising
meaning. By providing the freedom to the learners to engage themselves
with the content presented in a variety of formats and allowing them to
engage with it, as many times as they want, e-learning provides a better
scope to reflect on their learning.
• Learning involves the use of language for self-expression and for consolida-
tion. The e-learning environment supports this function by providing op-
portunities for two way interaction with the teacher and among the learners
through online forums and chatting.
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Chapter 1. Introduction 13
• Learning is socially mediated. A student learns by intimately associating
with teachers, peers, family, relatives and other acquaintances. E-learning
provides a longer duration for association in the context of any particular
topic with teachers peers than the time-constrained classroom communica-
tion.
• Learning is contextual. A student learns in relationship to her previous
knowledge, belief, prejudices and fears. E-learning provides longer exposure
to the content. Thus, it provides better opportunities to reflect, express and
gather like-minded people.
• New learning builds upon previous learning. A learner absorbs new knowl-
edge on the basis of some structure developed from previous knowledge. It
is very difficult for a learner to keep pace with new learning if he lacks in
previous knowledge. Such conditions are difficult to be addressed in the
classroom. E-learning provides many opportunities like mindmaps and revi-
sion videos for quick recapitulation of the previous knowledge.
• Finally, learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning, one needs to
revisit the ideas, ponder them, try them out, play with them and use them.
Resource-based online learning provides the best opportunities for that.
1.9 Can e-learning and blended learning address
the practical needs of teacher education?
As found in many research, the blended learning courses are more popular among
the western institutions as they provide the benefits of both face-to-face and e-
learning (Olson as cited by Drysdale et al. (2013); Kaleta et al. (2005)). There are
several features of blended learning that are useful for teacher education.
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Chapter 1. Introduction 14
• Teacher education is practical and training oriented course, and at times
the theoretical component is not emphasised adequately. Blended learning
can be a part of a strategy to compensate the limited communication dur-
ing classroom transaction, and a part of the theoretical component can be
transferred online.
• Teacher education is a multidisciplinary subject. NCFTE suggests for deeper
integration with the general education faculties of the parent university. E-
learning can facilitate a better mode of faculty collaboration across disci-
plines through online support.
• Many parts of the curriculum developed on the framework provided by
NCTE are monotonous. Teachers can introduce new engaging activities
for motivating students.
• Many course components of teacher education programme need more drilling.
Those may be put online.
• Blended learning strategy should be designed to achieve the aims and ob-
jectives of National Curriculum Frameworks and to address the needs of
faculty and student simultaneously. With this, blended learning can become
a powerful force for transformation.
• Transaction of online course also generates data of students habits and per-
formance of students that can be used for self-analysis and for better evalu-
ation of the learning content and method.
1.10 Lack of comparative study on e-learning and
blended learning
Given the features of blended learning, it is widely adopted in the western educa-
tion system. Many studies have been conducted to test its effectiveness. But it is
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Chapter 1. Introduction 15
relatively rare in India. Its effectiveness needs to be verified empirically.
In a search result for ‘blended learning’ with ‘experimental’ as filter word, only
one result was found. The work by Scaria (2016) is about developing a blended
learning package. It is not experimental. There was no study comparing online
and blended learning as late as August 2019.
1.11 Summarising the problems
• Regular mode of education has a number of unanswered issues relating to
students’ learning attainment.
• Modes of education are expanding, but there is a dearth of study about their
effectiveness.
• The emerging trend of online learning in India is uncritical about its effec-
tiveness and about its integration in regular teaching-learning.
• Teacher-centric education has moved towards examination-centric education.
Learning is amiss in this approach.
• Help of technology is needed to address the diverse needs of inclusion.
• Potentials of e-learning and blended learning need to be explored in the
context of learner-centric education.
• There is a lack of study about the comparative effectiveness of e-learning
and blended learning.
It is in these contexts the present study has been taken up.
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Chapter 1. Introduction 16
1.12 Significance of study
The use of Online Learning and Blended Learning have become popular themes
among the researcher recently. This study is significant for the following reasons:
• This study compared the effectiveness of blended mode with that of online
mode of learning by comparing the learning achievements of students. These
modes are yet to be widely adopted in the Indian education system. This
study is a significant reference for future researchers.
• This study was set in one of the backward states of a developing nation.
This provided a perspective on the effectiveness of the blended and online
mode in that context.
• It can be used to make informed decisions pertaining to the selection of the
mode of education by the curriculum designers and policymakers.
• It highlights a system to organise learning for the modes of blended and
online learning.
• It also elaborates the challenges of conducting these modes.
• The study evaluates the possibilities of blended learning in achieving a great
degree of coverage of the learners and communicating messages in a con-
sistent fashion which results in all learners receiving equal opportunity to
learn.
1.13 Objectives and hypotheses
In light of the above discussion, the objectives identified for the study were:
[O1] To identify an effective way of designing e-learning and blended learning
courses
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Chapter 1. Introduction 17
[O2] To identify the challenges in designing and transaction of the e-learning and
blended learning courses
[O3] To compare the effectiveness of two different instructional modes of e-learning
and blended learning
[O4] To compare the effectiveness of the two different instructional modes of e-
learning and blended learning across the different subjects.
[O5] To find out the relation between IQ of the students of B.Ed. and their
achievement scores across different instructional modes.
For addressing the Objectives from O3 to O5, the following hypotheses were for-
mulated.
Hypotheses relating to O3 were
H01 There is no significant difference between the students’ achievement scores
while learning in blended mode and face-to-face mode.
H02 There is no significant difference between the students’ achievement scores
while learning in e-learning mode and face-to-face mode.
H03 There is no significant difference between the students’ achievement scores
while learning in e-learning mode and blended Learning mode.
Hypotheses relating to O4 were
H04 There is no significant difference among the achievement scores of the stu-
dents across different subjects taught in blended learning mode.
H05 There is no significant difference among the achievement scores of the stu-
dents across different subjects taught in e-learning mode.
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Chapter 1. Introduction 18
H06 There is no significant difference among the achievement scores of the stu-
dents across different subjects taught in face-to-face mode.
Hypothesis relating to O5 was
H07 There is no significant relation between IQ of the students of B.Ed. and their
achievement scores across different instructional modes.
Chapter 2
Review of Literature
2.1 Introduction
All research have umbilical connections with the works done by previous re-
searchers. Good research of today has to be well informed of earlier research
in its relevant field. Review of literature is the practice to take stock of what is
going on in the chosen field of study. Dziuban et al. (2016) describes the probable
purposes of the literature review as follows:
• Summarise and synthesise the scope and findings in a body of research
• Identify gaps in the existing research to guide future research
• Set the context and rationale for current research
• Critically examine methods and arguments used by researchers
• Assist in developing and evaluating theory and practices
• Understand the historical development of an idea or theory
19
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Chapter 2. Review of Literature 20
The literature review relates the conceptual, theoretical and empirical background
of the problem identified by the researcher and walks him through the contempo-
rary paradigms of research as practised by the researchers in the area relating to
the topic.
