A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE SPEARFISHING SUB-SECTOR OF JAMAICA Department of Life Sciences The University of the West Indies By Zahra Ennis Supervisor Dr. Karl Aiken 2011
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A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE SPEARFISHING SUB-SECTOR OF JAMAICA
Department of Life Sciences
The University of the West Indies
By
Zahra Ennis
Supervisor
Dr. Karl Aiken
2011
i
ii
ABSTRACT
The current status of Jamaica’s reef fisheries is extremely over-exploited. As
such, efforts must be made to understand the separate fishing techniques, their value and
necessity in order to determine if any alterations in current operations can yield positive
effects on the country’s reef fishery. This research aims to accomplish this, by creating a
profile for the Spearfishing subsector in Jamaica.
The data was obtained through the administration of questionnaires to a suitably
sized sample set of spear-fishers islandwide, over the course of 9 months. This produced
statistical data on average daily catch weight, average daily effort in hours, specific gear
types being used, the popularity of certain fishing locations, and most common fish
species targeted among other relevant information. The effects of the use of various types
of breathing apparatus on the weight of an average spear-fishers daily catch were also
found to be significant.
The profile created presents spearfishing as a distinct and significant subsector of
commercial fishing in Jamaica. An average spearfisher can contribute as much as 4.24
tonnes to the annual marine landings and as many as 10.6% of all fishermen in Jamaica
practice Spearfishing.
The recommendations made by the researcher, based on this profile, are geared
towards the strict regulation of spearfishing in Jamaica, including a ban on the use of
Hookah apparatus and enforcement of the current ban on Night Diving.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my family for the support and encouragement they have
given me throughout the duration of this study. I must also thank Ms. Charlene Thomas
from the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture as her help in the
completion of this study was invaluable.
I am extremely grateful to my supervisor Dr. Karl Aiken, both for giving me the
opportunity to work on this project and for his patience and guidance throughout.
Lastly I thank the fishermen that participated in this study, as without their input, this
study would not exist.
The product of this study is the result of a team effort and, without the help and
participation of the above mentioned, would not have been possible.
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Sample size and number of trips made to each beach at which questionnaires
were administered ............................................................................................................. 14
Table 2: List of beaches visited at which the total number of spear-fishers was estimated.
........................................................................................................................................... 17
Table 3: The spearfishing Locations named by the interviewed Spear-fishers in each
parish. ................................................................................................................................ 34
Table 4: Ranking of the Fish Species (Common Names) caught by the spear-fishers
interviewed by region. ...................................................................................................... 52
Table 5: Average Prices at which the three categories of spearfishing catch are sold by
the spear-fishers interviewed on the North and South coast. ............................................ 58
Table 6: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the North Coast for the noticed
decline in catch over the last few years. ........................................................................... 62
Table 7: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the South Coast for the noticed
decline in catch over the last few years. ........................................................................... 63
Table 8: The number of registered fishermen and estimated number of spear-fishers
operating from each beach visited.. .................................................................................. 70
Table 9: Names and Aliases of All Spear-fishers Interviewed. ........................................ 97
v
LIST OF PLATES AND FIGURES
Plate 1: Major Banks of Jamaica (Map data from NRCA data unit). Obtained from
CFRAMP, 2000. . .............................................................................................................. 2
Plate 2: Map of Jamaica showing fishing beaches............................................................ 21
Plate 3: A – A commercial speargun (photo taken at Hellshire) .B – A homemade
speargun (photo taken at Harveys’ Beach) Photographs by Z. Ennis, 2011 ..................... 40
Plate 4: Images of the most popular fish species caught by the spear-fishers interviewed
islandwide. ........................................................................................................................ 53
Plate 5: A sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Harbour Bay ................................... 111
Plate 6: A second sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Habour Bay ........................ 111
Plate 7: Sample of Spearfishing catch from Annotto Bay. ............................................. 112
Plate 8: A Spearfisher and his catch in Portland ............................................................. 112
Plate 9: An Air Compressor, an integral part of the Hookah apparatus, at Long Acre
Beach............................................................................................................................... 113
Plate 10: The hose used in the Hookah Apparatus. Taken at Long Acre. ...................... 113
Plate 11: Compressed Air Cylinders (tanks) at Port Henderson. .................................... 114
Plate 12: A freelung spearfisher and his gear at Old Harbour Bay ................................. 114
Plate 13: A freelung spearfisher and his gear in Portland. .............................................. 115
Figure 1: Average Age of Spear-fishers interviewed for each beach visited. .................. 23
Figure 2: Mean ages of all Interviewed Spear-fishers on the North coast, South coast and
Islandwide.. ....................................................................................................................... 24
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Figure 3: Average number of years of fishing experience of the spear-fishers interviewed
by beach.. .......................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4: Average Number of years of experience of the spear-fishers interviewed by
region. ............................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 5: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the
north coast.. ....................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 6: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the
South coast ........................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 7: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed Islandwide.. 30
Figure 8: A comparison of the proportion of night divers to non-night divers on the
North and South Coasts. ................................................................................................... 31
Figure 9: Percentages of Spear-fishers that practice on and off shelf spearfishing. N=148.
........................................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 10: The Relative Popularity of the Off-Shelf Spearfishing locations listed by the
spear-fishers interviewed. ................................................................................................. 36
Figure 11: The Frequency of Spearfishing Activities of the Spear-fishers interviewed at
all beaches. The error bars show the standard error of the data obtained. N=148. ........... 37
Figure 12: The Average Number of days per week dedicated to spearfishing by Region.
N= 148. ............................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 13: Breathing Apparatus used by Spear-fishers along the North and South Coast.
N=148. .............................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 14: Average weight (kg) of the daily spearfishing catch of the spear-fishers
interviewed by beach. ....................................................................................................... 43
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Figure 15: Average Daily Catch of Spear-fishers interviewed on the North and South
Coast. ................................................................................................................................ 44
Figure 16: Percentage of Yearly Effort of the Spear-fishers interviewed by beach. ........ 45
Figure 17: Percentages of Boat Use by the spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. ...... 46
Figure 18: Percentages of Spear-fishers that worked groups of varying sizes. ................ 47
Figure 19: Average daily effort (hrs/day) of spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches.. ... 48
Figure 20: The Average Daily effort (hrs/day) of the spear-fishers interviewed by region..
........................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 21: Average depth at which spear-fishers fished at all beaches interviewed.. ...... 50
Figure 22: Average Spearfishing depth of the spear-fishers interviewed by region. ........ 51
Figure 23: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the North
Coast. ................................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 24: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the South
Coast ................................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 25: The percentage of spear-fishers that caught octopus on the North and south
Coast.. ............................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 26: Percentage of the spear-fishers interviewed on the North and south Coasts that
went after “other catch”. ................................................................................................... 57
Figure 27: Percentages of opinions of the North Coast spear-fishers interviewed
regarding the trends in spearfishing catch over the last few years.. ................................. 61
Figure 28: Percentages of opinions of the South Coast spear-fishers interviewed
regarding the trends in spearfishing catch over the last few years.. ................................. 61
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Figure 29: Future Prospects of all spear-fishers interviewed if spearfishing were to be
banned.. ............................................................................................................................. 64
Figure 30: Percentage of spear-fishers that see lionfish in their regular fishing locations
by region. .......................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 31: Percentage of the responses of the Spear-fishers interviewed as to whether
lionfish were shot (by region).. ......................................................................................... 66
Figure 32: Average numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach..
........................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 33: Average Numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by region.
........................................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 34: Average sizes of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. .... 69
Figure 35: Average Hours per day spent spearfishing using different types of air supply
by region.. ......................................................................................................................... 76
Figure 36: Average weight of the daily catch of spear-fishers using different types of air
supply by region. ............................................................................................................... 77
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A: Names and Alias of Spear-fishers Interviewed by Beach…………………97
Appendix B: Selected Photos of Spearfishing Catch…………………………………...111
Appendix C: Selected Photos of Spearfishers and Gear………………………………..113
Appendix D: Kruskal Wallis H Tests…………………………………………………..116
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... III
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... IV
LIST OF PLATES AND FIGURES ................................................................................V
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................ IX
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 1
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 5
WHAT IS SPEARFISHING? ................................................................................................. 5
HOW SPEARFISHING IS VIEWED IN THE CARIBBEAN REGION. ............................................ 6
SPEARFISHING IN JAMAICA .............................................................................................. 8
MANAGEMENT OF THE SPEARFISHING INDUSTRY IN JAMAICA ....................................... 10
CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 10
OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................. 12
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 13
RESULTS: ....................................................................................................................... 22
NAMES AND ALIAS ......................................................................................................... 22
AGE ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................. 22
EXPERIENCE ................................................................................................................... 24
MAIN FISHING TECHNIQUE ............................................................................................ 27
The North Coast Beaches.......................................................................................... 27
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The South Coast Beaches .......................................................................................... 27
All Beaches Visited ................................................................................................... 29
NIGHT DIVING ............................................................................................................... 31
DO YOU SPEARFISH ON THE ISLAND SHELF? ................................................................... 32
WHERE EXACTLY DO YOU SPEARFISH? ........................................................................... 33
HOW OFTEN DO YOU SPEARFISH? ................................................................................... 36
a. The number of days per week dedicated to Spearfishing .................................. 37
b. The number of trips made to sea per day .......................................................... 38
c. The number of dives or “jumps” made each day. ............................................ 38
WHAT FISHING GEAR DO YOU USE WHEN SPEARFISHING?............................................... 39
Spearguns .................................................................................................................. 39
Basic Gear ................................................................................................................ 40
Light Source ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Breathing Apparatus ................................................................................................. 41
HOW MUCH DOES YOUR SPEARFISHING CATCH WEIGH ON A TYPICAL DAY? ................... 42
DO YOU SPEARFISH THROUGHOUT THE YEAR? ............................................................... 44
DO YOU USE A BOAT WHEN SPEARFISHING? ................................................................... 45
DO YOU SPEARFISH ALONE OR IN A GROUP? IF IN A GROUP, HOW MANY PERSONS ARE
USUALLY IN YOUR GROUP?............................................................................................. 46
ON AN AVERAGE SPEARFISHING TRIP, HOW MANY HOURS DO YOU SPEND IN THE WATER?
....................................................................................................................................... 47
SPEARFISHING DEPTH .................................................................................................... 49
WHAT ARE THE SIX (6) MOST COMMON FISH SPECIES THAT YOU CATCH? ....................... 51
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WHICH LOBSTER AND CRAB SPECIES DO YOU CATCH? .................................................. 53
DO YOU CATCH OCTOPUSES? ......................................................................................... 55
DO YOU TAKE ANYTHING ELSE REGULARLY, FOR EXAMPLE CONCH OR SQUID? ............. 56
IF YOU SELL YOUR CATCH , HOW MUCH DO YOU SELL IT FOR PER POUND (BY CATEGORY) :
SNAPPER/QUALITY, COMMON, TRASH? ......................................................................... 57
WHERE DO YOU SELL YOUR CATCH? .............................................................................. 60
WHAT WOULD YOU SAY ABOUT CATCHES OVER THE PAST FEW YEARS? ARE THEY BETTER
NOW, OR WORSE THAN WHEN YOU STARTED SPEARFISHING? ......................................... 60
WHAT WOULD YOU DO IF SPEARFISHING WAS BANNED? ................................................ 64
LIONFISH OBSERVATIONS .............................................................................................. 65
Do you see Lionfish? ................................................................................................. 65
Do you shoot them? .................................................................................................. 65
How many lionfish do you see (for example: around one block of coral)? .............. 66
What are their average sizes? ................................................................................... 68
CALCULATIONS .......................................................................................................... 70
ESTIMATING THE PERCENTAGE OF COMMERCIAL FISHERMEN IN JAMAICA THAT ARE
SPEAR-FISHERS. .............................................................................................................. 70
EFFECT OF AIR SUPPLY TYPE ON THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF HOURS SPENT SPEARFISHING
EACH DAY. ..................................................................................................................... 75
EFFECT OF AIR SUPPLY TYPE ON THE AVERAGE WEIGHT OF CATCH OBTAINED BY SPEAR-
FISHERS EACH DAY. ........................................................................................................ 77
ANNUAL INCOME OF AVERAGE SPEARFISHER (USING AVERAGE COST OF QUALITY
CATCH) .......................................................................................................................... 78
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ANNUAL LANDINGS OF EACH SPEARFISHER .................................................................. 78
DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................. 79
CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 92
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 93
APPENDIX A .................................................................................................................. 97
APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................ 111
APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................ 113
APPENDIX D ................................................................................................................ 116
AIR SUPPLY AND DAILY CATCH (KG) .......................................................................... 116
AIR SUPPLY AND DAILY EFFORT (HOURS PER DAY) ..................................................... 117
1
INTRODUCTION
Jamaica, situated towards the center of the southwestern Caribbean Sea, is the
third largest island within the Greater Antilles. As of 2008, the population of Jamaica was
estimated at 2.7 million (UN Data, 2011). It has a total land area of 10,990 square
kilometers and a total coastline of 1,022 kilometers (Encyclopedia of the Nations, 2011).
Jamaica lies in the path of the northeasterly trade winds and as such speeds exceeding
15m/sec and the associated choppy waters are common. A calmer period generally occurs
between the months of October and February annually (Aiken, 1993; Munro, 1983).
Studies have shown that currents in the vicinity of the island are westerly and are from
0.5-1kt for the majority of the year with tidal effects that are range from minimal to none
(Aiken, 1993) however, the currents over Pedro Bank can reverse at ebb tide (Munro,
1983).
