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A Romp Through Ethics for Complete Beginners Session One: Rules, truths and theories: an introduc=on to ethical reasoning Marianne Talbot Department for Con=nuing Educa=on University of Oxford 31 st January 2011 1
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Page 1: A Romp Through Ethics for Complete Beginners - University of Oxford

 A  Romp  Through  Ethics  for  Complete  

Beginners      

Session  One:    Rules,  truths  and  theories:  an  introduc=on  to  ethical  reasoning  

Marianne  Talbot  Department  for  Con=nuing  Educa=on  

University  of  Oxford  31st  January  2011  

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Page 2: A Romp Through Ethics for Complete Beginners - University of Oxford

 Preliminaries:    Podcast:    Reading:  Ethical  Theory:  An  Anthology  edited  by  Russ  Shafer-­‐Landau  (Blackwell,  2007  ISBN:  978-­‐1-­‐4051-­‐3320-­‐3)  

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In  this  session  we  shall  be:  

–  using  a  moral  dilemma  to  examine  the  nature  of  moral  reasoning  

–  reflec=ng  on  the  role  of  rules  in  moral  reasoning  

–  asking  whether  moral  beliefs  are  true  or  false,  and  what  might  make  them  so;  

–  reflec=ng  on  whether  moral  truth  is  absolute  or  rela=ve.  

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 Imagine  your  friend  has  just  come  home  from  the  hairdresser’s….    ….she  strikes  a  pose  and  says  ‘what  do  you  think?...    ….you  think:  ‘Yuk!’  

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     You  have  a  problem…    …what  is  your  problem?  

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 Moral  dilemmas  of  this  sort  are  common…    ….because  it  is  in  the  very  nature  of  our  everyday  moral  rules…    …  to  conflict  in  par=cular  situa=ons  

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 You  might  think  that  it  is  easy  to  get  out  of  this  par=cular  moral  dilemma…    

• Don’t  you  some=mes  have  to  be  cruel  to  be  kind?  

• Don’t  white  lies  differ  from  ‘black’  lies?    

But  the  dilemma  will  always  return  

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   Moral  dilemmas  ra=onally  require  us  to  reflect  on  our  values…    …to  ask  what  it  IS  to  be  kind,  or  to  be  honest…    

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 But  we  undoubtedly  yearn  for  moral  rules…    …consider,  for  example,  how  temp=ng  it  is  to  make  ourselves  further  rules….    …in  the  case  of  our  moral  dilemma:  

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Possible  new  rule  one:    

When  kindness  and  honesty  conflict  I’ll  always  be  honest.  

 Possible  new  rule  two:    

When  kindness  and  honesty  conflict  I’ll  always  be  kind  

 

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In  this  yearning  for  rules  we  reveal  ourselves  to  be….    ….  MORAL  GENERALISTS…    …people  who  believe…    …that  morality  is  governed  by  rules…    

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…if  not  by  simple  rules  like  ‘don’t  lie’…    ….then  by  more  complicated  rules  like…    …‘don’t  tell  black  lies’…    …or  ‘don’t  tell  black  lies  except  in  situa=ons  in  which….’    

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     The  PARTICULARISTS  deny  that  moral  reasoning  is  governed  by  rules  of  any  sort…      

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Jonathan  Dancy  of  Reading  University  is  a  Par=cularist:                                                              

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 Dancy  claims  that  all  reasons  for  ac=ng  are  ‘context-­‐sensi=ve’…    ….such  that  they  are  in  some  contexts  reasons  for  ac=ng…    …and  in  other  contexts  they  are  not  reasons  for  ac=ng…    

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   So  imagine  that  your  reason…    …for  refusing  to  perform  ac=on  A…    ….  is  that  in  performing  ac=on  A  you  would  be  telling  a  lie…    

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   …does  this  mean  you  should  refuse  to  perform  any  and  every  act…    …that  has  the  property  of  being  a  lie-­‐telling?    

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 Or  imagine  that  your  reason…    …for  performing  ac=on  B…    ….  is  that  in  performing  ac=on  B  you  would  be  keeping  a  promise…    

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   …does  this  mean  you  should  perform  any  and  every  act…    …that  has  the  property  of  being  a  promise-­‐keeping?    

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Dancy  believes  that  the  answer  to  ques=ons  of  this  sort  will  always  be  ‘no’…    …because  no  reason  for  ac=ng...    …is  always  reason  for  or  against…    …performing  an  ac=on  

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 If  you  think  that  some  (but  not  all)  lies  should  be  told…    …or  that  some  (but  not  all)  promises  shouldn’t  be  kept…    …then  perhaps  you  too  are  a  Par=cularist?    