This study was an effort to put the blended learning and related terms in the
context of broader debates on teaching strategies and modalities. These following
aspects are covered in this chapter.
1. Theoretical background in the form of debates relating to the topic
2. Review of literature related to experimental study contrasting online or
blended learning
3. Debates relating to the research paradigm adopted for this study
2.2 Theoretical debate relating to the topic
There are two theoretical positions directly concerned with the topic of the study.
The first one relates to the method/strategy of teaching-learning. The movement
from face-to-face mode to the blended mode or e-learning mode can be perceived
as a movement from teacher-centric to learner-centric methods. It has already
been discussed in the First Chapter. The second inherent theory is the use of
media for teaching-learning.
McLuhan (1964) argued that “medium is the message (p.23)” and “media are
extensions of mind, body and being. (p.121)” As a critique of media, McLuhan
suggested being cautious about such extensions. He perceived them as not neces-
sarily benevolent and suggested that we should be careful while using them.
Thinking in the line of Mcluhan the e-learning is an extension of teacher’s mind
(when it serves as a portal for new learning) and eye (when it records student’s
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Chapter 2. Review of Literature 21
activity). The effectiveness of these extensions is debated in the Media Debate.
The Media Debate also known as Clark-Kozma Debate is related to the uniqueness
of medium or media as a factor of enhancement in learning.
Clark (1983) argued that media is just a vehicle of the message and has nothing to
do with the enhancement of learning just like a transporting vehicle used to deliver
goods to a store has no influence on the articles it carries(p.445). He also held
that the same learning goal could be achieved by using different media, and no
single media attribute can be related to a unique cognitive effect for some learning
task. Same learning results can be achieved by a different combination of media
(Clark, 1994). Hence the teacher or designer should choose a less expensive and
more effective way to represent and deliver instruction.
Kozma (1994) , on the other hand, believed that the specific media have specific
characteristics that make them more or less suitable for the accomplishment of
certain kind of learning tasks. He argued that the capabilities of a medium were
related to its three aspects. The first is the technology that determines a medium’s
function in terms of physical, mechanical or electronic capabilities. The second
aspect is the symbol system(s) that determines the symbols, specific rules and
conventions for symbolic expression, for example, printed texts, spoken language,
graphics, spoken language, musical scores. The third aspect is the abilities of the
medium to operate on symbol systems in specified ways. For example, displaying,
Bello et al. (2005) +0.278 1.05 56 participantsBenjamin et al. (2008) +0.046 0.14 Unknown
Beyea et al. (2008) +0.790 1.756 17–20 participantsCaldwell (2006) +0.132 0.43 60 students
Davis et al. (1999) -0.379 1.39 UnknownHairston (2007) +0.028 0.18 168 participants
Jang et al. (2005) -0.530 -2.69 105 studentsLowry (2007) -0.281 -0.84 53 students
Mentzer et al. (2007) -0.796 -2.35 36 participantsNguyen et al. (2008) +0.292 0.93 39 participants
Ocker and Yaverbaum (1999) -0.030 -0.14 43 participantsPadalino and Peres (2007) 0.115 0.41 49 participantsPeterson and Bond (2004) -0.100 -0.47 4 sections
Table 3.3: Checklist for blended learning and e-learning
For the selection of participants, three tools were used for creating relatively ho-
mogeneous groups. They were: MAB-II, LASSI, and Computer Attitude Scale.
All the details of these tools are given in Appendix A. For the selection of first-
round research groups, the tools were administered on the students of B.Ed at
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Chapter 3. Method of Research 52
the beginning of the session in July. Due to the absenteeism of some students,
data of some regular students could not be recorded. A total number of 45 and
49 students from two sections participated in the first round. The students who
were fulfilling the criteria of the scales mentioned above were 32 and 29. Finally,
20 students from each section were selected randomly from the list of matched
groups. Similarly, in the second round, the number of participating students from
the two sections were 47 and 48. The number of selected students were 31 and
33. Finally, 20 students from each of the sections were selected. The details are
given in Table 3.4. Twenty students in each section were randomly assigned to
two groups in each section.
Criteria for using the different tools are given below:
• MAB-II: Students with IQ scores between 80 to 105 were selected to avoid
extremes in any group.
• LASSI: Since many of the students had extreme scores in some of the sub-
scales, we selected the students who did not have extreme scores in more
than 3 out of 10 sub-scales of LASSI.
• Computer Attitude Scale: A minimum cut off score of 30 was set.
Year/Round First Round Second RoundTotal Students Recorded in Section A 45 47Total Students Recorded in Section B 49 48Total Students Matched in Section A 32 31Total Students Matched in Section B 29 33Total Students Selected in Section A 20 20Total Students Selected in Section B 20 20
Table 3.4: Selection of participants
Besides the tools used for grouping students, the researcher used four achieve-
ment tests for assessing the learner’s learning attainments (described in subsection
3.3.2.4).
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Chapter 3. Method of Research 53
3.3.2.3 Further control on extraneous variables
To address the threats of novelty and unfamiliarity, we selected a larger section
to teach in blended and online mode than the portion of the course to be used
for recording the data. A period of ’cooling time’ was given in each round to
the students to adjust to the new modes. Content taught during this period was
not used for preparing the achievement tests. This also gave an exposure to the
students regarding what and how of using online modules.
It was also declared that the whole thing was a kind of exploration in the new
ways of learning, and it was not for evaluation of their B.Ed. Degree. Though the
students were told about the experiment, they were not told about the purpose
of each of the steps of the experiment. The students perceive them as a regular
activity except for the tests, about which they were not happy as usual.
The tests were also administered on all students. Fairness of administration of the
tests was maintained. The test was conducted in one hall with three invigilators.
The activity was conducted for all the students of both of the sections rather than
for the selected 40 students in two sections.
Other teachers of the Department were informed about the topic. They were
requested not to give any instructions relating to the topic during the stipulated
period.
Despite careful planning, all the long term experiments have to suffer the problem
of missing values. This was due to absenting subjects (participants) that created
two missing values in two years. We substituted those missing values with the
average achievement scores of the group of students.
Another potential threat to internal validity was to maintain consistency in the
measurement of the outcomes. It was essential for comparing the results of the
evaluation of students during each set of modules among each other. For each
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Chapter 3. Method of Research 54
step of evaluation from construction to evaluation, a standard procedure was elab-
orated.
In order to control the non-sampling errors during the evaluation process, a marks
entry form was created and given to the evaluators. They recorded marks achieved
in different sections and total marks. Entries made by one evaluator ware checked
by another evaluator. The entries were later typed in the spreadsheet program of
the computer for further analysis.
3.3.2.4 Preparation of evaluation tool
The first step for the preparation of the assessment tool was to create standards
by creating a blueprint. The blueprint standards for written examinations are
depicted here in Table 3.5.