The island shelf, as well as a number of offshore banks, constitutes the fishing
grounds for the marine fisheries activities of Jamaica, which are almost all artisanal.
These activities produce approximately 7000 tonnes annually and are conducted by at
least 15,000 active (but possibly as many as 20,000) fishers (Aiken, 2008). Most of the
seafloor on the island shelf is sea-grass and soft corals over sand and limestone bedrock.
Coralline growth is usually concentrated around the edges (Aiken, 1993; Halcrow, 1998).
The southern shelf is much larger than the northern shelf and has been characterized as
being relatively wide, with a maximum distance from the mainland of 24 km, and
consisting of mostly small patches of corals, gorgonians and seaweeds mixed with sandy
patches and large reefs on the eastern side. The north shelf is much narrower; with a
2
maximum distance from the mainland of 1.6 km (Plate 1). Fringing reefs with a few gaps
(which are virtually continuous with the sill reef) characterize the north shelf. The largest
banks that are utilized as fishing grounds within Jamaica’s fishing industry are the Pedro
Bank and Morant Bank. These banks rise abruptly from deeper than 500m to form
submerged plateaus with depths averaging between 20 – 30 m (CFRAMP, 2000).
Plate 1: Major Banks of Jamaica (Map data from NRCA data unit). Obtained from CFRAMP, 2000. The areas
shown are: The island shelf, which consists of the Northern and Southern Shelf, and areas outside or off the
island shelf, which are Near Bank, Blossom Bank, Pedro Bank, Walton Bank, Pedro Bank, Mackerel Bank,
Morant Bank, Henry Holmes Bank, Grappler Bank, and Formigas Bank.
The fishing techniques used in Jamaica’s reef fishery are relatively diverse, with
the use of gears such as fish traps, and beach seine, tangle and gill nets being the most
prominent, followed by the use of handlines, spearfishing and some use of illegal
3
explosives (Aiken, 2008). The vessels used for fishing are mainly small, open, non-
motorized wooden canoes (95% of all vessels), with some use of larger, 27 foot
motorized fiberglass open canoes (Aiken, 2008; Sary, 2001). The small non-motorized
canoes are usually between 4 m and 18 m, with the smaller ones being wooden dugouts
and the larger being vessels that carry many fishers to nearby oceanic banks such as
Pedro Bank. The motorized vessels use larger outboard engines (Aiken, 2008).
According to a Sector Position Paper on Fisheries in Jamaica (Aiken, 2008), the main
fisheries resources utilized in Jamaica’s fishing industry can be characterized as follows:
A. Coral Reef Fishes
B. Spiny Lobsters
C. Conch
D. Small Coastal Pelagic Finfish
E. Large Offshore Pelagic Finfish
Within the grouping “Coral Reef Fishes” the species of major importance with respect to
Jamaica’s fishing industry are:
Lutjanidae (snappers)
Serranidae (groupers)
Carangidae (jacks)
Mullidae (goatfishes)
Scaridae (parrotfishes)
Haemulidae (grunts)
Balistidae (triggerfishes)
Acanthuridae (doctorfishes)
4
Holocentridae (squirrelfishes)
Holacanthidae (angelfishes)
The status of fisheries in Jamaica is viewed as overfished (Aiken, 2008). This is
evidenced by gradual changes seen in the species composition of fishing catch over the
years. There has been a great reduction in the top carnivorous predatory fish such as the
higher-valued snappers and jacks. These have been replaced by lesser valued herbivorous
and omnivorous reef fish such as parrotfishes and doctorfishes (Aiken, 2008). This shows
a direct impact on the biodiversity of the reefs due to overfishing. Other elements that
affect that status of fisheries include severe hurricane damage to reefs and the relatively
new introduction of the carnivorous lionfish species Pterois, which have no natural
predators in this environment, to Caribbean waters.
5
LITERATURE REVIEW
What is Spearfishing?
Spearfishing is one of the many varied techniques used for catching fish, whether
recreationally or commercially. Spearfishing has been previously defined as “the sport of
hunting fish underwater” (Encyclopedia Americana, 1978). However, spearfishing has
grown worldwide into much more than a sport, becoming an occupation and means of
income for many commercial spear-fishers. For the purposes of this study, a more
pertinent definition of spearfishing is “the catching or taking of a fish through the
instrumentality of a hand or mechanically propelled, single or multi-pronged spear or
lance, barbed or barbless, operated by a person swimming at or below the surface of the
water" (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission,
http://myfwc.com/RULESANDREGS/Saltwater_Regulations_spearing.htm). Types of
spearfishing include employing the use of free-diving (also known as free-lung),
snorkeling or scuba-diving skills.
Spearfishing has been an effective method of fishing for many years, with
evidence to support its existence up to 16,000 years ago (Guthrie, 2005). Traditional
spearfishing began with the use of regular or specialized spears, such as a trident that has
three pointed ends, with long handles to impale the fish. This traditional method was
restricted to shallow waters, until the advent of the speargun, which allowed for fishing in
deeper waters. A practiced spearfisher can learn to hold their breath between two to four
minutes while underwater.
6
Modern spearfishing first came about in the 1920’s, when sport fishing became
popular on the Mediterranean coast of France and Italy. At that time, it was done with
only the use of watertight swimming goggles. It was then followed by the development of
the modern diving mask, swimfin and snorkel. Scuba diving that is being practiced today
actually began with the systematic use of rebreathers by Italian sport spear-fishers in the
1930’s. Of note is the fact that this technology had an impact on World War II, as the
“frogman unit” of the Italian Navy was developed as a result of this practice
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearfishing , retrieved January 15, 2011).
How spearfishing is viewed in the Caribbean region.
Spearfishing was noted as becoming an increasingly important economic activity
in the Caribbean (Munro, 1983). He went on to state that this was as a result of
socioeconomic factors related to underemployment and the low capital outlay for
equipment. To those with economic concerns, this method of fishing appeared to be most
attractive as it offered income earning capacity to otherwise unskilled or impoverished
individuals.
According to Munro, spearfishing was also attractive in terms of its effect on the
natural resources and the management thereof, as spearfishing activities leaned towards
the harvesting of the oldest, largest and least productive members of the fish community,
leaving the younger and more productive members and promoting conservation of the
stock (Munro, 1983). He gave an example of the benefits of spearfishing with Belize,
stating that about 67% of the production of spiny lobsters at that time was derived from
7
spearfishing and that the spearfishing community appeared to be one of the most
prosperous sectors of the general population.
Despite Munro’s observations of the benefits of spearfishing in Caribbean
countries, some studies have also shown that spearfishing has been implicated in the local
extinction of some species. One such example is the Goliath grouper (Epinephelus
itajara) on the Caribbean island of Bonaire (Roberts, 2007)
In other Caribbean countries, spearfishing is strictly regulated or banned
completely. In the Bahamas, the Hawaiian sling is the only approved spearfishing device.
Gear such as SCUBA gear or air compressors are not allowed when harvesting fish,
conch, crawfish or other marine animals. It is further regulated by location whereby
spearfishing is not allowed within one mile of the coast of New Providence, within one
mile of the south coast of Freeport, Grand Bahamas and within 200 yards of the coast of
all the Out Islands. Spearing or taking marine animals by any means is illegal within
national sea parks (The Islands of the Bahamas, 2008 - 2011).
In the Grenadines in the eastern Caribbean, spearfishing is one of the two most
popular methods of fishing being used (Gill et. al, 2007). According to a study there,
spear guns are used extensively and were frequently used by the younger fishers which
may be the result of the high amount of risk, effort and fitness required to free/scuba dive
as well as the fact that older fishers may not be as familiar with these less traditional
forms of fishing. Free diving fishers can go to depths of 60-80 feet and they target conch,
lobster and demersals. SCUBA diving fishers in the Grenadines where found to fish
much deeper (e.g. 150 feet) which at many times is much deeper than the regulations
stipulate for non-commercial divers. Many of these SCUBA divers do not have any
8
formal training in SCUBA diving. The average crew size for spear fishers is 5-6 fishers
and fishers use a small wire noose to trap lobsters and short poles to carry fish (Gill et al,
2007).
Spearfishing in Jamaica
Information on the spearfishing activities in Jamaica were found in the report
entitled “Jamaica: National Marine Fisheries Atlas” produced by the CARICOM
Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Program (CFRAMP) in 2000. This
report lists “Diving fisheries” as a major fishing gear sector. It states that in Jamaica,
diving fisheries are carried out using both “freelung” (in which the diver holds his breath
while hunting underwater) and with the aid of a compressed air supply. Divers that use
compressed air supplies were found to utilize either SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater
Breathing Apparatus) tanks or hookah rigs (CFRAMP, 2000). The main difference
between the hookah rig and the SCUBA tanks is that with a hookah apparatus, the
compressed air remains on the boat and is obtained by the diver through a hose. With a
SCUBA tank the compressed air is attached to the diver. Divers using compressed air can
hunt underwater for between 1.5 to 2 hours and at depths greater than 25 meters.
Compressed air divers were found to usually catch lobster and conch, through the use of a
stick with a hook or wire loop for lobsters or just their hands for conch. The freelung
divers were found to be the main users of spears and spearguns, with their targets focused
on coral reef finfish and lobster (CFRAMP, 2000).
The first preliminary Jamaican study showed that spearfishing accounts for a
major portion of the country’s annual fisheries production (Passley, 2009 & 2010).
9
Focusing on fishermen that were regulars at beaches around the island, the study obtained
data on the amount, size and type of fish caught as well as where fishing was most
frequently carried out and how much the fishermen depended on their spearfishing
activities. As the first such study of its kind with respect to the state of spearfishing in
Jamaica, it is considered a preliminary one, in need of supporting studies to confirm its
findings. The results showed however that spearfishing in Jamaica is a much more widely
used form of fishing than was first expected, whereby 2% of all fishers were found to be
spear-fishers as opposed to the 1% that was previously estimated (Passley et al, 2010).
The artisanal spearfishermen in Jamaica mostly use spearguns, the majority of
which are commercial although some were homemade. These spear guns were used in
addition to masks and in some cases, snorkel tubes. It was also discovered that fishing
effort is very high, with 4 hour trips done 5 days a week and a correspondingly (yet still
surprisingly) high average catch of 3,500 kg/spearfisher/yr. (Passley et al, 2010).
Spearfishing has the potential to be environmentally friendly as it is highly selective and
has no by-catch. This means that educated individuals can target only the older larger,
fish that make less of an impact on the reproductive success of the population. However,
in Jamaica, where the reefs are greatly overfished, and the fishermen depend on their
catch to support their livelihood, smaller fish are continuously being caught and sold.
The main types of fish and marine life caught were those that had a high sale
value, such as parrotfish, snapper and lobster. According to Passley’s report (2009 &
2010), night diving was also discovered to be a fishing activity that was very productive
as the sleeping fish presented a stationary target and were easily caught. The report
suggested that an immediate ban be placed on that specific activity as the sleeping fish
10
have little to no chance at escape. Passley (et al 2010) also reported that, although most
spear-fishers carried out other types of spearfishing, they were decidedly dependent on
their spearfishing activities, and that the number of spear-fishers had grown between
1999 and 2004.
Management of the Spearfishing industry in Jamaica
33 percent of spear-fishers interviewed by Passley reported that they had no
replacement skills with which to make a living if spearfishing were to be banned. An
equal percentage said that they would attempt to find an alternative means of supporting
themselves however 10% said that they would then require government assistance. It is
thought that the increase in the number of spear-fishers may be due to increases in the
cost of gear and maintenance for trap and net fishing as well as the apparent success of
spearfishing (Passley et al, 2010).
In 2009, a ban was placed on spearfishing at night, also known as Night Diving,
in an attempt to reduce the exploitation of reef fisheries. However, lack of enforcement
and even awareness of the ban has somewhat negated its effectiveness.
Conclusions
Both recreational and commercial spearfishing has the potential to be
environmentally friendly. When it comes to recreational spearfishing, it is important that
the diver is educated in the proper size of fish to be caught, and other regulations that
have been put in place by the spearfishing association of the region. With these rules in
11
mind, it is possible for the sport to not just be environmentally friendly but to also make
an economic contribution to the country by increasing tourism revenues. In many
countries worldwide spearfishing has developed a small market in tourism.
A similar awareness of the proper size of fish to be caught is even more important
for commercial spearfishing to be sustained. Commercial spearfishing, especially done
with the aid of compressed air, has been banned in many countries, either in an attempt to
mitigate or prevent overfishing of the countries resources.
12
OBJECTIVES
This research was carried out as a follow-up to a previous report, (Passley, 2009) on
commercial spearfishing in Jamaica, to confirm the earlier conclusions made. The
purpose of confirming these conclusions is to assist the Fisheries Advisory Board in their
recommendations with respect to banning or placing restrictions on and creating
regulations for commercial spearfishing in Jamaica.
Through the use of data gathered from this study and from the previous study mentioned,
the objectives of this study are as follows:
1. To determine the current status of spearfishing in Jamaica, its commercial value
and its contribution to the annual fisheries production.
2. To compare the current status of commercial spearfishing in Jamaica with the
results obtained from the previous study on this subject, the Passley report (2009).
3. To determine effective steps that may be taken to conserve the resources of
Jamaica’s island shelf, while determining if commercial spearfishing can continue
under regulations.
13
METHODOLOGY
1. A preliminary Literature Review was done in regards to Commercial Spearfishing
worldwide and the status of fisheries in Jamaica.