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Par=cularists  believe  that  no  moral  rule  is  always  and  everywhere  true…    …that  they  are,  at  most,  ‘rules  of  thumb’…    …useful  for  prac=cal  purposes…    …but  not  unbreakable,  not  absolutes  

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     I  wonder  how  many  of  you  are  tempted  to  say  you  are  Par=cularists?  

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   In  thinking  about  such  things  we  are  engaged  in  moral  theorising…    …which  is  a  very  different  ac=vity  from  everyday  moral  decision-­‐making.  

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Moral  theorising  is  called  ‘second  order’  moral  thinking…    …everyday  decision-­‐making  about  how  we  should  act  is  called  ‘first  order’  moral  thinking…    …moral  theorising  is  thinking  about  our  thinking  about  how  we  should  act.  

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Can  you  sort  the  following  ques=ons  into  ‘first  order’  (prac=cal)  ques=ons,  and  ‘second  order’  (theore=cal)  ques=ons?    

1)  Is  lying  morally  acceptable?  

2)  Should  female  circumcision  be  illegal?  

3)  How  can  we  know  that  a  given  moral  judgement  is  correct?  

4)  Could  it  ever  be  right  to  kill  an  innocent  human  being?    

5)  What  makes  a  moral  judgement  right  or  wrong?  

6)  Is  it  wrong  to  kill  embryos  that  have  the  gene  for  Hun=ngton’s  Disease?  

7)  What  sort  of  evidence  can  we  give  for  saying  something  is  right  or  wrong?  

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     Now  let’s  look  at  moral  truth  

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Consider  the  following  statements:    

 ‘The  earth  is  ellip=cal’    

 ‘The  cat  is  tabby’    These  statements  are  straighiorwardly  true  or  false.      They  are  made  so  by  facts  about,  respec=vely,  the  earth  (its  being  ellip=cal  or  not)  and  the  cat  (its  being  tabby  or  not).  

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But  if  we  look  at  statements  such  as:      ‘It  is  wrong  to  kill  innocent  human  beings.’  

   ‘We  should  always  tell  the  truth.’  

 it  is  less  easy  to  see  that  there  are  facts  that  make  these  statements  true  or  false.    

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 In  par=cular  it  would  seem  that  we  can’t…    …see  or  feel  these  facts  (if  they  exist)…    …  or  conduct  experiments    to  discover  them    

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     Recogni=on  of  this  prompts  some  to  deny  that  there  are  moral  facts    

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If  there  are  no  moral  facts  then  perhaps…    …  moral  statements  are  neither  true  nor  false…    …or  perhaps  we  are  free  to  decide  for  ourselves…    ….  whether  they  are  true  or  false?  

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     I  wonder  how  many  of  you  would  want  to  deny  there  are  moral  facts?  

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   If  you  would  like  to  learn  more  about  this  view  check  out  this  website:    hjp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skep=cism-­‐moral/  

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     Most  philosophers  believe  that  there  are  moral  facts  

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We  shall  be  looking  at  four  theories  about  moral  facts:    

1.   Virtue  Ethics  –  an  ac=on  is  right  if  a  virtuous  person  would  perform  it.  

2.   Non-­‐cogni=vism  –  an  ac=on  is  right  if  a  person  with  a  ‘stable  and  general’  perspec=ve  would  approve  of  it.  

3.   Deontology  –  an  ac=on  is  right  if  it  falls  under  a  rule  that  prescribes  it  

4.   U=litarianism  –  an  ac=on  is  right  if  it  produces  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number.  

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   Another  common  ques=on  about  moral  truth  is….    …is  it  absolute  or  rela=ve?  

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   Moral  absolu=sm:      You  are  a  moral  absolu=st  if  you  believe  that…    …there  is  at  least  one  moral  statement  that  is  true  absolutely    

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 A  non-­‐moral  example  of  an  absolute  truth  is…    …‘the  earth  is  round’…    …which  is  true  everywhere,  for  everyone,  at  all  =mes…    …irrespec=ve  of  what  people  believe    

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So  you  will  be  a  moral  absolu=st…    …  if  you  believe  there  is  at  least  one  moral  statement…    …  that  is  like  ‘the  earth  is  round’…    …in  being  true  everywhere,  for  everyone,  at  all  =mes…    ….  and  irrespec=ve  of  what  people  believe      

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   Moral  rela=vism:      You  are  a  moral  rela=vist  if  you  believe  that  all  moral  statements…    …  are  true  or  false  only  rela;ve  to  something    

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There  are  different  types  of  moral  rela=vism:    

–  You  can  believe  moral  statements  are  true  only  rela=ve  to  cultures    

(compare:  ‘a  meal  consists  of  meat  and  two  veg’  or  ‘prayers  are  said  five  8mes  a  day’….)    