Type Knowledge Understanding Application TotalObjective 5 3 2 10
Short Answer 1 2 2 5Long Answer 1 1or2 1or2 4
Total 7 6/7 5/6 19
Table 3.5: Structure and number of questions of written test
The achievement tests were developed in different phases. In the first phase,
the experimenter set the objectives of teaching the topic by dividing content into
different learning levels. The critical information and ideas, understanding and
application of the new ideas were identified. The following steps were taken for
developing the tool:
• A pool of probable questions was prepared and arranged according to the
level of learning.
• Items were sorted and filtered as per their relevance to the objectives set at
the beginning.
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Chapter 3. Method of Research 55
• The learning objectives and the items based on them were reviewed by an
expert.
• As per the suggestions of the expert, a tentative achievement test was pre-
pared by the experimenter.
• The experimenter also prepared an answer key along with the evaluation
criteria (guidelines) for subjective questions.
• It was also decided that in order to objectify the evaluation process, the vari-
ation of expression, spelling errors and presentation would not be considered.
It will also help in optimising the results.
• The tool was administered on fifteen students of the previous batch for a
pilot study. The meaning and clarity of each question were discussed, along
with the answer.
• Some items, as well as the guidelines, were modified and re-written.
• The finalised tools, along with the evaluation criteria and guidelines, were
shown to two experts.
• Items were edited as per the unanimous decisions of the experts.
3.3.2.5 Validity and reliability
Intelligence Test: Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB-II) developed by
Douglas N. Jackson and adapted for Indian condition by Narender K. Chadhdha
was used for sorting the students into different groups. This instrument is suitable
for the assessment of intellectual abilities of both adults and adolescents aged 16
and older. It consists of two parts, namely, verbal and performance.
The instrument provided norms for nine age groups starting from 16 and up to
74. We used 3 of the norms for the age groups 20-24, 25-34, 35-44 since B.Ed.
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Chapter 3. Method of Research 56
Full Scale (Standard Alpha Score): 0.78INF COM ARI SIM VOC DS PC SPA PA OA0.77 0.74 0.78 0.73 0.74 0.77 0.74 0.77 0.78 0.78
Verbal : 0.81 Performance : 0.68INF COM ARI SIM VOC DS PC SPA PA OA0.79 0.73 0.83 0.73 0.75 0.68 0.55 0.62 0.65 0.61
One of the objectives of the study was to identify an effective design of e-learning
and blended learning courses (O1). To achieve the objective, the researcher sur-
veyed popular models of online and blended learning, and templates for designing
a lesson for online and blended learning was prepared.
4.1 Models exclusive for blended learning
In the course of time, the educational institutions have developed a number of
models to conduct teaching-learning in blended learning mode. Some of the most
common models used by educational institutions are discussed here.
67
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 68
4.1.1 Face-to-face driver model
As declared in the name itself, this model emphasises the face-to-face part. This
model is closest to the face-to-face mode. In this model, all students do not par-
ticipate in online mode. Only those students who have problems in keeping pace
with their peers in the classroom (due to social, lingual or neurological disadvan-
tages) are looped through the online mode. They can rejoin the mainstream if
they feel that they are ready. It is also applicable to the other group of students
who are on the right side of the normal curve. Those students who need more
challenging conditions can also loop through the online mode to complement what
they learn in their classroom. This model is also good for those students whose
only problem is with the mode of instruction. They are not native to the language
in which the instruction is imparted. This model also serves to mitigate the effects
of absenteeism.
4.1.2 Rotation model
Rotation Model or Station Rotation Model is a model in which the students iterate
between stations of face-to-face and online mode facilities in a preplanned and fixed
schedule. All of the students either study online or spend time with their teacher
in face-to-face mode. Generally, followed at primary level, this model complements
face-to-face learning with activity-based online learning. By including the elements
of games and fun, it excites and motivates the kid learners. It can also be used by
higher-level learners.
4.1.3 Flex model
Just opposed to the face-to-face drive mode, the Flex Model is closer to the online
mode. In this approach, the learning is primarily provided through the online ma-
terial. The students have to visit a site with digital facilities even though they can
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 69
access the content from anywhere. At the learning site, there are qualified teachers
available to provide support as needed, but, the students’ learning is self-guided
mostly. Students learn and practice a new concept in an online environment.
Teachers provide support to individual needs and lead small group works. This
model is useful for addressing the needs of students with behavioural, academic
and socioeconomic disadvantages.
4.1.4 Online lab model
Online Lab Model is nearest to online learning. In this model, students learn
entirely online, but they visit a dedicated computer lab to complete their course-
work. There are people who supervise the lab, However they are not qualified
teachers. The learners learn at their own pace. This model is useful for addressing
various conditions such as when the institution is lacking teachers, government ed-
ucational institutions which are waiting for teacher appointment for a long time.
This model ensures that the learners, especially the young learners, are spending
time with the learning material. This can also be useful in a situation when there
are not many students for a particular subject and resources are limited. This
model is also useful to address the special needs students, as the teachers relieved
of the excessive burden of delivering content can attend individual needs.
4.1.5 Online driver model
In contrast to the Face-to-face Driver Model, we have Online Driver Model. In this
model, students work remotely from any place. The learning content is delivered
through a learning management system. The learners can opt for face-to-face
check-ins. They can chat with teachers online to address their specific needs. This
model is useful for students who need more freedom and flexibility due to other
commitments in their daily schedules.
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 70
4.2 Models for online and blended learning
In the beginning, the designing of online teaching-learning had only two influences:
there were designs replicated from classroom teaching, and there were designs
adapted from print or multimedia distance education courses. In the course of
time, several new designs emerged which were capable of exploiting the potentials
of online learning, but the primary forms also survived.
Online learning is a changing learning environment. In this environment, the focus
is slowly shifting from teaching methods to designing learning models. There are
seven popular models to design an online course:
1. Classroom type online learning
2. Massive open online courses (MOOCs)
3. ADDIE Model
4. Online collaborative learning
5. Community of Inquiry
6. Competency-based learning
7. Communities of practice
4.2.1 Classroom type online learning
Automatically recorded classrooms and flipped classrooms are two main forms of
this design. They primarily focus on serving the needs of revision, absentees, and
for better use of classroom time. An example of this model is MIT classroom
lectures recorded and made available through MIT’s OpenCourseWare. In an
advanced format of this model, Learning Management systems (LMS) like MOO-
DLE and Blackboard present more controlled management of learning. They have
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 71
weekly units and modules for study selected by one or more instructors. They
also provide facilities of online discussions among the learners and also with the
instructors. Assessments in this model are almost at the same patterns as of the
face-to-face classrooms. Yet, there is scope for flexibility in the design of LMS
that can set them apart from the traditional classroom model.