2. The original questionnaire was revised and tested on the first trip into the field.
3. Trips were made to preselected 23 fishing beaches, chosen due to the known
presence of spear-fishers there by the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of
Fishing and Agriculture in Jamaica (Table 1).
The sites were visited over a period of 9- 10 months between January 2011 and
October 2011.
The trips were made using transportation provided by the Fisheries Division of
the Ministry of Agriculture of Jamaica. Each trip was made by the researcher and
a representative member of the Fisheries division that was well known at the
beaches visited.
4. At each site, a questionnaire (revised from the original questionnaire used in the
Passley report) was administered to a specified sample number of spear-fishers.
The questionnaires were administered to the spear-fishers individually. Repeat
trips were made when necessary to achieve the desired sample number.
14
5. Pictures were taken of each spear-fisher to which a questionnaire was
administered.
6. Where available, pictures were also taken of samples of spearfishing gear, boats,
and catch at the fishing beach.
7. 50 Additional fishing beaches, where spearfishing was known to take place, were
also visited to obtain an estimate of the number of spear-fishers operating on the
beaches. Questionnaires were not administered at these additional beaches.
Table 1: Sample size and number of trips made to each beach at which questionnaires were administered
Beach Name,
Parish
Sample Size (No. of
spear-fishers
interviewed)
Number of Trips
made
North Coast
Salem, St. Ann 6 1
Sailors Hole, St.
Ann 5 1
White River, St.
Ann 4 1
Annotto Bay Beach,
St. Mary 5 1
Robins Bay, St. 5 1
15
Mary
Pagee, St. Mary 5 1
Falmouth,
Trelawney 10 1
Harvey’s Beach, St.
James 5 1
River Bay Beach,
St. James 5 1
Manchioneal,
Portland 9 1
Negril,
Westmoreland 5 2
South Coast
Port Henderson, St
Catherine 12 2
Hellshire,
St. Catherine 5 1
Old Harbour,
St. Catherine 12 2
Rocky Point,
Clarendon 13 2
Rocky Point, St.
Thomas 4 1
16
Lyssons Beach, St.
Thomas 6 2
Alligator Pond,
Manchester 10 1
Black River, St.
Elizabeth 2 1
Long Acre, St.
Elizabeth 5 1
Smithfield,
Westmoreland 5 1
St. Mary’s Beach,
Westmoreland 5 1
Whitehouse,
Westmoreland 5 1
17
Table 2: List of beaches visited at which the total number of spear-fishers was estimated.
Parish Beach
Clarendon Salt River /Welcome Beach
Clarendon Barmouth/ Portland Cottage
Hanover Orange Bay
Hanover Green Island
Hanover Lucea Beach
Hanover Sandy Bay Beach
Hanover Hopewell
Kingston & St.
Andrew Bull Bay (7 miles)
Portland Windsor
Portland Buff Bay
Portland Drapers
Portland Norwich
18
Portland Orange Bay
Portland Hope Bay
Portland Bryans Bay
Portland Prospect Beach
Portland Blue Hole
Portland Fairy Hill
Portland Hectors River Beach
Portland Innes Bay Beach
Portland Long Bay Beach
Portland Priestmans’ River Beach
Portland Boston Beach
St Thomas Yallahs Beach
St Thomas Morant Bay
St Thomas Leith Hall
St Thomas Port Morant
19
St Thomas Old Pera
St Thomas Holland Bay
St Thomas Dalvey Beach
St. Ann
Jail Lane/ St. Ann’s Bay
Beach
St. Ann Priory
St. Ann Swallow Hole
St. Ann Pear Tree Bottom
St. Ann Discovery Bay
St. Ann Old Folly
St. Ann Mammee Bay
St. James Whitehouse
St. James Spring Garden
St. James Grange Pen
St. James Success
St. Mary Dover
St. Mary Castle Garden Beach
St. Mary Oracabessa Beach
20
St. Mary Boscobel Beach
St. Mary Breakfast Gap
St. Mary Rio Nuevo
Trelawney Derby/Silver Sands
Trelawney Rio Bueno
Trelawney Braco
21
Plate 2: Map of Jamaica showing fishing beaches. Satellite view of Jamaica courtesy of Google Earth 2012 ©.
The beaches visited are as follows: 1. Negril Beach, 2. Orange Bay, Hanover 4. Lucea, 5. Sandy Bay, 6. Hopewell,
7. Spring Garden, 8. Whitehouse Beach, St. James 9. Success, 10. Grange Pen, 11. Falmouth Fishing Village, 12.
Braco, 13. Rio Bueno, 14. Old Folly, 15. Discovery Bay, 16. Runaway Bay, 17. Swallow Hole, 18. Salem, 19.
Priory, 20. St. Ann’s Bay, 21. Mammee Bay, 22. White River, 23. Oracabessa, 24. Pagee, 25. Robins Bay, 26.
Breakfast Gap, 27. Annotto Bay, 28. Castle Garden, 29. Dover, 30. Buff Bay, 31. Orange Bay, 32. Hope Bay, 33.
St. Margaret’s Bay, 34. Bryan’s Bay. 35. Norwich, 36. Prospect/Port Antonio, 37. Drapers, 38. Fairy Hill, 39.
Blue Hole, 40. Preistman’s River, 41. Boston Beach, 42. Long Bay, 43. Manchioneal, 44. Innes Bay, 45. Hector’s
Bay, 46. Holland Bay, 47. Dalvey, 48. Rocky Point, St. Thomas, 49. Port Morant, 50. Leith Hall, 51. Lyssons
Beach, 52. Morant Bay, 53. Yallahs, 54. Bull Bay (7 miles), 55. Port Henderson, 56. Hellshire, 57. Old Harbour
Bay, 58. Welcome Beach, 59. Barmouth/Portland Cottage, 60. Rocky Point, Clarendon, 61. Alligator Pond, 62.
Black River, 63. Long Acre, 64. Whitehouse, Westmoreland, 65. St. Ann’s Beach, 66. Smithfield, 67. St. Mary’s
Beach.
22
RESULTS:
During the nine month period of February to October 2011, the researcher went
on 32 trips with Ms. Charlene Thomas from the Ministry of Fisheries and
Agriculture. A total of 75 beaches were visited. Of the 73 beaches, a comprehensive
questionnaire with 24 questions was administered to spear fishers at 23 of them. One
hundred and forty eight (148) spear fishers were interviewed in total. At the
remaining 50 beaches, discussions were had with the commercial fishermen there to
determine an estimate of the number of spear fishers operating from each beach.
Names and alias
All interviewed spear-fishers were asked their names and the alias they
were also known by. A complete list of these names and the beaches to which
they are attached can be found in Appendix A.
Age Analysis
Eachspearfisher interviewed was asked their age and the number of years
they had been fishing commercially. The results of the age analysis are shown in
Figure 1.
The divers interviewed were of a wide range of ages. The oldest divers were
found at Salem beach (average age was 44.8 years) while the youngest divers
were found at Lyssons beach (average age was 21 years).
23
Figure 1: Average Age of Spear-fishers interviewed for each beach visited. The first 11 beaches listed (reading
left to right) are those on the north coast, and the remaining 12 are located on the south coast. The Error Bars
show the Standard Error of the values obtained. N=148.
The average age of the spear-fishers interviewed on the North Coast was
38 ± 0.5 yrs., while the average age of the spear-fishers interviewed on the South
coast was 35 ± 0.7 yrs. The average age of all spear-fishers interviewed was 36 ±
0.4 yrs. (Fig 2).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Ro
bin
s B
ay
Man
chio
nea
l
Neg
ril B
each
Sailo
rs H
ole
Falm
ou
th f
ish
ing
Vill
age
Har
veys
Bea
ch
Pag
ee
An
no
tto
Bay
Wh
ite
Riv
er
Riv
er B
ay B
each
Sale
m
Lyss
on
s B
each
Wh
iteh
ou
se
Lon
g A
cre
Ro
cky
Po
int,
C
Ro
cky
Po
int,
S
Old
Har
bo
ur
Bay
Hel
lsh
ire
Alli
gato
r P
on
d
Po
rt H
end
erso
n
St. M
ary'
s B
each
Smit
hfi
eld
Bla
ck R
iver
Age
(yr
s)
Beach
Mean Age of Spearfishers
24
Figure 2: Mean ages of all Interviewed Spear-fishers on the North coast, South coast and Island wide. The Error
bars represent the Standard Error of the values obtained. N=148.
Experience
The spear-fishers were asked how many years prior to the interview they
had been fishing commercially. The answers corresponded with the age of the
spearfisher, as most responded that they began fishing from a young age i.e. 12-14
yrs. As such, the data obtained shows that the spear fishers with the most
experience in the fishing industry were generally the oldest ones. As shown in
section 2, the beaches that have the oldest divers i.e. Salem, River Bay Beach and
Black River also have the divers with the most experience in the fishing industry
(Fig 3).
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Ave
rage
Age
(ye
ars)
Region
Mean Age
25
Figure 3: Average number of years of fishing experience of the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The first 11
beaches (left to right) consist of the North coast beaches, while the remainder constitutes the South coast beaches
visited. The standard error in the number of years of experience is shown by the error bars. N = 148.
The standard error bars in the figure above also show that the ages
recorded varied greatly for most locations, with some having as little as 2 years of
experience while older spear-fishers have as many as 40 years of experience.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Wh
ite
Riv
er
Ro
bin
s B
ay
Man
chio
nea
l
Har
veys
Bea
ch
An
no
tto
Bay
Sailo
rs H
ole
Neg
ril B
each
Falm
ou
th f
ish
ing
Vill
age
Pag
ee
Sale
m
Riv
er B
ay B
each
Lyss
on
s B
each
Hel
lsh
ire
Wh
iteh
ou
se
Ro
cky
Po
int,
S
Lon
g A
cre
Ro
cky
Po
int,
C
St. M
ary'
s B
each
Alli
gato
r P
on
d
Old
Har
bo
ur
Bay
Po
rt H
end
erso
n
Smit
hfi
eld
Bla
ck R
iver
Nu
mb
er
of
year
s
Beach
Mean Number of Yearsof Experience
26
Figure 4: Average Number of years of experience of the spear-fishers interviewed by region. The error bars
show the Standard Error of the values obtained. N=148.
Spear-fishers on the North Coast were shown to have on average more years of
experience than those on the South Coast. On the North Coast, spear-fishers had an
average of 19.6 ± 0.63 years of experience while spear-fishers on the South Coast had
an average of 17 ± 0.61 years of experience. Overall, the spear-fishers interviewed
had an average of 18 ± 0.44 years of experience working in the fishing industry (Fig.
4).
0
5
10
15
20
25
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Nu
mb
er
of
Yea
rs
Region
Mean Number of Yearsof Experience
27
Main Fishing Technique
The interviewed spear-fishers were asked what their main type of fishing
was and whether or not they did other types as well. The results showed that the
majority of the spear-fishers interviewed used this technique as their main form of
fishing. Other forms of fishing were done to in addition to spearfishing such as
hook and line, net, and pot fishing.
The North Coast Beaches
Along the north coast, “Spearfishing Only” was the largest category (32%
of the interviewees) followed by fishermen that practiced mainly spearfishing and
employed net fishing techniques secondarily. The minorities included spear-
fishers that practiced other techniques as their main type such as Trawling and
Net fishing and those that practiced more than two types of fishing with a
secondary or equal amount of effort (Fig 5).
The South Coast Beaches
Along the south coast, results of the questionnaires also showed that the
majority (63%) of the spear-fishers interviewed were strictly spear fishers and
practiced no other form of fishing (Fig 6), even more so than along the north
coast. The results were generally similar to those obtained on the north coast with
the category of fishers that practiced “Spearfishing Only” followed by those that
did Spearfishing mainly and Net fishing as a secondary source of income. The
28
minority consisted again of those that practiced a technique other than
spearfishing as their main form and spearfishing secondarily, as well as those that
practiced more than two techniques with equal effort.
Figure 5: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the north coast. N=64.
32%
19%12%
5%
5%
5%
3%
3%
3%
2%
2%2%
2% 2% 2% 2%
Spearfishing Only Spearfishing mainly, Net fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Line Secondary Spearfishing, Net and Pot fishing equally
Spearfishing mainly, Line, Net and Pot secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line and Net secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Trawling secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot and Net fishing secondary
Net fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary Spearfishing, Line fishing equally
Spearfishing, Line and Net fishing equally Spearfishing, Net fishing equally
Spearfishing mainly, Pot fishing secondary spearfishing mainly, Line and Pot fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Pot, Trawl and Net secondary Trawling mainly, Net and Spearfishing secondary
29
63%10%
6%
6%
5%
2%2%
2%
1%1% 1% 1%
Spearfishing Only Spearfishing mainly, Net fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Line Secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Pot and Net fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line, Net and Pot secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Line and Net secondary Spearfishing, Net fishing equally
Net fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary Spearfishing, Line and Net fishing equally
Net fishing mainly, Pot, Line and Spearfishing secondary Pot fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary
All Beaches Visited
In combining the results obtained for the North and South coast, an
idea of how the sampled group of spear-fishers allocated their time spent
fishing by technique is obtained (Fig 7). This reflects the trends seen in
both North and South coast results, with the category of Spear-fishers that
did Spearfishing Only constituting a little more than half the total number
of spear-fishers interviewed (51%).
Figure 6: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the South coast. N=84.