–  You  can  believe  moral  statements  are  true  only  rela=ve  to  individuals  

(compare:  ‘sardines  are  tasty’  or  ‘red  is  the  most  beau8ful  colour’)    

–  You  can  believe  moral  statements  are  true  only  rela=ve  to  situa=ons  

(compare:  ‘it’s  cold  here’  or  ‘it’s  raining  now’)  

 

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     Are  you  a  moral  rela=vist  of  some  kind?    Why  are  you  a  moral  rela=vist?  

     

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 Arguments  for  moral  rela=vism:      

1.   All  moral  views  should  be  respected    2.   Different  people  differ  in  their  moral  beliefs  

3.   Different  cultures  differ  in  their  moral  beliefs    4.   Different  situa=ons  make  different  moral  demands.  

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 The  first  argument  (‘All  moral  views  should  be  respected’)  is  self-­‐defea=ng…    …  in  trying  to  derive  moral  rela=vism  from  a  moral  absolute:    

All  moral  truths  should  be  respected  Therefore  moral  rela=vism  is  true  

 is  an  argument  known  as  ‘vulgar  rela=vism’  

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The  second  argument  (‘Different  people  differ  in  their  moral  beliefs’  )…    …assimilates  moral  statements  to  statements  of  personal  preference  thereby:    

Ø underes=ma=ng  the  importance  of  morality    

Ø ignoring  the  possibility  of  moral  error…  

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The  third  argument  (‘Different  cultures  differ  in  their  moral  beliefs’)…    …  ignores  the  possibility  that  different  circumstances...    ....  might  generate  different  moral  beliefs…    …and  the  possibility  that  we  might  be  jus=fied  in  saying,  of  another  culture,  that  it  is  wrong    

   

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   The  second  and  third  arguments  might  rest  on  a  confusion…    …between  ‘P’  and  ‘believing  P’…    

…first  a  demonstra=on  of  the  difference…    

   

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This  shows  us  that…    ….‘P  is  morally  acceptable  for  S’  is  ambiguous:    

(i)  S  believes  P  is  morally  acceptable  

(ii)  P  is  morally  acceptable  for  S  

 

   

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For  example:    

   ‘Mugging  elderly  ladies  is  morally  acceptable  for  Fred’  

 …is  ambiguous:    

a)  Fred  believes  that  mugging  elderly  ladies  is  morally  acceptable    

b)  Mugging  elderly  ladies  IS  morally  acceptable  (for  Fred)    

 

   

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Fred  believes  that  mugging  elderly  ladies  is  morally  acceptable    This  is  en8rely  unremarkable…    …poor  Fred  may  have  had  the  sort  of  unfortunate  upbringing…    …  that  results  in  this  sort  of  belief…    …it  doesn’t  mean  his  belief  is  true  

   

   

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Mugging  elderly  ladies  IS  morally  acceptable  (for  Fred)      This  is  an  expression  of  individual  rela8vism…    …if  we  believe  this  and  Fred  mugs  an  elderly  lady  in  front  of  us  we  must  stand  back…    …because  even  if  mugging  elderly  ladies  is  morally  unacceptable  for  us…    …for  Fred  it  is  morally  acceptable  

   

   

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     Should  we  believe  that  mugging  elderly  ladies  is  morally  acceptable  for  Fred…      ….simply  because  we  believe  Fred  believes  that  mugging  elderly  ladies  is  morally  acceptable?  

   

   

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So  far  we  have  looked  at  the  first  three  arguments  for  moral  rela=vism…    …  (we  should  respect  others’  views/different  individuals  have  different  beliefs/different  cultures  have  different  beliefs)…    …now  let’s  look  at  the  fourth  (different  situa=ons  make  different  moral  demands).    

   

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The  fourth  argument  (‘Different  situa=ons  make  different  moral  demands)…    …  assumes  that  the  only  form  of  moral  absolu=sm  on  offer…    ….is  ‘lower  order  absolu=sm’….    …where  the  only  candidates  for  moral  absolutes  are  everyday  moral  rules.  