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) can also be considered as an advanced
format of classroom type online learning. But it contains a number of adaptations
over simple classroom records. Due to the variations in the epistemological per-
spectives, the MOOCs deserves a separate treatment as online course design. But
if the collaborative and interactive features are negated, the MOOCs are almost
like recorded classrooms only.
The merit of the classroom type design is that it gets assimilated well with the
traditional teaching practices. But, due to this reason, many of the commentators
consider it inadequate to meet the challenges of the digital age. Especially, it
is considered incapable of supporting higher-level learning. At the same time,
a simple imitation of the classroom, in the form of recordings, is inferior to the
actual classrooms at least for the less motivated learners. It may simply increase
cost without contributing anything significant.
CostBlend with Individua- Increased Increased Skills/Face-to-face lised Peer Teacher Tools
effective Mode Learning Interaction Interaction RequiredHigh level Only when Only when Recording with
High cost technical Difficult used in used in high video-of recording skills to and an LMS an LMS audio quality,equipment earmark Costly environ- environ- Using editingand editing video ment like ment like software,work hours minutes MOODLE MOODLE Managing
LMS/YouTube
Table 4.1: Evaluation of classroom type online learning
As it can be observed in Table 4.1, the classroom type online learning model
requires high cost of production of contents and individulised learning is difficult
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 72
in this system. It also requires high level of skills from the teacher. It is not
suitable for learner-centric education.
4.2.2 Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
In its most popular form, Massive Open and Online Course is a behaviourist
oriented information transmission model. The mode of teaching is mainly through
online short lectures in the form of recorded videos. It is combined with automated
online testing, and sometimes the peer assessment is also used (Bates and Bates,
2015). This initial form is known as “xMOOCs”. “This term was coined by Downes
(2012) for courses developed by Coursera, Udacity and edX” (Bates and Bates,
2015). There are other variations like cMOOCs (Connectivist MOOCs). Chauhan
(2014) has identified many other variations:
• BOOCs (Big open online course) – a mixture of xMOOC and a cMOOC;
• DOCCs (Distributed open collaborative course): In the example cited by
Chauhan (2014), seventeen universities were sharing and adapting the same
basic MOOC;
• LOOC (Little open online course): Chauhan (2014) suggests it to be a small
group of 15-20 tuition-paying campus-based students, such courses also allow
a limited number of non-registered students to also take the course, but also
paying a fee;
• MOORs (Massive open online research): This is a mixture of video-based
lecturers and student research projects guided by the instructors;
• SPOCs (Small, private, online courses): An example is from Harvard Law
School, where pre-selected 500 students from over 4,000 applicants take the
same video-delivered lectures as on-campus students enrolled at Harvard;
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 73
• SMOCs: (Synchronous massive open online courses): These are live lectures
offered to campus-based students that are also available synchronously to
non-enrolled students for a fee.
The designs of different MOOCs vary. In general, xMOOCs have specially designed
platform software with video lectures. The students are evaluated by computer-
marked assignment and/or peer assessment. Extra supporting materials and a
space for discussion (forum) are provided to the participants, where they can
discuss with very light discussion moderation. Normally, the participants can
choose between a certificate for a price or free audit of the course. This system
is improving with a large amount of ’big data’ input from the learners, as each
of their behaviours with the courseware is recorded and is used as analysing and
getting a better understanding of the requirements and choices of the learners.
cMOOCs (Connectivist MOOCs) on the other hand was developed by three in-
structors of the University of Manitoba in 2008. cMOOCs have a very different
educational philosophy than xMOOCs. They place emphasis on networking and
contribution from the participants themselves. There may not be a formal in-
structor or formal assessment. The role of experts is to initiate the course and
give input as guest instructors occasionally.
The key design feature of cMOOCs is identified by Downes (2014) as the autonomy
of the learners which means that the learners choose what content or skills they
want to learn and there may be no formal curriculum. The second of the feature is
diversity. Diversity means variations in terms of tools used, variety of participants,
their knowledge level, and variety of content. Another feature is interactivity which
is in forms of cooperative learning. It provides ample scope for communication
among participants, and this interaction is the base of emerging knowledge among
the students. Transparency is maintained regarding access to information, content,
activities and assessment.
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 74
The structure of cMOOCs is not predetermined. They evolve through the process
of interaction and discourse. Most of the MOOCs are not institutionally based or
supported. They may use shared programmes or social media. This means that
there may be thousands of participants contributing to a variety of media, and
It is impossible for individual participants to keep track of all of them. Another
problem is that though all the conversations are open, the participants can only
contribute if they know that a certain communication exists. There is no formal
assessment. The participants can seek feedback from knowledgeable participants.
The cMOOCs are network-based learning supporting autonomous learners. Online
platforms like Qura.com is one example.
The design of MOOCs is still evolving. Hence, there is some confusion about
the definition and goals of MOOCs. The new designs of MOOCs are contributed
by individual instructors. There may be a lack of consistency in terms of the
educational philosophy of designing the educational content. There are other
issues like why should there be a differentiation in the certification of on-campus
MOOCs students and MOOCs only students when they are learning the same
material.
CostBlend with Individua- Increased Increased Skills/Face-to-face lised Peer Teacher Tools
effective Mode Learning Interaction Interaction RequiredLess Only when Only when Recording with
High cost flexibility Difficult used in used in high video-of recording if only and an LMS an LMS audio quality,equipment recorded Costly environ- environ- Using editingand editing class are ment like ment like software,work hours used MOODLE MOODLE Managing
LMS/YouTube
Table 4.2: Evaluation of MOOCs
As it can be observed in Table 4.2, the MOOCs requires high cost of production
of contents, and individulised learning is difficult in this system. It also requires
high level of skills from the teacher. It is not suitable for learner-centric education.
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 75
4.2.3 The ADDIE model
ADDIE stands for five steps modelling and implementing of learning design. AD-
DIE is Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. In some variations,
it can be six or more steps also, for example, PADDIE with Planning as an extra
component. In the analyse phase, the variables like learner characteristics, learn-
ers’ prior knowledge, resources available, etc. are considered. Content designers
conduct activities like developing learner profile, identifying learning spaces and
devices, researching learning resources, and determining delivery and assessment
strategies.
In the Design stage, the learning objectives for the course and creation and de-
signing of material is decided. Decisions about the content and their format of
presentation (video, audio, text, audio-visuals) are taken at this stage. The selec-
tion of technology, such as LMS, video, or social media, is also done at this stage.
In summary, a blueprint of the whole course is made. Some ingredients to decide
about the design process are contact information, course objectives, attendance
policy, late work policy, course schedule, grading scale or rubrics, orientation aids
for students, communication practices, technology policy and course design.
The development stage includes identification of activities to fulfil the course objec-
tives, analysis of the textbook, content module development and content chunking,
the creation of new content, the development of learning objects, development of
tools for student assessment and additional resources to support learning.