30
51%
14%
8%
4%
4%
3%
3%
2%
2%
2% 1%
1% 1%
1% 1%
1%
1%1%
Spearfishing Only Spearfishing mainly, Net fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Line Secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot and Net fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Pot fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line, Net and Pot secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Line and Net secondary Spearfishing, Net and Pot fishing equally
Net fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary Spearfishing, Net fishing equally
Spearfishing mainly, Trawling secondary Spearfishing, Line and Net fishing equally
Spearfishing, Line fishing equally spearfishing mainly, Line and Pot fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Pot, Trawl and Net secondary Trawling mainly, Net and Spearfishing secondary
Net fishing mainly, Pot, Line and Spearfishing secondary Pot fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary
Figure 7: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed Islandwide. N=148.
31
Night Diving
The Spear-fishers interviewed were asked if they currently practiced night diving,
the answers showed that in both regions more divers did not practice night diving. Fewer
divers were interviewed on the north coast than on the south coast, but the results also
show that the ratios of non-night divers to night divers in both regions are similar (Fig 8),
whereby 74% and 71% of spear-fishers on the North and South Coast respectively did not
practice night diving.
74%
26%
North Coast
Non-Night Diver Night Diver
71%
29%
South Coast
Non-Night Diver Night Diver
Figure 8: A comparison of the proportion of night divers to non-night divers on the North and South Coasts.
32
Do you spearfish on the island shelf?
In response to this question the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed
said yes, expounding and saying that they fished along the coast of their
respective parish or only a few miles out to sea from the coast.
North Coast
Of the spear-fishers interviewed along the north coast, 81% of them
spearfished mainly on the island shelf. The remaining 19% stated that they
spearfished mainly at locations that were not on the island shelf, henceforth called
“off-shelf” locations. These off-shelf locations are discussed later.
South Coast
A similar ratio of “onshelf-offshelf” fishing was obtained for the South
Coast. 82% of spear-fishers along the south coast stated that they fished on the
island shelf, while the remaining 18% stated that they spearfished mostly at
offshore locations. A direct comparison of the percentages obtained for each
region is shown in Figure 9.
33
Figure 9: Percentages of Spear-fishers that practice on and off shelf spearfishing. N=148.
Where exactly do you spearfish?
In response to this question, the answers confirmed that the majority of the
spear-fishers interviewed fished along the coast or within a few miles of the coast
of their respective parish. The one exception was a spearfisher registered to
Sailors Hole, St. Ann (North Jamaica), who stated that he most frequently
spearfished about 7 miles from the coast of Clarendon, which is on the south
coast. The spear-fishers who had previously stated that they mainly spearfished
offshore listed locations such as Pedro Bank, Morant Bank and Formigas Bank
81%83% 82%
19%17% 18%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
south coast north coast overall
Per
cen
tage
(%
)
Region
Onshelf Fishing
Offshelf Fishing
34
among smaller, less well known offshore locations. A complete listing of the
spearfishing locations identified by spear-fishers interviewed within each parish is
shown in Table 3.
Table 3: The spearfishing Locations named by the interviewed Spear-fishers in each parish.
Parish On-Shelf Spearfishing Locations Off-shelf Spearfishing Locations
North Coast
Portland All divers interviewed practiced offshore
spearfishing
Morant Cay, Formigas Bank, Pedro
Bank, Grappler Cay
St. Ann Dunn’s River, Dolphin Cove area,
Mammee Bay, Tower Isle, Big River,
Rolling River, Ant Reef, Twin Cay, Port
Maria, White River, Boscobel area,
Runaway Bay, Annotto Bay, discovery
Bay, Reggae Beach, Ryanova, Salem
Beach, Pear Tree Bottom
None
St. James Montego Bay, Hopewell, various beaches
along the coast of St. James (unnamed)
Pedro Bank, Walters Bank
St. Mary Buff Bay, Port Maria, Iter Boreale, Long
Beach, Robins bay, Annotto Bay,
Strawberry Fields (coast), Pagee, Little
Bay, Mahoe Bay
None
35
Trelawney Falmouth, Discovery Bay, Salem, Silver
Sands, Flanca, Salt Marsh, Broad Beach
Pedro Bank, Columbia
South Coast
Clarendon Portland Point, Portland Rock, Jackson
Bay, Southwest Rock, Jaguar, Mendes
Pedro Bank
Manchester Alligator Pond Reef, Big Rock, Middle
Rock
None
St. Catherine Alligator Pond Bay, Hellshire, Old
Harbour Bay, Lime Cay, Wreck Reef,
Portland Point, Manatee Bay, Pigeon
Island, Half-moon Cay, Leeward Bank,
Pelican Cay, Needles, Salt River,
Windward Bank, Macka Elbow, Eastern
Cay, Horseshoe, Bomb, Hotchkyn
Patches (Atkin Patches), Bare Bush Cay
Pedro Bank, Morant Cay
St. Elizabeth Alice Shoal, Parottee Shoal, Whitehouse,
Ravian Reef, Front Hill,
Pedro Bank, Bassanova Bank
(Columbia),
St. Thomas Rocky Point, Allen Bay, Prospect Cay, Last
Reef, Red Belly, Foodie, Broad Reef
Morant Cay, Pedro Bank, Bassanova
Nova (Columbia)
Westmoreland Whitehouse, Smithfield Pedro Bank, Bassanova Bank
(Columbia),
In section 5, it was observed that approximately 82% of all the spear-
fishers interviewed fished mainly on the island shelf. This statistic includes spear-
36
fishers that fish off the island shelf as well, however, not regularly. As such,
approximately 34% of all the spear-fishers interviewed stated that they
spearfished at off-shelf locations at one point or another. Among the locations
listed, Pedro Bank was the one mentioned most often, followed by Morant Cay.
Banks such as Walters Bank and Grapplers Bank were mentioned by the least
number of spear-fishers (Fig 10). Oceanic banks claimed by other countries such
as Bassanova Bank (connected to Columbia) were also named.
Figure 10: The Relative Popularity of the Off-Shelf Spearfishing locations listed by the spear-fishers
interviewed.
How often do you spearfish?
The responses to this question were given in three forms: a) the number of
days they spearfished per week; b) the number of trips to sea they made per day
and c) the number of dives or “jumps” they made each day.
47.1%
25.5%
15.7%
7.8%
2.0% 2.0%
Pedro Bank
Morant Cay
Formigas Bank
Columbian Areas
Grappler Bank
Walters Bank
37
a. The number of days per week dedicated to Spearfishing
Figure 11: The Frequency of Spearfishing Activities of the Spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. The error
bars show the standard error of the data obtained. N=148.
The responses obtained showed that the spear-fishers interviewed
spearfished between 3 and 7 days each week (Fig.11). Along the north coast, the
spear-fishers at Falmouth Fishing Village averaged the most days per week (6 ±
0.5) while on the south coast, spear-fishers at Port Henderson averaged the most
days per week ( 5± 0.5).
A wider look at the weekly fishing effort shows that spear-fishers along
the North Coast had a greater weekly effort than those on the South Coast (Fig.
12). Spear-fishers along the North coast averaged 4.6 ± 0.1 days per week while
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Man
chio
nea
l
Har
veys
Bea
ch
Ro
bin
s B
ay
Sale
m
Ne
gril
Bea
ch
Pag
ee
Riv
er B
ay B
each
Wh
ite
Riv
er
An
no
tto
Bay
Sailo
rs H
ole
Falm
ou
th f
ish
ing
Vill
age
Bla
ck R
iver
Ro
cky
Po
int,
S
Ro
cky
Po
int,
C
Wh
iteh
ou
se
Old
Har
bo
ur
Bay
Lon
g A
cre
Smit
hfi
eld
Lyss
on
s B
each
Hel
lsh
ire
St. M
ary'
s B
each
Alli
gato
r P
on
d
Po
rt H
end
erso
n
Day
s/w
eek
Beach
Average No. ofDays per week
38
spear-fishers along the South Coast averaged 4.2 ±0.05 days per week. Island
wide, the sampled group of spear-fishers dedicated 4.4 ± 0.05 days per week to
spearfishing.
Figure 12: The Average Number of days per week dedicated to spearfishing by Region. N= 148.
b. The number of trips made to sea per day
The response to this question was almost unanimous, with 97% of the
spear-fishers interviewed stating that they made 1 trip to sea for the day. The
remaining 3% consists of 4 exceptions, one of which goes to sea twice a day
(once during the daylight hours and once at night), while the other two go to
sea 3 and 4 times a day while spending a week or more on Pedro Cay.
c. The number of dives or “jumps” made each day.
This can be broadly defined as the number of times they submerge
themselves and become dependent on a particular air supply (whether
3.9
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Day
s p
er
wee
k
Axis Title
Mean days per week
39
Freelung, Hookah or SCUBA) during a spearfishing session. As can be
expected of Freelung divers, who depend only on their own lung capacity,
they make many one minute or less dives. Hookah and SCUBA users have a
much larger air supply and therefore were found to make between 1 and 8
dives per session, with 4 dives being the most popular answer (the mode). The
time spent on each dive varied with each spearfisher, as some felt more
comfortable staying submerged longer, while others would do an increased
number of shorter dives. For example, in the case of two spear-fishers, both
using a Hookah apparatus, one may decide to do only 2 dives at 2 hours each,
while the other may decide to do 4 dives at 1 hour each.
What fishing gear do you use when spearfishing?
Spearguns
The spear-fishers were asked whether the speargun they used was
commercially bought or had been homemade (Plate 3).
Once again the proportions were similar for the North and South coast.
Along the North coast 75% of the spear-fishers used a commercial speargun and
the remaining 25% used a homemade speargun. Along the South Coast 78% of
the spear-fishers interviewed used a commercial speargun while the remaining
22% used a homemade speargun.
40
Plate 3: A – A commercial speargun (photo taken at Hellshire) .B – A homemade speargun (photo
taken at Harveys’ Beach) Photographs by Z. Ennis, 2011
Basic Gear
For the purposes of this report, “Basic Gear” consists of a Diving Mask,
Fins and a snorkel tube. In the case of spear-fishers that use a hookah apparatus or
SCUBA, basic gear did not include the snorkel tube. Every spearfisher
interviewed stated that they used this basic gear when spearfishing.
Light Source
A light source was used by all spear-fishers that practiced night diving.
Therefore approximately 34.5% of the total number of spear-fishers interviewed
use an underwater light source.
41
Breathing Apparatus
Three possible answers were given to the question of which breathing
apparatus was currently being used by the spearfisher being interviewed: 1) a
Hookah apparatus 2) SCUBA (Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) or
3) No compressed air or “Freelung”.
North Coast
The answers obtained showed that Freelung was the most popular form of
Spearfishing along the North coast (76%), followed by the use of a Hookah
apparatus (15%) and then by SCUBA (8%) (Fig.13).
South Coast
Similar results were obtained for the spear-fishers interviewed along the
south coast, with Freelung being the most popular form (58%), followed by
Hookah (25%) and SCUBA (15%) respectively.
42
Figure 13: Breathing Apparatus used by Spear-fishers along the North and South Coast. N=148.
How much does your spearfishing catch weigh on a typical day?
The answers received to this question consisted of the weights of each
individual spear-fishers total catch for a typical day. For example, if a spearfisher
typically caught both fish and lobster, or went to sea more twice per day, the total
weight of everything caught on both trips was given.
North Coast
Along the North Coast spear-fishers were generally found to catch less
fish than those on the South Coast. The clear exception to this was the catch
weight reported at Manchioneal Beach in Portland, which was the greatest daily
catch of all the beaches interviewed (87.9 ± 13.8 kg/day). As shown in Figure 14,
the majority of beaches reported an average daily catch weight of less than 20
76%
58%
15%
25%
8%
17%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
North Coast South Coast
Per
cen
tage
of
Spe
ar-f
ish
ers
(%
)
Region
Freelung
Hookah
SCUBA
43
kg/day. Also, along the South Coast, the beach that reported the largest daily
catch was Rocky Point, Clarendon (61.1 ± 9.3 kg).
Figure 14: Average weight (kg) of the daily spearfishing catch of the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The
error bars represent the standard error from the mean. N =148.
When looking at the data by region, the average daily catch for divers
along the North Coast is 14.6 ± 3.1kg while that of the South Coast is 21.4 ±2.0
3.7 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.2 5.4 6.410.7
17.9
87.9
5.6 7.3 7.4 8.3 9.4 11.312.213.920.022.3
34.6
52.1
61.1
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
Sailo
rs H
ole
Wh
ite
Riv
er
Sale
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Ro
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s B
ay
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ee
An
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tto
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Bea
ch
Falm
ou
th f
ish
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Riv
er B
ay B
each
Man
chio
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l
Smit
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eld
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ary'
s B
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cky
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int,
S
Hel
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ire
Neg
ril B
each
Bla
ck R
iver
Po
rt H
end
erso
n
Old
Har
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ur
Bay
Alli
gato
r P
on
d
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on
s B
each
Lon
g A
cre
Wh
iteh
ou
se
Ro
cky
Po
int,
C
Wei
ght
(kg)
Beach
MeanCatchweight(kg)
44
kg. The average daily catch for spear-fishers at all sites visited was calculated to
be 18.1 ± 1.8 kg (Fig. 15).
Figure 15: Average Daily Catch of Spear-fishers interviewed on the North and South Coast. The error bars
represent the standard error from the mean. N = 148.
Do you spearfish throughout the year?