   

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In  fact  there  are  three  types  of  absolu=sm:    

(a)  Lower  order  absolu=sm  

(b)  Higher  order  absolu=sm  

(c)  Token  absolu=sm  

       

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Lower  order  absolu=sm:  the  belief  that  moral  absolutes  are  every  day  rules  like:        Don’t  lie  

     Don’t  kill  

     Keep  promises  

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 No=ce  that  if  you  are  a  Par=cularist  you  deny  lower  order  moral  absolu=sm…    …because  you  believe  that  our  everyday  moral  rules  are  nothing  more  than  ‘rules  of  thumb’  

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 Higher  Order  Moral  Absolu=sm:  the  belief  that  moral  absolutes  are  rules  like:    

Produce  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number  (U=litarianism)  

Treat  others  as  ends  in  themselves  (Deontology)  

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 Token  Absolu=sm:  the  belief  that  moral  absolutes  are  impera=ves  about  token  ac=ons:      It  would  be  wrong  to  tell  that  lie    You  must  keep  that  promise  

 

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     Higher  order  moral  absolu=sm  and  token  absolu=sm  go  together…    

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If  it  is  absolutely  true  that  we  ought  to  produce  the  GHGN  or  treat  others  as  ends…    …then  it  will  be  absolutely  true  in  any  given  situa=on…    ….that  we  should  perform  whichever  token  ac=on….    ….  will  promote  the  GHGN,  or  results  in  trea=ng  others  as  ends    

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Higher  order  absolu=sm  and  token  absolu=sm  together  may  explain:    

(i)  Why  lower  order  rules  are  not  absolutely  true  

(ii)  Why  lower  order  rules  are  important  to  us  

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Lower  order  rules  are  not  absolutely  true  (perhaps)…    ….because  if  telling  a  lie  in  a  given  situa=on  wouldn’t  promote  the  GHGN/respect  others  as    ends…    ….  then  we  ought  not  to  tell  it...    …but  if  it  would  promote  GHGN/respect  others  as  ends…    …then  we  ought  to  tell  it.  

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Lower  order  rules  are  important  because…    …if  we  see  many  situa=ons  in  which  token  lies  are  absolutely  wrong…    …and  only  a  few  where  they  are  absolutely  right…    …then  ‘don’t  lie’  becomes  a  useful  rule  of  thumb…    …(we  go  wrong  only  if  we  think  it  is  absolutely  true)  

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 Another  reason  we  might  think  of  lower  order  rules  as  important…    …is  that  when  we  were  children  we  were  all  taught  lower  order  moral  rules…    …as  if  they  were  absolutes…    ….can  you  guess  why?    

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Our    discovery  that  the  rules  we  were  taught  as  absolutes…    …are  not  absolutes…    …can  prompt  us  to  think  that  the  ‘standard  view’…    …  is  that  lower  order  moral  rules  are  absolutes…    ..rather  than  merely  that  they  are  taught  to  children  as  such    

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So  not  only  might  we  be  absolu=sts…    ….  whilst  accep=ng  that  lower  order  moral  rules…    ….  are  not  absolutely  true….    …we  might  think  absolu=sm  explains  why  lower  order  moral  rules…    ….are  not  absolutely  true  

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It  is  important  to  dis=nguish  token  absolu=sm  from:    

(a)  individual  rela=vism  

(b)  situa=on  rela=vism  

 

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“Mugging  Mabel  Smith  at  5.30  on  Tuesday  6th  December  2009  was  wrong”  

 Token  Absolu=sm:  If  this  statement  is  true  it  is  true  absolutely  (anyone  who  thinks  it  is  false  is  wrong)    Individual  rela=vism:  Even  if  this  statement  is  true  it  is  true  only  in  rela=on  to  individuals  (so  there  might  be  people  for  whom  it  is  false)    Note:  the  individual  rela8vist  is  not  saying  just  that  there  are  people  who  believe  it  is  false,  but  that  there  are  people  for  whom  is  IS  false)  

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Token  absolu;sm  claims  that  lower  order  moral  rules  are  only  rules  of  thumb,  so  even  if  most  lies  are  wrong,  there  can  be  token  lies  that  are  right    Situa;on  rela;vism  claims  that  lower  order  moral  rules  are  true  only  in  rela=on  to  situa=ons  (so  in  situa=on  S,  lying  is  wrong,  whereas  in  situa=on  S*,  lying  isn’t  wrong)…    

 

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 I  think  that  our  ‘kneejerk’  moral  rela=vism  is  a  combina=on  of…    ….several  of  the  errors  we  have  examined….    …and  oqen  the  result  of  the  following  process:  