The Implementation stage starts with the announcement of the course. In the
beginning, the instructor tries to know the learners. Ice-breaking sessions are used
to introduce learners to each other. The instructor may introduce the syllabus
and gives guidelines about the successful completion of the course. It is also the
time to set the tone of excellence by stringent evaluation of early assignments.
For a successful implementation of the course, a learning community should be
nurtured. The instructor should provide ample scope for communications among
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 76
the learners and for the learner-instructor communication. Teaching the learner as
an individual is one of the most desired aims of the course. This can support the
other desired goal of creating emotion and belongingness among the learners. The
instructor should also facilitate the development of good social behaviour among
students for online and offline behaviour. For group activities, the instructor
should try to develop appropriately sized groups.
The evaluation is the last stage of the cycle of the ADDIE model, but it is advised
to keep getting feedback on each of the stages as far as possible. The instructor
should develop and implement the best practices for design, requirements for in-
teraction, and should attempt to measure the overall quality of the course. She
should keep a journal to record the performance of the different course components.
They should solicit feedback on course content and instruction from the students.
Finally, the ultimate aim of the assessment is to give the learners feedback on their
performance in the programme.
Thus, the ADDIE model guides the path of course development by analyzing
the course objectives and audience; designing and developing the materials and
activities; implementing the course materials and encouraging learning, and finally,
evaluating the effectiveness of the course.
ADDIE model is a very successful model. Observers attribute its success to the fac-
tors like good quality design, clear learning objectives, carefully structured content,
controlled workloads for faculty and students, integrated media, relevant student
activities, and assessment strongly tied to desired learning outcomes. The model
applies these on a thorough basis.
There are certain limitations of the ADDIE model:
• It is very good for large and complicated courses, but it may be expensive
and redundant for a small or traditional class.
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 77
• It focuses heavily on content design and development but does not pay as
much attention to the interaction between instructors and students during
course delivery.
• It gives a structure of five stages but does not provide any guidelines about
the appropriate selection of action/items within those stages.
• The extensive application of ADDIE model results in a strong division of
labour. It may involve faculty members, instructional designers, editors,
web designers. It becomes costly and expensive.
• Due to the huge infrastructural, human resource requirements, this model
may not respond to rapidly developing new content, new technologies or
apps being launched on a daily basis, and to a constantly changing student
base.
Thus, the ADDIE model provides a good foundation for designing teaching and
learning, but it is a pre-determined, linear and inflexible model that may fail to
handle more volatile learning contexts.
CostBlend with Individua- Increased Increased Skills/Face-to-face lised Peer Teacher Tools
effective Mode Learning Interaction Interaction RequiredPossible by acc- Planning
Not cost ounting previ- and managementeffective ous knowledge Possible if skills,for small flexible of learners adopted in Possible Pedagogicpart of a and providing the design knowledge,
traditional different learn- Managingcourses ing paths Online LMS
Table 4.3: Evaluation of ADDIE
As it can be observed in Table 4.3, the ADDIE model is not cost effective for small
courses. Though individulised learning is possible in this system, it requires high
level and varieties of skills from the teacher.
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 78
4.2.4 Online collaborative learning(OCL)
Constructivist approaches to learning and the growing uses of the Internet has led
to the development of computer-mediated communication (CMC), or networked
learning. In a developed form, it is now called the online collaborative learning
theory (OCL). Harasim (2012, p. 90) describes OCL as a model of learning which
encourages to support the students to create knowledge together. They are invited
to invent, to explore the ways to innovate. During the process of exploration, they
seek the conceptual knowledge that is needed to solve problems. They are not
supposed to recite the right answers. In this theory, teachers play a key role in
linking the students to the knowledge community, or to state of the art in the
discipline they are working. Learning in this context is defined as conceptual
change rather than behavioural change. Thus the conceptual change becomes the
key to building new knowledge. In this model, the learning activities are designed
with reference to the norms of the discipline. It also follows a discourse process in
which the conceptual learning and knowledge building are emphasised.
According to Harasim (2012) OCL is developed by “integrating the theories of
cognitive development that focus on conversational learning (Pask, 1975), condi-
tions for deep learning (Marton and Saljo, 1997) (Entwistle, mber), development of
academic knowledge (Laurillard, 2001), and knowledge construction (Scardamalia
and Bereiter, 2006).
Harasim discussed three key phases of knowledge construction through discourse
Figure:4.1:
• idea-generating (IG): Participants do brainstorming to collect the divergent
thinking on given topics;
• idea organising (IO): Participants discuss and argue about the ideas gener-
ated in the previous phase. They compare, analyse, and categorise the new
Yes, but Flexible Yes Yes IT skillsIndividual but fit for possible Yes inherent Guidingmentoring job inherent in design skillsis costly oriented Leadership
Table 4.7: Evaluation of CbL
As it can be observed in Table 4.7, the OCL model is cost effective but individual
mentoring is costly. Individulised and learner-centric education is possible in this
system. It does not require too many skills, but it is oriented towards job oriented
training.
4.2.7 Community of practice
The community of practice (CoP) is a model in which experiential learning, so-
cial constructivism, and connectivism can be combined. Wenger (2013) defines
Communities of practice as “groups of people who share a concern or a passion
for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.”
Wenger identified three characteristics of a community of practice:
• domain: a common interest that connects and holds together the whole
community
• community: a group of people bound by the shared activities they pursue
(for example, meetings, discussions) around their common domain
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 89
• practice: members of a community of practice are practitioners. Whatever
they do in the context of the common interest informs their participation in
the community, and whatever they learn from the community affects what
they do
The CoP is a self-organising system. It does not have a formal design. But in
the course of time, the researchers have identified a number of actions that helps
in creating a CoP based program. Wenger et al. (2002) have identified seven key
design principles to support a community of practice. They are as follows:
• Design for evolution: The community must have the flexibility to accommo-
date the interests of participants without going too far from the issues of
common interests.
• Dialogue between inside and outside perspective: New perspectives from
outside the community should be introduced and discussed on a regular
basis.
• Encourage and accept different levels of participation: Different levels of par-
ticipation should be allowed. For example, some of the participants are core
members; some others who participate regularly but do not contribute much;
still others who do not participate regularly but contribute significantly at
times.
• Develop both public and private community spaces: The participants should
be allowed to work in small private groups or if they want they can choose
to be more public by initiating general discussion for example by writing on
blogs or social media sites.
• Focus on value: The core values of the community should be emphasised
through feedback and discussions.
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Chapter 4. Designing and Challenges 90
• Combine familiarity and excitement: Besides the discussion on common con-
cerns and perspectives, radical and challenging perspectives have to be in-
troduced at times.
• Create a rhythm for the community: The community should follow a regu-
lar schedule of activities while considering the participants time and other
constraints.