The answers in response to this question showed that at most beaches (17 out
of the 23 interviewed beaches) 100% of the spear-fishers interviewed spearfished
throughout the year, regardless of season. At locations where some spear-fishers
only dived at particular times of the year, this was found to be 25% or less of all
the spear-fishers interviewed at that beach (Fig. 16).
14.58
21.35
18.12
0
5
10
15
20
25
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Weight (kg)
Region
Average DailyCatch (kg)
45
Figure 16: Percentage of Yearly Effort of the Spear-fishers interviewed by beach. N=148.
Do you use a boat when spearfishing?
The boat use of the spear-fishers along the North Coast was found to be
less than that of the spear-fishers on the South Coast. At certain North Coast
beaches, none of the spear-fishers interviewed used boats (eg: White River). Boat
use is much more popular along the South Coast where at 10 out of the 12 south
coast beaches interviewed, 100% of the spear-fishers interviewed used boats (Fig.
17).
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Per
cen
tage
(%
)
Beach
Do NotSpearfish AllYear
Spearfish AllYear
46
Figure 17: Percentages of Boat Use by the spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. The first 11 beaches (left to
right) are those on the north coast, while the remaining 12 are those on the south coast. N=148
Do you spearfish alone or in a group? If in a group, how many persons are usually
in your group?
In response to this question, most spear-fishers stated that they spearfished
in small groups. Along both coasts, the most popular category was in groups of 1
to 2 spear-fishers (Fig. 18). Smaller groups were found to be more common on the
south coast than on the north i.e. 51% vs. 34% of spear-fishers worked in groups
of 1 to 2 along the south and north coast respectively.
Some of the spear-fishers interviewed worked in groups as large as 9 or
more spear-fishers, however this was a much less common occurrence, and such
large groups were only found on the North coast.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Wh
ite
Riv
er
Sale
m
Ro
bin
s B
ay
Sailo
rs H
ole
Har
veys
Bea
ch
An
no
tto
Bay
Falm
ou
th f
ish
ing
Vill
age
Pag
ee
Man
chio
nea
l
Neg
ril B
each
Riv
er B
ay B
each
Lyss
on
s B
each
Ro
cky
Po
int,
C
Alli
gato
r P
on
d
Po
rt H
end
erso
n
Hel
lsh
ire
Old
Har
bo
ur
Bay
Lon
g A
cre
Bla
ck R
iver
Ro
cky
Po
int,
S
Wh
iteh
ou
se
Smit
hfi
eld
St. M
ary'
s B
each
Per
cen
tage
(%)
Beach
Non-BoatUsers
Boat Users
47
Figure 18: Percentages of Spear-fishers that worked groups of varying sizes. N=148
On an average spearfishing trip, how many hours do you spend in the water?
The average daily effort of the spear-fishers interviewed was found to be
between 2.5 to 8 hours per day. Along the North Coast, spear-fishers at
Manchioneal Beach, Portland were found put the greatest daily effort into
spearfishing, with an average of 7.3 ± 0.7 hours per day. Along the South Coast,
spear-fishers at St. Mary’s Beach, Westmoreland were found to dedicate the most
hours to spearfishing each day, with an average of 6 ± 1 hours per day (Figure
19).
34%
51%
28%
37%
24%
8%10%
3%4%
0%0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
North Coast South Coast
Per
cen
tage
(%
)
Region
1 to 2
3 to 4
5 to 6
7 to 8
9 or more
48
Figure 19: Average daily effort (hrs. /day) of spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. The first 11 beaches (left to
right) are those interviewed on the north coast, while the remaining beaches are those on the south coast. The
Error bars show the standard error of the data obtained. N=148.
When comparing the average daily effort of the spear-fishers by region, spear-
fishers along the North coast were found to have a greater average daily effort (4.6 ±
0.14 hours per day) than those on the south coast (4.5 ± 0.11 hours per day). Overall,
the spear-fishers interviewed put an average daily effort of 4.53 ± 0.09 hrs. per day
into spearfishing (Fig. 20)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Ro
bin
s B
ay
Neg
ril B
each
Wh
ite
Riv
er
Pag
ee
Har
veys
Bea
ch
Sale
m
Falm
ou
th f
ish
ing…
Riv
er B
ay B
each
Sailo
rs H
ole
An
no
tto
Bay
Man
chio
nea
l
Bla
ck R
iver
Alli
gato
r P
on
d
Ro
cky
Po
int,
S
Po
rt H
end
erso
n
Smit
hfi
eld
Old
Har
bo
ur
Bay
Lon
g A
cre
Ro
cky
Po
int,
C
Lyss
on
s B
each
Hel
lsh
ire
Wh
iteh
ou
se
St. M
ary'
s B
each
Tim
e Sp
en
t (h
rs/d
ay)
Beach
Mean Time(hrs/day)
49
Figure 20: The Average Daily effort (hrs. /day) of the spear-fishers interviewed by region. The error bars
represent the standard error of the values obtained. N=148.
Spearfishing Depth
The spear-fishers interviewed were found to dive a wide range of average
depths, from as little as 3 meters to as deep as 25 meters. On the North Coast the
deepest divers operated from Manchioneal and Negril Beach and fished at an
average depth of 19.4 ± 1.0 m and 20.5 ± 3.4m respectively. On the South Coast,
the greatest average depth was similar to that on the North coast (20.4 ± 4.3 m)
and was done by divers that operated from Whitehouse, Westmoreland (Fig. 21).
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Tim
e (
ho
urs
/day
)
Region
Mean Time(hrs/day)
50
Figure 21: Average depth at which spear-fishers fished at all beaches interviewed. The first 11 beaches (left to
right) are situated on the north coast, while the remaining 13 beaches are those interviewed on the south coast.
The error bars represent the standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
When comparing the North and South Coast, spear-fishers along the North
coast spearfished at shallower depths than those on the south coasts, with
averages depths of 12.2 ± 0.6 m and 12.7 ± 0.6 m respectively. Overall, the spear-
fishers interviewed worked at an average depth of 12.5 ± 0.4 m (Fig. 22).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
An
no
tto
Bay
Ro
bin
s B
aySa
lem
Sailo
rs H
ole
Pag
eeW
hit
e R
iver
Har
veys
Bea
chFa
lmo
uth
fis
hin
g V
illag
eR
iver
Bay
Bea
chM
anch
ion
eal
Neg
ril B
each
Lyss
on
s B
each
Hel
lsh
ire
Smit
hfi
eld
Bla
ck R
iver
Ro
cky
Po
int,
SO
ld H
arb
ou
r B
aySt
. Mar
y's
Bea
chLo
ng
Acr
eP
ort
Hen
der
son
Alli
gato
r P
on
dR
ock
y P
oin
t, C
Wh
iteh
ou
se
Dep
th (
m)
Beach
Mean Depth (m)
51
Figure 22: Average Spearfishing depth of the spear-fishers interviewed by region. The error bars represent the
standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
What are the six (6) most common fish species that you catch?
In response to this question, the spear-fishers listed the fish they were
most likely to catch from a day of spearfishing in order of popularity. As shown in
Table 4, the answers obtained show that, from the interviewed sample, the most
popular fish among spearfishing catch on the North Coast is the Stoplight
Parrotfish, while on the South Coast, the most popular fish species was the
Redtail Parrotfish. The less popular fish species included Snappers, Queen
Triggerfish and the Black Doctorfish.
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Dep
th (
m)
Region
Mean Depth (m)
52
Table 4: Ranking of the Fish Species (Common Names) caught by the spear-fishers interviewed by region.
Rank North Coast South Coast Island-wide
1 Stoplight Parrot Redtail Parrot Redtail Parrot
2 Stoplight Parrot Stoplight Parrot Stoplight Parrot
3 Bluetang Doctorfish White Grunt Stoplight Parrot
4 Bluetang Doctorfish Bluestripe Grunt
Bluestripe Grunt
5 Bluestripe Grunt Bluestripe Grunt Bluestripe Grunt
6 Mutton Snapper Queen Triggerfish Mutton Snapper
7 Dog Snapper Black Doctorfish Doctorfish
8 Bluestripe Grunt Hog Snapper Hog Snapper
The following photos are images of the most popular fish species among
the catch of the spear-fishers interviewed with their scientific and common names
(Plate 4).
53
Plate 4: Images of the most popular fish species caught by the spear-fishers interviewed islandwide. A –
Stoplight Parrotfish (Sparisoma viride), Courtesy of Gary Rinaldi, 2006, B - White Grunt (Haemulon
plumieri), Courtesy of Matthew Hoelscher, 2009, C - Mutton Snapper (Lutjanus analis), Courtesy of
Alfonso Gonzalez, 2007, D - Redtail Parrotfish (Sparisoma chrysopterum), Courtesy of Greg Grimes,
2009, E – Blue-Striped Grunt (Haemulon sciurus), Courtesy of Brian Gratwicke, 2009, F – Queen
Triggerfish (Balistes vetula), Courtesy of “lowjumpingfrog”, 2010, G - Bluetang Doctorfish (Acanthurus
coeruleus), Courtesy of Pat Hawkes, 2010, H - Hog Snapper (Bodianus rufus), Courtesy of Brian
Gratwicke, 2010. All Photos used under the Creative Commons License.
Which Lobster and Crab Species do you catch?
On the North coast, the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed answered
that they caught lobsters and crabs. Only 19% of the North Coast spear-fishers
54
interviewed stated that they did not catch lobsters or crabs at all. The answers
varied in regards to which species they caught. The Caribbean Spiny Lobster
(Panulirus argus) was the most popular species caught and 37% of the spear-
fishers interviewed caught only this species. Other species were mentioned and
caught in varying combinations i.e. some spear-fishers caught any species of
lobster and crab that they saw (17%) while others only went after specific species
(Fig 23).
Figure 23: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the North Coast. N=64.
On the South coast, a similar percentage of spear-fishers caught no
lobsters or crabs (14%). A much larger percentage of the South coast spear-fishers
only caught the Caribbean Spiny Lobster (65%).
37%
19%
17%
8%
7%
5%3%
2% 2% Caribbean Spiny Lobster
Do Not Catch Lobsters or Crab
Slipper Lobster, Spotted lobster,Caribbean Spiny Lobster, Crab
Spotted Lobster, Caribbean SpinyLobster, Slipper Lobster
Crab, Caribbean Spiny Lobster
Spotted Lobster, Caribbean SpinyLobster, Crab
Spotted Lobster, Caribbean SpinyLobster
Caribbean Spiny Lobster, SlipperLobster
Slipper Lobster, Spotted lobster,Caribbean Spiny Lobster
55
In both regions, the Spotted Lobster (Panulirus guttatus) and Slipper
Lobster (Scyllarides squammosus) species were not focus species, and only
caught in conjunction with the Caribbean Spiny Lobster and or the Red Channel
Crab (Mithrax spinosissimus).
Figure 24: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the South Coast. N=84
Do you catch octopuses?
In response to this question, the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed
stated that they caught octopus but that it was not a part of their regular catch, and
they generally caught it to keep for themselves or to give away, as opposed to
65%
14%
9%
7%
2% 2% 1%
Caribbean Spiny Lobster
Do Not Catch Lobsters orCrab
Crab, Caribbean SpinyLobster
Spotted Lobster, CaribbeanSpiny Lobster
Spotted Lobster, CaribbeanSpiny Lobster, Crab
Slipper Lobster, Spottedlobster, Caribbean SpinyLobster, Crab
Spotted Lobster, CaribbeanSpiny Lobster, SlipperLobster
56
catching them for commercial purposes. A similar percentage of spear-fishers on
both the North and South coasts did not catch octopuses at all (17% and 20%
respectively).
More divers on the South coast than on the North stated that they did not catch
octopuses often (Fig: 25)
Figure 25: The percentage of spear-fishers that caught octopus on the North and south Coast. N = 148.
Do you take anything else regularly, for example Conch or Squid?
On both the North and South coasts, the majority of spear-fishers
interviewed stated that they regularly caught “other catch”, which, in this
instance, represents Conch, Squid, and any other marine organism caught for
commercial purposes. A higher percentage of spear-fishers on the South coast
than on the North coast only focused on the species mentioned earlier in this
41%
60%
42%
20%17%
20%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
north south
Not Often
Yes
No
57
report and did not catch other species at all; 26% on the South coast and 16% on
the North (Fig. 26).
Figure 26: Percentage of the spear-fishers interviewed on the North and south Coasts that went after “other
catch”. N=148.
If you sell your catch, how much do you sell it for per pound (by category):
Snapper/Quality, Common, Trash?
The prices at which spearfishing catch was sold varied from beach to
beach, but overall, the prices obtained from spear-fishers on the North coast were
higher than those of spear-fishers on the South coast (Table 5). The overall
average selling prices are also shown in the table below.
55%
38%
30%
36%
16%
26%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
north south
Per
cen
tage
(%
)
Region
Yes
Not Often
No
58
Table 5: Average Prices at which the three categories of spearfishing catch are sold by the spear-fishers
interviewed on the North and South coast.