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The  process:    

1)  Recogni=on  that  ‘abor=on  is  wrong’  is    controversial  (some  accept  it  and  others  reject  it)  

2)  Respect  for  each  other  leads  to  reluctance  to  disagree  

3)  Agree  that  ‘abor=on  is  wrong’  is  right  for  you  and  wrong  for  me  

4)  Acceptance  of  lower  order  rela=vism  

5)  Rejec=on  of  moral  absolu=sm  

 

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 1.  ‘Abor;on  is  wrong’  is    controversial  (many  accept  and  others  reject)    Best  explana=on  of  this..    …is  that  ‘abor=on  is  wrong’  is  a  rule  of  thumb…    …generated  by  beliefs  about  whether  abor=on  promotes  the  GHGN  or  trea=ng  others  as  ends…    …where  these  higher  order  beliefs  are  moral  absolutes…    …which  generate  token  absolutes  in  given  situa=ons    

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2.  Respect  for  each  other  leads  to  reluctance  to  disagree    This  seems  to  be  vulgar  rela=vism…    ….why  should  we  think  that  disagreeing  with  someone  is  failing  to  respect  them?….    …it  is  en=rely  consistent  with  respec=ng  someone  that  we  should  disagree  with  them…    …it  is  the  way  we  disagree  that  might  fail  to  respect  them    

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Agree  that  ‘abor;on  is  wrong’  is  right  for  you  and  wrong  for  me    Here  the  logical  blunder  threatens….    ….I  might  believe  ‘abor=on  is  wrong’  whilst  you  believe  ‘abor=on  is  right’…    ….but  that  is  merely  a  statement  about  what  we  believe…    …not  about  the  truth  of  our  beliefs.    

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Acceptance  of  lower  order  rela;vism    The  logical  blunder  once  made  leads  us  from  the  unremarkable  belief  that…    ….  I  believe  abor=on  is  wrong  and  you  believe  abor=on  is  right…    …to  the  rela=vis=c  beliefs  ‘abor=on  IS  wrong  for  me’  and  ‘abor=on  IS  right  for  you’…    …both  of  which  are,  if  you  think  about  it,  hugely  controversial  

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 Rejec;on  of  moral  absolu;sm    We  might  then  go  from  lower  order  moral  rela=vism…    ….to  the  belief  that  all  moral  truth  is  rela=ve…    …by  ignoring  or  being  ignorant  of  the  possibility  of  higher  order  or  token  absolu=sm  

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         I  wonder  how  many  of  you  would  now  claim  to  be  rela=vists?  

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If  you  would  like  to  do  some  reading  for  this  week’s  lecture  try:    Jonathan  Dancy’s  ‘An  Unprincipled  Morality’,  pages  771-­‐775  of  Ethical  Theory:  An  Anthology  edited  by  Russ  Shafer-­‐Landau  (Blackwell,  2007  ISBN:  978-­‐1-­‐4051-­‐3320-­‐3)    The  following  two  papers  are  from  the  very  reliable  Stanford  encyclopaedia:    hjp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-­‐dilemmas/    hjp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-­‐par=cularism/    You  might  also  like  to  read,  from  Shafer-­‐Landau,  the  introduc=on  to,  and  papers  in,  part  XII  Prima  Facie  Du;es  and  Par;cularism.  

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If  you  would  like  to  test  yourself  on  your  understanding  of  this  lecture  ask  yourself  whether  you  can  explain:    

–  what  moral  dilemmas  are  and  why  they  won’t  go  away;  

–  the  dis=nc=on  between  moral  par=cularism  and  moral  generalism;  

–  whether  and  why  you  are  a  Par=cularist  or  a  Generalist  

–  the  dis=nc=on  between  first  and  second  order  moral  thinking;  

–  Which  facts  (if  any)  might  make  moral  beliefs  true  or  false;  

–  the  difference  between  moral  absolu=sm  and  moral  rela=vism;  

–  the  different  types  of  rela=vism  and  absolu=sm;  

–  whether,  and  why,  you  are  a  rela=vist/absolu=st;  

–  Whether  Par=cularists  are  commijed  to  absolu=sm  or  rela=vism  

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     If  you  would  like  to  do  some  reading  for  next  week’s  lecture  look  at:    ‘The  Main  Idea  of  a  Theory  of  Jus=ce’,  an  excerpt  from  A  Theory  of  Jus=ce  by  John  

Rawls  (pages  631-­‐634  of  Ethical  Theory).    

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