Researchers also talk about the life cycle of the CoP. They emerge, they grow,
and they have life spans. Figure 4.4 depicts these phases. Initially, in the inquiry
phase, audience, purpose and vision for the community are identified. In the
design phase, the activities, group processes, technologies, and roles to support
the community’s goals are defined. In the third phase of the prototype, the key
stakeholders are identified, and they become committed to the purpose. With
this success in hand, the fourth stage of launch opens the community for a wider
audience. Proactive engagements are planned for the community members by
creating and increasing the cycle of participation and contribution. This makes
the fifth phase of development. The whole activities and inclusion of new blood
have to the community have to be maintained for a longer time to sustain it till
it gets institutionalised. That is the sixth phase.
The merit of CoP is that it connects people who are otherwise dispersed and dis-
connected. It provides them with a shared context and enables dialogue among
them. It stimulates learning and diffuses existing knowledge to widespread peo-
ple. It also introduces collaborative processes and helps people organise around
purposeful goals. Overall it generates new knowledge for them.
By nature, CoP is outside formal educational organisations, as the participants
are not looking forward to getting any kind of degree. Yet, it can be used as
informal study groups in formal Settings. In their design, they can be compared
to connectivist and constructivist MOOCs. One of the merit as well as demerit of
Zhang, D., Zhou, L., Briggs, R. O., and J. F. Nunamaker, J. (2006). Instruc-
tional video in e-learning: Assessing the impact of interactive video on learning
effectiveness. Information and Management, 43(1).
Zhang, K. (2004). Effects of peer-controlled or externally structured and moderated
online collaboration on group problem solving processes and related individual
attitudes in well-structured and ill-structured small group problem solving in a
hybrid course. PhD thesis, Pennsylvania State University, State College.
Appendix A
Descriptions of Matching Tools
A.1 Multidimensional Aptitude Battery-II
Like the scales from many other measures of intellectual abilities dating back tothe U.S. Army Alpha and Beta tests and before, the Multidimensional AptitudeBattery-II (MAB-II) consists of verbal and nonverbal groups of scales. Five “Ver-bal” sub-tests are contained in one booklet and five nonverbal, “Performance,”sub-tests are presented in a second booklet. Separate answer sheets, which may beeither hand or machine-scored, are provided for Verbal and Performance sections.It is thus possible to administer either Verbal or Performance sections separately,or the two together to obtain a comprehensive assessment of intellectual abilities.In addition to ten sub-scale scores, the MAB-II yields a Verbal IQ, a PerformanceIQ, and a Full-Scale IQ. Alternatively, standard scores may be used in place ofVerbal, Performance, and Full-Scale IQs. Descriptions of each scale are presentedat the beginning. The ten sub-scales of the MAB-II are presented below, listedunder the booklet in which they are contained.
A.1.1 Verbal
Information: The Information score reflects the degree to which an individual hasaccumulated a fund of knowledge about diverse topics. This fund of information
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Appendix A. Matching Tools 160
is influenced by an individual’s level of curiosity, extensiveness of reading, andmotivation to learn new things. Long-term memory is required for a high score onthe Information test.
Comprehensive: Comprehension assesses the ability to evaluate social situationsto identify behaviour that is more socially desirable, and to give the reasons whycertain laws and social customs are practised. It requires not only general verbalability, but a degree of social acculturation, social intelligence, and knowledge ofconventional standards for moral and ethical judgment.
Arithmetic: This test, requiring the solution of numerical problems, reflectsreasoning and problem-solving abilities. High scorers have the capacity to abstractthose elements of a problem necessary for its solution and to arrive at a correctanswer quickly.
Similarities: Similarities requires an individual to conceptualize and rank like-nesses and differences as properties of an object and to compare these abstractlikenesses to those of another object, identifying the one that is most appropriate.Such a task requires flexibility and adjustment to novelty as well as an appre-ciation for and comprehension of properties of objects, long-term memory, andthe capacity for abstract thought. Unlike certain other verbal tests, Similaritiesrequires more than simply retrieving knowledge from long term memory; it is alsoa measure of how effectively one can use this knowledge.
Vocabulary: In its narrow interpretation, Vocabulary is an indication of thenumber of words or verbal concepts that have been learned and stored. But morebroadly, it indicates the individual’s openness to new information and conceptsand reflects the capacity to store, categorize, and retrieve this information appro-priately. Persons scoring high on Vocabulary can be expected not only to be ableto use words effectively but to demonstrate a higher level of subtlety and depth ofthought processes, and of conceptual and classificatory skills in the verbal domain.
A.1.2 Performance
Digit Symbols: Digit Symbol requires the learning of a new coding system andits use in a context in which visual-motor activity is important. Thus, like other
Appendix A. Matching Tools 161
Performance sub-tests but unlike most of the Verbal Scale, it involves adaptation toa novel set of demands. The application of a novel combination of abilities—visualacuity, figural memory, motor skills, speed of information processing, and motiva-tion and persistence—is a further task requirement. It is markedly affected by ageand by impairment of visual-motor performance.
Picture Completion: The identification of important missing elements in apicture requires knowledge of a variety of common objects and the rules used forsimplified sketches. Other task requirements are the perceptual skills necessaryto interpret a percept meaningfully, the analytical skills required to distinguishimportant, critical details from unessential omissions, the ability to avoid thecompetition of irrelevant details in arriving at a solution, and the verbal ability toidentify quickly the first letter of the name of the missing detail.
Spatial: The Spatial sub-test requires the ability to visualize abstract objectsin different positions in two-dimensional space and to be sensitive to critical dif-ferences among alternatives. More generally, it requires reasoning in the figural-spatial domain combined with visual and imaginal processes, processes which forhigh scorers must be evoked quickly and automatically, for the task is timed. Anexcessive degree of checking responses as a result of cautiousness will impair thespeed of performance. Age also affects performance substantially, a fact that isincorporated into MAB-II (Indian Adaptation) norms.
Picture Arrangement: Picture Arrangement requires the respondent to identifya meaningful sequence from a random sequence, where the meaningful sequenceoften has a humorous interpretation. As such, it requires an ability to decodeperceptually a number of drawings, to abstract their intent and meaning, to inte-grate these separate perceptions into a meaningful temporal pattern, to locate theletter sequence corresponding to the correct sequence, and to follow these steps asquickly as possible in recognition of the timed nature of the task. Thus, the taskrequires both perceptual abilities and sufficient social intelligence to have insightinto others’ behaviour, permitting evaluation of alternative outcomes.
Object Assembly: Object Assembly requires that the respondent identify ameaningful object from a left-to-right sequence of disarranged segments. For sucha task, perceptual, analytical skills are required to visualize how the separate parts
Appendix A. Matching Tools 162
might be reassembled, or, alternatively, first to identify elements of familiar objectsin the disarranged segments and to form a judgment about the integration of thesegments into a whole. Because the parts are printed, rather than in a manipulableform, visualization skills are also required to imagine the form of the figure whenparts are rearranged.
A.2 Computer Attitude Scale (CAS)
* Items of the affective domain was used in the study, as the reliability of the otherdomains (affective and behavioural) were very low. ** Items removed at the pilotstage.