Beach
Mean Quality Catch Selling Price JA$/kg
Mean Common Catch selling price JA$/kg
Mean Trash catch selling price JA$/kg
North Coast
River Bay Beach $ 771.62 $ 661.39 $ 523.60
Sailors Hole $ 760.59 $ 578.71 $ 496.04
Falmouth fishing Village $ 738.55 $ 630.52 $ 502.16
Negril Beach $ 712.09 $ 595.25 $ 468.48
Salem $ 679.76 $ 440.92 $ 385.81
Harveys Beach $ 672.41 N/A $ 507.06
White River $ 661.39 $ 551.16 $ 440.92
Annotto Bay $ 661.39 $ 440.92 $ 462.97
Pagee $ 639.34 $ 440.92 $ 440.92
Robins Bay $ 617.29 N/A $ 440.92
Manchioneal $ 502.16 $ 349.59 $ 269.45
Mean Selling Price/kg (North Coast) $ 674.24 $ 521.04 $ 448.94
Mean Selling Price/kg (North Coast) US$ $ 7.76 $ 6.00 $ 5.17
59
South Coast
Hellshire $ 661.39 N/A $ 413.37
Port Henderson $ 654.59 $ 573.20 $ 496.04
Lyssons Beach $ 642.10 N/A $ 543.81
Old Harbour Bay $ 586.06 $ 413.37 $ 356.41
Smithfield $ 573.20 $ 440.92 $ 303.14
Alligator Pond $ 562.18 $ 440.92 $ 327.94
Black River $ 529.11 N/A N/A
St. Mary's Beach $ 518.09 $ 440.92 $ 319.67
Rocky Point, S $ 485.02 N/A $ 352.74
Rocky Point, C $ 470.99 N/A $ 305.64
Long Acre $ 449.74 N/A $ 330.69
Whitehouse $ 440.92 $ 330.69 $ 319.67
Mean Selling price/kg (South Coast) $ 547.78 $ 440.01 $ 369.92
Mean Selling Price/kg (South Coast) US$ $ 6.31 $ 5.07 $ 4.26
Islandwide Mean Selling Price/kg $ 611.01 $ 480.52 $ 409.43
Islandwide Mean Selling Price/kg US$ $ 7.04 $ 5.53 $ 4.71
60
Where do you sell your catch?
Of the 51 spear-fishers that dive on off-shelf locations, 11 (approx. 22%)
of them stated that they sold their catch on the associated cay. The cays on which
they sold their catch were Pedro Cay and Morant Cay. Most (9 out of 11) of
spear-fishers that sold their catch on off shelf locations also sold their catch within
their respective communities. Only 1% of all spear-fishers interviewed sold their
catch exclusively on off-shelf locations.
The most popular locations for selling their catch proved to be within their
respective communities, either at the beach from which they head out to sea, or in
the nearby market. This was the response of 96% of the spear-fishers interviewed
to the question of where they sold their spearfishing catch.
Very few of the spear-fishers interviewed, 3%, stated that they sold their
catch at locations other than their respective communities. Such locations
included other parishes and, in the case of two spear-fishers, directly to the owner
of the vessel on which they travelled to sea.
What would you say about catches over the past few years? Are they better now, or
worse than when you started spearfishing?
Similar percentages were obtained in terms of the opinions of spear-fishers
regarding trends in fish catch over the last few years. The majority of the spear-
fishers on both coasts believe that there has been a decline in their spearfishing
catches over the last few years. A very small percentage (6% and 7% on the North
and South coast respectively) believe that their fish catch has actually increased in
61
the last few years, while the remaining percentage of each group believe that there
has been no change in their fish catch (Fig. 27 and 28).
Figure 27: Percentages of opinions of the North Coast spear-fishers interviewed regarding the trends in
spearfishing catch over the last few years. N=64.
Figure 28: Percentages of opinions of the South Coast spear-fishers interviewed regarding the trends in
spearfishing catch over the last few years. N=84.
Various reasons for the noticed decline in spearfishing catch were given
by the spear-fishers. Some reasons were mentioned more frequently than others,
30%
6%64%
No change incatchBetter Catch
Decline inCatch
29%
7%64%
No change in catch
Better Catch
Decline in Catch
62
allowing for a ranking of the reasons to be obtained. On the North Coast, the
primary cause of fish decline is believed (by the spear-fishers interviewed) to be
pollution (Table 6).
Table 6: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the North Coast for the noticed decline in catch over the last
few years.
Rank
Major Reasons given by North coast spear-fishers for decline in catch Explanation
1. Pollution
Spear-fishers believe that pollution, (in the form of sewage) from the hotels nearby in particular, as well as from nearby communities, is causing a decline in their catch. Also listed was pollution from gullies, garages (oil runoff) and nearby construction. sewage and waste from nearby hotels, communities, garages, nearby construction
2. Overfishing Overfishing by compressor (hookah) divers, new divers, pot fishers with fine mesh, and night divers.
3. Lionfish (Pterois volitans)
Since the appearance of the lionfish on their fishing grounds, spear-fishers have noticed a decline in reef fish and believe the predation of lionfish on juvenile reef fish to be responsible.
4. Hurricane or Storm damage
Damage done to the reef by yearly hurricanes and storms is believed to be the cause of the decline in catch.
5. Unknown Spear-fishers have noticed a decline in catch but are unsure of the reasons.
6. Dredging Dredging done in the area is believed to disturb the fishing grounds and result in a decline in catch.
7. Natural Migrations
Spear-fishers believe that the decline in catch is due to the natural migration of fish throughout the year.
8. Bad Weather
Spear-fishers listed increasing bad weather over the years as a reason for the noticed decline in catch.
63
On the south Coast, the primary reason given by the spear-fishers
interviewed was Hurricane or Storm Damage (Table 7).
Many other reasons were mentioned and they are explained in Tables 6
and 7. Among them are overfishing, increasing bad weather periods and the
destructive effects of dynamite use.
Table 7: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the South Coast for the noticed decline in catch over the last
few years.
Rank
Major Reasons given by South coast spear-fishers for decline in catch Explanation
1. Hurricane or Storm Damage
Damage done to the reef by yearly hurricanes and storms is believed to be the cause of the decline in catch.
2. Overfishing Overfishing by compressor (hookah) divers, new divers, pot fishers with fine mesh, and night divers.
3. Pollution
Pollution in the form of sewage from coastal communities, via harbours, as well as from roadside runoff is believed to contribute to the decline in catch.
4. Natural Migrations
Spear-fishers believe that the decline in catch is due to the natural migration of fish throughout the year.
5. Bad Weather
Spear-fishers listed increasing bad weather over the years as a reason for the noticed decline in catch.
6. Lionfish (Pterois volitans)
Since the appearance of the lionfish on their fishing grounds, spear-fishers have noticed a decline in reef fish and believe the predation of lionfish on juvenile reef fish to be responsible.
64
7. Dynamite Use
Spear-fishers believe the use of dynamite for fishing destroys the reef and juvenile fish, resulting in the gradual decrease in fish population and therefore, fish catch.
8. Unknown Spear-fishers have noticed a decline in catch but are unsure of the reasons.
9. Anchor Damage Anchors of Ships that travel through fishing grounds are damaging the reefs.
What would you do if spearfishing was banned?
Island-wide, the responses to this question showed that the majority of the
spear-fishers interviewed would have no alternate form of income if spearfishing
were to be banned. 58% of the spear-fishers interviewed stated that they would
become unemployed (Fig. 29). The next most popular option was to practice
another fishing technique in order to make a living (24%). 7% stated that they
would be forced to find work outside of fishing. The other options foreseen by the
spear-fishers consist of a mixture of those previously mentioned.
Figure 29: Future Prospects of all spear-fishers interviewed if spearfishing were to be banned. N=148.
58%24%
7%
7%
3%1%
Unemployment
Other Fishing Technique
Unemployment or otherfishing technique
Work outside of fishing
Unemployment or Workoutside of fishing
Work outside of fishing orother form of fishing
65
Lionfish Observations
Do you see Lionfish?
All spear-fishers interviewed reported seeing lionfish (Pterois viridis) at
their regular spearfishing locations, with the only discrepancy being whether they
saw the all the time or only sometimes. Overall, 94% of the spear-fishers
interviewed stated that they saw lionfish all the time, while the remaining 6% saw
them sometimes (Fig. 30).
Figure 30: Percentage of spear-fishers that see lionfish in their regular fishing locations by region. N=148.
Do you shoot them?
Most of the spear-fishers interviewed stated that they shot lionfish while
spearfishing, either regularly or only sometimes (61% and 16% respectively). The
97%90% 94%
3% 10% 6%0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
North Coast South Coast Overall
Per
ceta
ge (
%)
Region
Always
Sometimes
66
results also showed that more of the spear-fishers interviewed on the South Coast
(31%) than on the North Coast (14%) did not shoot lionfish at all (Fig. 31).
Figure 31: Percentage of the responses of the Spear-fishers interviewed as to whether lionfish were shot (by
region). N=148.
How many lionfish do you see (for example: around one block of coral)?
The spear-fishers replied with varying estimates for the numbers of
lionfish seen. The range of numbers averaged between 3 and 22 lionfish (Fig. 32).
The beaches at which the highest estimates of lionfish were reported included
Harveys Beach on the North coast (19 ± 8 lionfish) and Black River on the South
coast (22 ± 14 lionfish).
14%
31%
23%
66%
57%
61%
20%
12%
16%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
North Coast South Coast Overall
Per
cen
tage
(%
)
Region
No
Yes
Sometimes
67
Figure 32: Average numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The first 11 beaches (left
to right) are situated on the north coast, while the remaining 13 beaches are those interviewed on the south
coast. The error bars represent the standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
However, as shown in Figure 32, large values of standard error were
obtained for the average numbers of lionfish seen by beach. The averages
obtained by region give a more precise estimate of the lionfish averages. Island-
wide, approximately 10 lionfish were seen in one area at any one point in time by
the spear-fishers interviewed (Fig.33).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Pag
eeSa
ilors
Ho
leFa
lmo
uth
fis
hin
g V
illag
eSa
lem
Ro
bin
s B
ayA
nn
ott
o B
ayM
anch
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eal
Neg
ril B
each
Riv
er B
ay B
each
Wh
ite
Riv
erH
arve
ys B
each
Old
Har
bo
ur
Bay
Lyss
on
s B
each
Hel
lsh
ire
St. M
ary'
s B
each
Smit
hfi
eld
Ro
cky
Po
int,
SA
lliga
tor
Po
nd
Wh
iteh
ou
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ort
Hen
der
son
Ro
cky
Po
int,
CLo
ng
Acr
eB
lack
Riv
er
Nu
mb
ers
Beach
AverageNumbers of Lionfish Seen
68
Figure 33: Average Numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by region. N = 148.
What are their average sizes?
When asked to estimate the average sizes of the lionfish they saw, the
average responses ranged between 0.2 kg and 0.8 kg. The largest sizes were given
by spear-fishers from Manchioneal Beach on the North coast (0.5 ± 0.2 kg) and
Whitehouse Beach on the South coast (0.8 ± 0.1 kg). Larger lionfish were
reported on the south coast than on the North coast (Fig. 34).
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Nu
mb
ers
of
Lio
nfi
sh S
een
Region
AverageNumbers Seen
69
Figure 34: Average sizes of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The first 11 beaches (left to
right) are situated on the north coast, while the remaining 13 beaches are those interviewed on the south coast.
The error bars represent the standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Falm
ou
th f
ish
ing
Vill
age
Wh
ite
Riv
er
Neg
ril B
each
Pag
ee
Har
veys
Bea
ch
Riv
er B
ay B
each
Sale
m
Sailo
rs H
ole
An
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tto
Bay
Ro
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s B
ay
Man
chio
nea
l
Smit
hfi
eld
Bla
ck R
iver
Old
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ur
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Alli
gato
r P
on
d
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on
s B
each
St. M
ary'
s B
each
Po
rt H
end
erso
n
Hel
lsh
ire
Lon
g A
cre
Ro
cky
Po
int,
C
Ro
cky
Po
int,
S
Wh
iteh
ou
se
Esti
mat
ed S
ize
(kg
)
Beach
Average Lionfishsizes seen (kg)
70
CALCULATIONS
Estimating the percentage of commercial fishermen in Jamaica that are spear-
fishers.
Through direct conversation with the spear-fishers at each beach visited,
estimates of the total number of spear-fishers at the particular beach were
obtained. These estimates included the newer, younger divers that were not yet
registered to a particular beach, more experienced spear-fishers that had never
been registered, and registered fishermen that practiced spearfishing, This resulted
in some of the figures obtained for the estimated number of spear-fishers at a
particular beach being larger than the registered number of fishermen as not all
fishermen are registered, as is the case with Breakfast Gap, St. Mary (Table 8).
Table 8: The number of registered fishermen and estimated number of spear-fishers operating from each beach
visited. The number of fishermen registered to each beach was obtained from the Fisheries Division, 2012.