The items were designed in Likert type scale, and they had options for ”DefinitelyTrue”, Maybe True”, ”Not Sure”, ”Maybe Untrue”, ”Definitely Untrue”.
1. Computers frighten me.*
2. Anything I can do on a computer, I can just do just as well without one.**
3. I learn new computer task by trial and error.
4. Working with a computer makes me feel tense and uncomfortable.*
5. Working with a computer is fun.
6. Other students ask me for help when using the computer.
7. I feel helpless when asked to perform a task on the computer.*
8. Computer work is boring.**
9. When I have a problem with the computer, I will usually solve it on my own.
10. I feel important when others ask me for information about computers.
11. Only Computer experts can understand both the technical aspects and howto use lots of software.**
12. Using the computer has increased my interaction with other students.
Appendix A. Matching Tools 163
13. Computers bore me.*
14. I develop shortcuts and more efficient ways to use computers.
15. Working on computers makes me feel isolated from people.*
16. Anyone can use computing system.
17. I would like to spend more time using a computer.
18. I do not feel I have control over what I do when I use a computer.*
19. Computers should be available in every classroom.
20. If I can, I will take subjects that will teach me to use computers.
21. Computer sometimes scare me.*
22. If I can, I will take subjects that will teach me to use computers.
23. Computer sometimes scare me.*
24. If I can, I will take subjects that will teach me to use computers.
25. Computer sometimes scare me.*
26. Computers are tools that help me to achieve my goals.
27. I would like to learn more about computers.
28. I feel unhappy walking into a room filled with computers.*
29. Using the Internet is a waste of time.**
30. If I need computer skills for my career choice, I will develop them.
31. I am not good with computers.*
32. Computer jobs are exciting.
33. If my institution offered a computer course I would like to attend it.
34. Working with a computer makes me feel very nervous*.
35. Computer knowledge is important for everyone in society.
Appendix A. Matching Tools 164
36. I feel threatened when others talk about computers.*
37. Computer skills are essential for my future.
38. Computers make me feel uncomfortable.
39. Computers help me to learn things.
40. I get a sinking feeling when I think of trying to use a computer.*
41. Computer frustrates me.*
A.3 Learning and Study Strategies Inventory
The Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) is a 10-scale, 60-item as-sessment of students’ awareness about and use of learning and study strategiesrelated to skill, will and self-regulation components of strategic learning. The fo-cus is on covert and overt thoughts, behaviours, attitudes, motivations and beliefsthat relate to successful learning in postsecondary education and training settings.Furthermore, these thoughts, behaviours, attitudes, motivations and beliefs can bealtered through educational interventions. Research has repeatedly demonstratedthat these factors contribute significantly to success in college and that they can belearned or enhanced through educational interventions such as learning strategiesand self-regulated study courses and programs.
The LASSI is both diagnostic and prescriptive. The LASSI provides standardizedscores (percentile score equivalents) and national norms for ten different scales(there is no total score reported because this is a diagnostic instrument). It pro-vides students with a diagnosis of their strengths and weaknesses, compared toother college students, in the areas covered by the ten scales; it is prescriptive inthat it provides feedback about areas where students may be weak and need toimprove their knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations and beliefs.
There are six items on each of the ten scales of the LASSI, 3rd Edition. Thesescales are Anxiety, Attitude, Concentration, Information Processing, Motivation,Selecting Main Ideas, Self Testing, Test Strategies, Time Management, and UsingAcademic Resources.
Appendix A. Matching Tools 165
Each of these scales is primarily related to one of three of the components ofstrategic learning: skill, will and self-regulation. The conceptual framework ofstrategic learning underlies each of these components, so there are some overlapand interaction among and within the components and individual scales. However,strategic learners need to know about each of these categories and about how touse information and skills in each of these categories. They also need to knowhow to pick and choose among the various elements in each category to help themreach specific learning goals and objectives.
A.3.1 The skill component of strategic learning
The LASSI Scales related to the skill component of strategic learning are: Infor-mation Processing, Selecting Main Ideas, and Test Strategies.
The Information Processing Scale assesses how well students’ can use imagery,verbal elaboration, organization strategies, and reasoning skills as learning strate-gies to help learn new information and skills. These strategies are also used tobuild bridges between what students already know or believe and what they aretrying to learn and remember.
The Selecting Main Ideas Scale assesses students’ thinking skills for identify-ing important information for further study from less important information andsupporting details.
The Test Strategies Scale assesses students’ use of both test preparation andtest-taking strategies.
A.3.2 The will component of strategic learning
The LASSI Scales related to the will component of strategic learning are Anxiety,Attitude, and Motivation.
The Anxiety Scale assesses the degree to which students worry about school andtheir academic performance.
Appendix A. Matching Tools 166
The Attitude Scale assesses students’ attitudes and interests in college andachieving academic success.
The Motivation Scale assesses students’ diligence, self-discipline, and willingnessto exert the effort necessary to complete academic requirements successfully.
A.3.3 The self-regulation component of strategic learning
The LASSI Scales related to the self-regulation component of strategic learning areConcentration, Self Testing, Time Management, and Using Academic Resources.
The Concentration Scale assesses students’ ability to direct and maintain theirattention on academic tasks.
The Self Testing Scale assesses students’ use of comprehension monitoring tech-niques, such as reviewing or paraphrasing, to determine their level of understand-ing of the information or skill to be learned.
The Time Management Scale assesses students’ use of time management prin-ciples and practices for academic tasks.
The Using Academic Resources Scale assesses students’ willingness to usedifferent academic resources such as writing centres, tutoring centres and learningor academic support centres when they encounter problems with their courseworkor performance.
Appendix B
Evaluation Tools
B.1 Contemporary India and Education (C-2)
Normative Visions of Indian Education
Total Marks : 50 Time: 2 hours
All the questions are compulsory.
Group A
1. ............. was the first Indian writer who suggested mass scale orientation ofcommon people for the benefit of the state in Ancient India.
2. ............. was the first Indian emperor who established a formal system ofadministrative officials to provide value orientation to the common mass.
3. The first Indian civilisation that is understood to have some kind of citizen-ship values was ................
4. Prasthanatrayi (three sources or axioms) refers to the three canonical textsof Hindu philosophy, especially of the Vedanta school. It consists of .......
5. The four noble truths of Buddhism are: .........................
167
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 168
6. Which of components of Eight Fold path of Buddhism can be perceived asdirectly promoting moral virtues?
a) Right Speech b) Right Action
c) Right Livelihood d) Right Resolve
7. Which of the following is a part of the three jewels of Jainism.
a) Right Knowledge b) Non-violence
c) Right Livelihood d) Truthfulness
8. The word .................. represents the spirit of common brotherhood in theIndian Constitution.
a) equality b) unity
c) fraternity d) socialism
9. The term secularism mentioned in the Indian Constitution means
a) separation of state and religion
b) developing scientific temperament
c) freedom to profess, preach and practise any religion
d) equality of religious sects
10. The social institution that plays an important role in developing responsiblecitizenship with democratic values is
a) education b) democratic participation
c) political party d) family
Group B (40 words) All the questions are compulsory.