Beach Parish
Number of registered Fishermen
Estimated number of spear-fishers
Rocky Point Clarendon 1397 240
Salt River /Welcome Beach Clarendon 197 80
Barmouth/ Portland Cottage Clarendon 241 25
Orange Bay Hanover 91 5
Green Island Hanover 99 20
71
Lucea Beach Hanover 236 15
Sandy Bay Beach Hanover 95 30
Hopewell Hanover 71 20
Alligator Pond Manchester 459 30
Manchioneal Portland 369 40
Buff Bay Portland 77 14
Drapers Portland 44 15
Norwich Portland 48 15
Orange Bay Portland 63 15
Hope Bay Portland 116 20
Bryans Bay Portland 203 6
St. Margarets Bay Portland 76 0
Prospect Beach Portland 155 6
Blue Hole Portland 32 3
Fairy Hill Portland 13 5
Hectors River Beach Portland 16 3
Innes Bay Beach Portland 2 10
Long Bay Beach Portland 52 30
Priestmans River Beach Portland 17 10
Boston Beach Portland 16 15
Sailors Hole St. Ann 266 25
White River St. Ann 198 30
72
Salem St. Ann 103 20
Jail Lane (St. Ann’s Bay) St. Ann 132 26
Priory St. Ann 58 8
Swallow Hole (Runaway Bay) and Pear Tree Bottom St. Ann 92 43
Discovery Bay St. Ann 127 12
Old Folly St. Ann 41 10
Mammee Bay St. Ann 63 40
Port Henderson St. Catherine 592 102
Hellshire St. Catherine 424 25
Old Harbour Bay St. Catherine 1431 55
Long Acre St. Elizabeth 105 25
Black River St. Elizabeth 356 43
Harveys Beach St. James 37 25
River Bay Beach and railway lane St. James 473 15
Whitehouse and white sand St. James 231 10
Spring Garden St. James 33 9
Grange Pen St. James 59 15
Success St. James 37 15
Annotto Bay St. Mary 167 15
Robins Bay St. Mary 110 8
73
Pagee St. Mary 341 45
Dover and Windsor St. Mary 36 52
Castle Garden Beach St. Mary 13 50
Oracabessa Beach St. Mary 196 20
Boscobel Beach St. Mary 77 7
Breakfast Gap St. Mary 3 15
Rio Nuevo St. Mary 142 12
Rocky Point St. Thomas 173 30
Lyssons Beach St. Thomas 125 25
Falmouth fishing Village Trelawney 224 80
Derby Trelawney 23 7
Silver Sands Trelawney 24 8
Rio Bueno Trelawney 81 3
Braco Trelawney 31 15
Whitehouse Westmoreland 924 20
Smithfield Westmoreland 78 40
St. Mary's Beach Westmoreland 132 30
Negril Beach Westmoreland 380 30
Yallahs Beach St Thomas 219 15
Morant Bay St Thomas 245 10
Leith Hall St Thomas 83 12
Port Morant St Thomas 176 10
Old Pera St Thomas 32 25
Holland Bay St Thomas 56 30
Dalvey Beach St Thomas 69 27
Bull Bay (7 miles and 9 miles)
Kingston & St. Andrew 212 25
74
TOTAL 13415 1891
Supported Facts:
Number of Registered Fishermen in Jamaica (Nr) = 15,000
Number of Fishermen registered to all beaches visited (Rs) = 13,415
Estimations:
Number of Spearfishermen estimated to be operating
from the beaches visited, (ESs) = 1,891
Estimated number of Fishermen (both registered and unregistered) operating in
Jamaica (Ea) = 20,000
Ratio (r) of Estimated number of Fishermen in
Jamaica (Ea) to Number of Registered Fishermen in Jamaica (Nr)
= Ea/Nr
= 20000/15000
= 1.33
Therefore,
Estimated number of Fishermen (both registered and unregistered)
operating from the beaches visited (Es) = r * Rs
= 1.33 * 13,415
= 17,887 fishermen
75
Estimated proportion of fishermen that are
spear-fishers operating from the beaches visited (p) = ESs / Es
= 1,891 / 17,887
= 0.106
Standard Error of the Estimated proportion “p”
= √ [p (1-p)] / √ Es
= √ [0.106 (1-0.106)] / √ 17,887
= 0.002
Therefore,
The estimated percentage of all fishermen that are spear-fishers is 10.6 ± 0.2%.
And
Approximately 2,120 of the estimated 20,000 fishermen in Jamaica are spear-
fishers.
Effect of Air Supply type on the average number of hours spent Spearfishing each
day.
Calculations were done in an effort to determine whether or not the type of
air supply being used by spear-fishers had a significant effect on the amount of
time they put into spearfishing each day. The data obtained (Fig. 35) allowed for
the nonparametric Kruskal Wallis H Test to be carried out to determine if there
was a significant difference in the average time spent spearfishing using different
forms of air supply.
76
Figure 35: Average Hours per day spent spearfishing using different types of air supply by region. N= 148.
Overall, spear-fishers that used a hookah/compressor apparatus while
spearfishing were found to spend more time (5.7 hours) spearfishing each day
than those who practiced freelung spearfishing or SCUBA spearfishing (4.6 and
3.5 hours respectively).
The Kruskal Wallis H Test done on the entire data set produced an "α
value" of less than 0.05, proving that the differences in time spent are significant
and not due to chanc
6.8
4.6
5.7
4.44.8
4.6
3.5 3.4 3.5
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Ho
urs
pe
r D
ay
Region
Hookah (Compressor)
Freelung
SCUBA
77
Effect of Air Supply type on the average weight of catch obtained by spear-fishers
each day.
Testing was also done to determine if there was a significant difference in
the weight of the spear-fishers daily catch with respect to the different types of air
supply used. The data obtained showed that the overall averages of daily
catch(kg) were greatest for the users of the hookah apparatus by a large amount,
while the weight of the daily catch of SCUBA and freelung spear-fishers were
more similar to each other and much lower than that of hookah users (Fig 36).
Figure 36: Average weight of the daily catch of spear-fishers using different types of air supply by region. N=
148.
87.9
57.9
72.9
16.3 14.7 15.5
6.2
11.68.9
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
North Coast South Coast Islandwide
Wei
ght
of
Dai
ly C
atch
(kg
)
Region
Hookah
SCUBA
Freelung
78
The results of the Kruskal Wallis H test done on the entire data set (values
obtained from all spear-fishers) produced an "α value" of less than 0.05, proving that
the differences in daily catch are significant and not due to chance.
Annual Income of Average Spearfisher (using average cost of quality catch)
JA$661.01/kg*18.12kg/day*4.4days/week*52 weeks/year =
JA$2,740,452.27/year
US Exchange Rate = 86.84:1 (according to the Bank of Jamaica, Jan 2012)
Therefore,
Annual Income of Average Jamaican Spearfisher = US$ (2740452.27/86.84)
= US$ 31,557.49
Annual Landings of Each Spearfisher
18.12kg/day*4.5days/week*52 weeks/year = 4,240.08 kg/year or 4.24 tonnes/yr.
79
DISCUSSION
The information gathered from this research was done in an effort to create a
profile for spearfishing subsector of Jamaica’s fishing industry. The results obtained
allow for such a profile to be presented and for conclusions to be drawn based on
supported scientific data.
One hundred and forty eight (148) spear-fishers were interviewed island-wide. An
attempt was made to sample 10-15 spear-fishers on the larger beaches and at least 5
spear-fishers on the smaller beaches. As such, 84 spear-fishers from selected beaches
along the south coast were interviewed and 64 spear-fishers from the beaches visited
along the north coast were interviewed. Interviews were done at more of the larger
beaches on the south coast than on the north coast.
The selection of beaches was made based on the knowledge of active members of
the Fisheries Division that spear-fishers operated from these beaches.
The average age of the spear-fishers interviewed was found to be 36 years. Spearfishing
is a physically strenuous form of fishing, and the average age obtained supports the
theory that persons who spearfish regularly are mostly able-bodied men. The standard
error values obtained for the data were relatively small, allowing for an assumption of the
overall accuracy of the averages.
The age analysis of the spear-fishers interviewed also suggests that the average
spearfisher, aged 36, may continue to spearfish at least for the next 9 years, until age 45
(the upper limit of average ages obtained), and possibly longer. The ages of the younger
spear-fishers lend support to the theory of spearfishing as a distinct and stable sector as
they have the potential to continue spearfishing for at least the next 24 years.
80
The number of years of experience in the fishing industry of the average
spearfisher was 18 ± 0.4 years. This, combined with the average age of the spear-fishers
interviewed, suggests that the fishers start fishing for commercial purposes from about 18
years old. Data obtained from this question also showed that the spear-fishers on the
North coast had, on average, two more years of experience in the fishing industry, than
those on the South coast.
Overall, the a little over half of the spear-fishers interviewed (51%) stated that
they practiced “spearfishing only” as their main fishing technique, while the remaining
interviewees practiced spearfishing in conjunction with other forms. What this means is
that the majority of spear-fishers rely completely on spearfishing for their income from
the fishing industry. More spear-fishers on the south coast than on the north coast
practiced spearfishing only (63% vs. 32%), suggesting that spearfishing is currently more
popular on the south coast than on the north coast. A possible reason for this may be the
fact that the island shelf on the south coast extends much further than that on the north
coast, which allows the spear-fishers on the south coast to have a greater area in which to
hunt reef fish. The north island shelf is limited in this respect, extending only 1.6 km
from the mainland.
Other techniques used in conjunction with spearfishing included Net Fishing,
Line Fishing, and Pot Fishing. These techniques were mainly used secondarily to
spearfishing.
Night Diving, which is defined here as the act of spearfishing at night through the
use of regular spearfishing gear and a waterproof light source, has been shown to not be a
significant activity among the majority of spear-fishers, with approximately 73% of all
81
the spear-fishers interviewed stating that they did not practice night diving. This result
may have been influenced by the fact that at the time of this research, a ban on night
diving was in place, however, many of the spear-fishers interviewed seemed unaware of
this ban. Very similar percentages of the sampled spear-fishers on the North and South
coast replied that they did practice night diving (26% and 29% respectively). This
suggests that, while it may not be met amiably by 100% of spear-fishers, enforcement of
the current ban on night diving may prove to be both feasible and efficient.
The ban on night diving was put in place in an attempt to reduce the over-
exploitation of Jamaica’s reef fisheries. During the night, the fish are in a resting state,
and are much more vulnerable and easily caught than during the daytime when they have
an opportunity to see their predators and attempt to swim away. Without this opportunity,
the night diving spear-fishers are able to completely deplete an area of resting reef fish
and therefore contribute even more greatly to the overfished state of the reef fisheries.
Spearfishing was found to be done mainly on the island shelf by 82% of all the
spear-fishers interviewed. This is not to say that they did not also spearfish at “off-shelf”
locations, only that off-shelf spearfishing was not their regular practice. These “onshelf”
locations were generally within a few miles of the coast of their respective parishes. The
specific locations mentioned by the spear-fishers in each parish are highlighted in Table
4. Some of the names of the on-shelf locations that were supplied by the sampled group
are believed to be more provincial names, and not the official names of the areas.
A ranking of the popularity of the mentioned off-shelf locations was done,
yielding the result that Pedro Cay was the most popular location for off-shelf spearfishing
for the sampled group.
82
Other off-shelf locations at which spearfishing was done included Morant Cay,
Grappler Cay, Walters Bank and Formigas Bank. This is in accordance with the profile of
Jamaica’s fishing grounds, whereby the majority of fishing by artisanal commercial
fishers is done within the island shelf and Pedro Cay is the most popular off-shelf
location for fishing. Pedro Cay, well known as an off shore fishing location for Jamaican
fishermen, has been under continuous fishing pressure for many years. Organisations
such as The Nature Conservancy are currently working with the Jamaican government to
establish a Fish Sanctuary on Pedro Bank to relieve some of this pressure (Meggs, 2011).
The effort put into spearfishing by the sampled group was found to be very high.
The interviewed spear-fishers fished an average of 4.4 days per week, making one trip to
sea per day. They were asked how many times they went under to spearfish in a day. As
can be expected, the freelung spear-fishers made many short dives, while those who used
SCUBA or a hookah apparatus made far fewer dives.
The number of dives made by hookah users was dependent on how proficient the
spearfisher was, the availability of fish at a chosen location, and how comfortable he was
staying underwater for long periods of time. Air Supply was not a major limiting factor.
In the case of SCUBA users, they dived as many times as the availability of compressed
air tanks would allow. They most often went out with one or two tanks each, and used
one tank of compressed air per dive. Limiting factors for the users of SCUBA gear
include the cost of refilling and renting air tanks, as well as the time and depth at which
they can spearfish safely.
All spear-fishers interviewed employed the use of a speargun, whether homemade
or commercially bought. Overall, most of the sampled spear-fishers (77%) used
83
commercial spearguns. As a device that allows for specific targeting, the speargun allows
spear-fishers to have complete control of what they catch and, if used appropriately, will
result in no by-catch. This is an important note when comparing this fishing gear type to
others (for example, seine nets) for which the catch is not controlled and by-catch may
include pregnant, juvenile, and otherwise environmentally unsuitable catch.
The use of basic gear (mask, fins and, in the case of freelung spear-fishers, a
snorkel tube) by all the spear-fishers interviewed suggests a minimum expense in terms
of equipment needed to seriously spearfish commercially.
The majority of all spear-fishers interviewed (67%) practiced freelung
spearfishing. This technique was found to be more popular on the North coast than on the
South coast, which may also be due to the narrow northern shelf and the increased danger
in using hookah or SCUBA apparatus at the deeper areas beyond the northern island
shelf.
The use of hookah apparatus was observed to be the next most popular gear used
in terms of breathing apparatus. This may be due to its relatively simple use and
maintenance and the advantages of not running out of air and diving as deep as the hose
being used will allow. However, many of the spear-fishers appear to have learned the
hard way about the dangers of being underwater (with an increased ambient pressure) for
extended periods of time, and the researcher made notes of many reports of spear-fishers
developing decompression sickness (“the bends”), potentially fatal embolisms, and even
deaths resulting from the detachment of the hookah hose from the compressor and
subsequent loss of air supply. This highlights the importance of ensuring that spear-
84
fishers using compressed air have an understanding of what it is they are doing and the
associated risks.
SCUBA users were found to be the minority of the sampled group, and are
somewhat more limited. Limiting factors for the users of SCUBA gear include the cost of
refilling and renting air tanks and gear, as well as the time and depth at which they can
spearfish.