11. The power of religious fundamentalism is not vested in religious text orcanons but in modern democratic politics to seek mass followers. Elaborate.
12. Saptabhangivad or Syadvad is a Jain theory that supports the diversity andrelativity of views. However, it is different from the diversity of individualviewpoints, Explain.
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 169
13. Why should a school teacher be inclusive not just tolerant of different reli-gious faiths?
14. Islam promotes democratic ethos, but the democracy itself is inconsistent inmany of the Muslim countries, why?
15. Describe the early history of Christianity in India.
Group C (100 words)
16. Hinduism contains a plethora of sects. These sects promote both toleranceand strife. Explain.
17. Does Indian secularism differs from western secularism? How?
18. What do you mean by federalism? Discuss the federal features of the IndianConstitution.
19. Define and differentiate between the concepts of equity and equality.
20. What steps will you take to promote democratic values among your students?
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 170
B.2 Learning and Teaching(C-3)
Planning for Teaching
Total Marks : 50 Time: 2 hours
Group A
All the questions are compulsory.
1. Visualising the learners means finding out different psycho-constructs like................. and .............. background of the learners.
2. Besides classroom teaching, the unit plan can include ...........
3. ................. attitude is the type of attitude that is invisible to us and func-tions from our subconscious level.
4. Level of high academic .............. can lower academic achievement with re-spect to her potential.
5. The genius children need a modified curriculum which provides opportunitiesfor ............... in their interest area of interest and .................... in otherareas.
6. Which of the following is not a part of the minor system for a child?
a) Family b) Curriculum Planner
c) Classroom d) Neighbourhood
7. Which of the following is a part of the major system for the child
a) School b) Culture
c) Family friends and relatives d) workplace of the parents
8. ................. is NOT an example of the instrumental value.
a) Cleanliness b) Self control
c) Love d) Family security
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 171
9. Which of the following principle is NOT involved in unit planning
a) Interest b) Development
c) Dynamism d) Persistence
10. Which one of the following can NOT be used for visualising the learners
a) hearsay about child’s community b) Self reporting
c) Group and Individual Testing d) Health Report
Group B (40 words)
All the questions are compulsory.
11. What is a terminal value? Give some examples.
12. What are the differences between attitude and aptitude?
13. Describe Thorndike’s theory of Readiness.
14. Finding the interest area of a learner is critical for an effective teaching-learning.
15. How the evaluation of learning achievement of a unit is different from theevaluation of learning achievement of a lesson?
Group C (100 words)
16. Visualising the learner is the base for understanding their differences. Clarifythe meaning of the statement and describe the significance of visualising.
17. What is learning readiness? Identify the factors affecting it.
18. Describe the steps for planning for a unit relating to your teaching method.
19. The identification of the objectives of assessment is a stratified process. Clar-ify.
20. Discuss the process of analysing content matter of teaching subject.
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 172
B.3 Critical Understanding of ICT (EPC-3)
All the questions are compulsory.
Total Marks : 50 Time: 2 hours
Group A
1. Records are ................. forms of information.
2. An organism or system can receive information as ............... input.
3. The name of word processor installed by default in Ubuntu Operating Systemis ...............
4. For installing a new app in Ubuntu, one needs to go to ..........
5. The expansion of the acronym FLOSS is ..........................
6. Which of the following is an educational software:
a) Kile b) Stellarium
c) Impress d) Firefox
7. What is/are the different format/s in which one can save a word processingdocument?
a) .odt b) .doc
c) .docx d) All of above
8. Which of the following is NOT among the free and open-source operatingsystem
a) Fedora b) Debian
c) Mac d) Ubuntu
9. .............. is NOT an input device
a) pendrive b) keyboard
c) joystick d) touch screen monitor
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 173
10. Malware does NOT include
a) spyware b) spyware
c) virus d) hacking
Group B (40 words)
All the questions are compulsory.
11. How the Open Source software is more supporting to teaching-learning?
12. Enlist the apps relating to LibreOffice with a brief description of its function.
13. What is the difference between the operating system and Application soft-ware?
14. Describe the ways we can classify the operating systems?
15. Copying from your textbook to your assignment can be an example of pla-giarism? Why or Why not?
Group C (100 words)
16. What is Free and Open Source Software? Discuss its philosophy and advan-tages.
17. What is telecommunication? Discuss its types and implications for educa-tion.
18. How can you use a browser for secured and smart Internet-surfing?
19. Discuss the process of designing E-content. Enlist some popular authoringtools.
20. Briefly describe the types of networking.
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 174
B.4 Assessment for Learning (C-9)
Introduction to Assessment & Evaluation
Total Marks : 50 Time: 2 hours
All the questions are compulsory.
Group A
1. Being trained under a Music maestro without a formal degree is an exam-ple of ............. learning. The evaluation here is an example of .................evaluation.
2. In the context of institutions assessment is a/an ................... process.
3. Social Constructivism emphasises on ................. of learning.
4. Constructivism perceives learning as an active process of .......... of the en-vironment.
5. The terms summative evaluation and formative evaluation was first coinedby ................... in 1967
6. Which one of the following is a psychological group is a psychological theoryrelating to the British Empiricism of Hume:
a) Behaviourism b) Rationalism
c) Constructivism d) Social Constructivism
7. Which one of the following is NOT an objective of summative evaluation
a) promoting b) Feedback for learning
c) Categorising d) Giving degree
8. The word .................. represents the spirit of universal brotherhood in theIndian Constitution.
a) equality b) unity
c) fraternity d) socialism
Appendix B. Evaluation Tools 175
9. Which of the following is NOT a purpose of formative assessment
a) providing feedback to the teachers to modify her teaching strategies
b) making students focus on their learning progression
c) taking a decision like retaining a student in a particular class
d) improving the self-efficacy of learners
10. Which of the following is NOT an example of direct assessment
a) project b) case study
c) survey d) portfolios
Group B (40 words)
11. Criterion-referenced assessment can be critical in some conditions. Elabo-rate.
12. Why do we use diagnostic tests?
13. What is the meaning of placement in the academic context?
14. In what condition you can use performance assessment in your class?
15. What challenges can you perceive in using norm-referenced tools for highstakes evaluation?
Group C (100 words)
16. Discuss the meaning and scope of terms like test, examination, appraisal,evaluation in the context of assessment.
17. Discuss the main features of the forms of assessment based on nature andscope of assessment.
18. What are the differences between formative and summative evaluation? Howwill you use formative evaluation during your classroom teaching?
19. Can teacher made tests be standardised? How?
20. What is a prognostic test? Discuss its use for programme evaluation.