The average daily catch of the spear-fishers interviewed was 18.1 ± 1.8 kg.
Beaches along the South Coast had a larger daily catch than those on the North, with the
exception of Manchioneal Beach, Portland (at which all spear-fishers interviewed dived
at Pedro Cay). This may be due to the greater availability of reef fish, due to the larger
portion of island shelf on the south coast, or due to the fact that a higher percentage of
south coast spear-fishers use a hookah apparatus than the spear-fishers interviewed on the
north coast. Testing for the statistical significance of changes in weight of daily catch
with gear usage was done and is discussed later in this report.
When looking at the yearly effort of the spear-fishers interviewed, the results
were also found to be unexpectedly high. The interviewees at 17 out of the 23 beaches
visited stated that they spearfished all year round, whenever good weather gave them an
opportunity. Therefore, thus far, the effort of the spear-fishers interviewed consists of an
average of 4.4 days per week and approximately 48 weeks per year (excluding holidays
and margining for illness).
Boats were found to be used consistently by almost every spearfisher interviewed
on the South Coast, as opposed to the North Coast, where boat use was not as common.
Approximately half of the North coast spear-fishers interviewed did not use boats while
85
spearfishing. This supports the earlier data of Hookah being less popular on the North
coast than on the south as a boat is required for the usage of a hookah apparatus. It also
suggests another point at which the costs of spearfishing is reduced for freelung
spearfishers as they may not have boat associated expenses for example gas, boat rental
and /or boatman (pilot).
Freelung spear-fishers, unencumbered by heavy equipment, are able to swim out
to their (on-shelf) fishing sites.
Very few spear-fishers reported that they spearfished alone. The greatest category
of grouping was found to be “1-2” with an emphasis on “2” spear-fishers in each group.
Larger groupings were also reported, with as many as 9 spear-fishers working together at
a time. Although it may or may not be intentional, this is a safe practice for any form of
diving, as the presence of others reduces the risks (drowning, mismanagement of air
supply, diving too deep) of diving. This also speaks to the high effort being put into
spearfishing by the spear-fishers interviewed.
Spearfishing is a physically taxing task, and as such, the values obtained for daily
effort, in terms of hours per day, were once again higher than expected. Maximums of an
average of 8 hours per day were obtained. Overall, the average time spent spearfishing
each day by the sampled spear-fishers was found to be 4.53 ± 0.09 hours. The time spent
spearfishing each day is limited by the stamina of the spearfisher, the availability of
compressed air (for SCUBA users), and the availability of fish in the selected area.
The depth at which the interviewees fished varied widely, ranging from 3m to
25m. Overall, the sampled group was found to dive an average depth of 12.5 ± 0.4 m.
The fishing depth is affected by many variables, including the expertise level of the
86
spearfisher, the lung capacity of freelung spear-fishers, the location at which spearfishing
is done (shallow vs. deep, on-shelf vs. off-shelf), and in the case of SCUBA users, the
availability of air within their tanks.
The species of fish mainly targeted by spear-fishers are in accordance with the
commercially popular fish species of the Caribbean region. Parrotfish (the Sparisoma
family) was found to be the most targeted species followed by Grunts (Haemulon family)
and Doctorfish (Acanthurus family). This ranking deviates from the study done by
Clemetson in 1994, where it was observed that the Lutjanidae family was the most
targeted species. This is likely due to the decrease in Lutjanidae population reported by
the spear-fishers interviewed and therefore availability as a result of the over-exploitation
of Jamaica’s reef fisheries. This population shift may be an indicator of the fate of the
Sparisoma family, as they have currently replaced the Lutjanidae family in terms of
popular demand.
The majority of the spear-fishers interviewed islandwide (83.5%) stated that they
caught lobsters and crabs regularly, more so, on the south coast than on the north coast.
They also stated that they only caught the lobsters during the lobster season, and did their
best to not catch juveniles or pregnant individuals and focused mainly on the Caribbean
Spiny Lobster. This, along with the daily weight of their catch which includes the lobster
and crab species caught, may suggest that spear-fishers make a certain contribution to
Jamaica’s Lobster and Crab fisheries.
Octopus is also caught by the spear-fishers, although the majority of interviewees
stated that they did not catch them often. They are not generally caught for commercial
purposes, and are usually kept by the spear-fishers or given away at no cost.
87
When asked if they caught anything else on a regular basis, the majority of spear-
fishers on the north coast (55%) responded that they did, while fewer (but still the
majority) spear-fishers on the south coast focused on other catch regularly. Other catch
included Conch, Squid and any other commercially valuable marine organisms. This may
suggest that the spear-fishers of Jamaica also contribute in a significant way to the Conch
Fisheries of the country. Also, by way of diving, and not necessarily shooting, spear-
fishers may also be major contributors to what appears to be a growing Sea Cucumber
Fishery in Jamaica.
The prices at which the spear-fishers catch is sold varied minutely within each
coast, but a clear distinction was observed between the North Coast prices and the South
Coast prices. North Coast prices averaged JA$674.24/kg, JA$521.04 and JA$448.94/kg
for Quality, Common and Trash species respectively, while the South Coast prices
averaged JA$547.78/kg, $440.01/kg and JA$369.02/kg. The difference between these
figures averages approximately $JA60. This is likely due to the tourism centered state of
the North Coast, and a general increase in the cost of living in a tourism area in
comparison to a non-tourism area. Many of the spear-fishers interviewed stated they only
caught Quality species, consisting mainly of Parrotfish, Grunts, and, intermittently,
Snappers.
The fish catch of the spear-fishers interviewed were sold either on their registered
beach, a nearby market, within the nearest community or on the off-shelf cay at which the
spearfishing was done. The catch was mainly sold to the most available market, the fish
vendors that provide continuous business for the spear-fishers. As most spear-fishers
88
lived within the community near to the beach from which they operate, selling to
customers within this area proves to be feasible and cost effective for them.
The opinions of the sampled spear-fishers on both the North and South coast
reflected that the majority of them (64%) believe that there has been a significant decline
in fish catch over the last few years, for a number of reasons. These reasons have been
ranked in tables 6 and 7, which highlight that major reasons include Pollution,
Overfishing, and Hurricane Damage to Reefs.
Sources of pollution included major hotels and runoff from nearby gullies. This
opinion is supported by many scientific studies stating that the pollution of Jamaica’s
coastal waters is a major concern towards both conservation and the fishing industry. A
recent example of this is a study done on the effects of sewage pollution on the coral reef
macroalgae, showing an increase in sewage nitrogen pollution between 1998 and 2002,
following decades of intensive development as a major tourism destination (LaPointe et
al, 2011). The pollution of Jamaica’s marine resources is, as stated, a major concern, and
Jamaica is currently party to conventions (for example, the Cartagena Convention) as
well as has many acts and policies in place to protect the marine environment and fishing
industry. However progress in this area has been somewhat restricted as, according to an
interview with Dr. Karl Aiken, Lecturer in Fisheries Biology and Member of the
Fisheries Advisory Board, "They (successive administrations) have been consistently
giving less to the fishing industry, leaving it resource-less to carry out its functions of
monitoring and managing the industry." (Manning, 2008).
Very few of the spear-fishers interviewed (6.5%) believe that their fish catch has
gotten better. Due to the minority of this opinion, a possible reason for this belief may be
89
the increase in efficiency of the individual spear-fishers or the discovery of a relatively
unexploited area by the particular interviewee. Approximately one third of the spear-
fishers interviewed have observed no change in the last few years.
If spearfishing were to be banned, the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed
(58%) stated that they would no longer have a way to make a living and would become
unemployed. Approximately one quarter of the sample stated that they would earn a
living through another fishing technique. The large proportions of those that believe they
would become unemployed suggest the dependency of the spear-fishers on the technique,
and predict negative socio-economic repercussions of a complete ban on spearfishing.
The final section of the questionnaire was dedicated to lionfish and the
observations of the sampled spear-fishers regarding them. What was learned is that
Lionfish (Pterois viridis) are seen on every spearfishing occasion by at least 94 % of the
spear-fishers interviewed, in groups averaging 10 individuals and approximately 0.3 kg in
size each. This data supports what is currently known of the invasion of the lionfish
species, that they are widespread and numerous. Without serious mitigation action, these
populations will continue to grow. Approximately 76% of the spear-fishers interviewed
stated that they shot lionfish, either always or sometimes, while others, wary of its toxic
spines, prefer to keep their distance from the fish.
Other Notes
Of note is the fact that all the spear-fishers interviewed at Manchioneal, Portland
reported that they only fished at “off-shelf” locations. Manchioneal Beach also stands out
as an outlier in terms of the weight of daily catch and the number of hours spent
90
spearfishing each day. Both values were found to be the greatest of those obtained on
overall. Also, all spear-fishers interviewed at Manchioneal used a hookah apparatus when
diving. These findings, along with the calculations done (to be discussed later in this
report), lend support to the suggestion that a ban on the use of Hookah apparatus may
prove effective in mitigating the impact of spearfishing on Jamaica’s reef fishery.
Among the observations made is the interesting development of a technique in
which spear-fishers simultaneously using spearfishing gear and nets to drive the fish
towards the net, pen them and then shoot desired fish that do not strike the net.
Calculations
Using the data gathered from the records of the Fisheries Division and the
estimates given by the spear-fishers spoken to, the estimated number of spear-fishers in
Jamaica was calculated. The estimates of the number of spear-fishers at each beach did
not differentiate registered from unregistered spearfishermen. As such, it had to be used
as a proportion of the estimated number of spear-fishers at each beach visited (including
registered and unregistered fishermen). This figure was extrapolated from the estimated
total number of fishermen in Jamaica (20,000 fishermen).
It was therefore calculated that 10.6% of all fishermen, approximately 2,120, out
of the estimated total of 20,000 fishermen in Jamaica, practice spearfishing.
This figure is much larger than that obtained from the previous report (2%) on
spearfishing in Jamaica, however, due to the greatly increased sample size and further
detail of this study, this is believed to be the most accurate figure.
The Kruskal Wallis H Test was done to test two hypotheses:
91
1. That the average time spent spearfishing is equal for all types of air supply
2. That the average weight of daily catch is equal for all types of air supply
The results of the tests rejected both these hypotheses, producing alpha values of
0.000 and 0.001 respectively (Appendix D). This means that the differences in these
variables are not occurring by chance and are the result of the effect of the different types
of air supply.
The Kruskal Wallis H Test was chosen as it allows for the significance of
nonparametric data, such as is presented in this report, to be measured.
The annual income of the average spearfisher was calculated to be
US$31,557.49/year, and the annual landing of each spearfisher was calculated to be 4.24
tonnes/year. These values put the contribution of spear-fishers to the Jamaican Fishing
industry into perspective as the current annual landing of the country is 7000 tonnes/year.
This means that each spearfisher potentially contributes as much as 0.06% of the annual
marine landings.
Sources and Margins of Error
The standard error bars seen throughout the results section of this report work to
give the reader an idea of the accuracy of the data. The majority of the standard error
values were relatively small, allowing for an assumption of accuracy of the data to be
made. In some instance where the error bars where more noticeable, a larger sample size
for the particular beach may have been needed to reduce the chances of inaccuracy.
92
Conclusions
The results of this report establish spearfishing as a distinct subsector of Jamaica’s
fishing industry. It is currently unregulated, and due to the extremely overexploited
condition of Jamaica’s reef fishery, this is a factor that needs to be dealt with as soon as
possible. A complete ban on spearfishing would not be well received due to the large
percentage of spear-fishers that rely on it completely to support themselves and their
families, however, regulations may be better received. Also, spear-fishers may play a key
role in the control of the invasive Lionfish species. The researcher has made the
following recommendations towards the management of the spearfishing subsector:
1. The dangers of spearfishing need to be publicized in order to reduce the risk of
illness and death as a result of a lack of knowledge. This may also result in a
decrease in the number of new spear-fishers as the public becomes more aware of
the risks.
2. A complete ban on spearfishing is not recommended, rather strict regulations
should be put in place including one or more of the following:
a. Enforcement of the complete ban on Night Diving. Heavy fining is
suggested.
b. A ban on the use or importation of Hookah apparatus (proven to allow for
a significantly greater daily catch weight than SCUBA and Freelung).
c. Size regulations for the targeted fish.
d. All fishermen that spearfish should be registered as such.
93
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(Jamaica), Sector Position Paper on Fisheries
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Antilles Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola. FAO. Fish. Tech. Pap. 326,
Rome: 1160-1180
Australian Underwater Federation, 2004, http://www.auf-spearfishing.com.au/,
retrieved on January 23rd, 2011
CFRAMP 2000. Jamaica National Marine Fisheries Atlas. CARICOM Fishery Report
No. 4 Kingston: 53 p
Clemetson, A.O., 1994, An investigation of the Jamaican South Shelf Coral Reef
Fisheries using catch and effort data, Unpublished M.Phil. Thesis, UWI, Zoology
Dept., Mona: 136pp
Encyclopedia Americana, The, (Volume 25, p. 461), 1978, Connecticut: Americana
Corporation
Encyclopedia of the Nations,
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/Jamaica.html, retrieved on
July 11th, 2011
Gill D., McConney P., Mahon R., 2007, “A socio-economic profile of fisheries in the
Grenadine Islands” CERMES Technical Report No. 11 69pp
94
Guthrie, Dale (2005) the Nature of Paleolithic Art. Page 298. University of Chicago
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Halcrow, Sir William & Partners Ltd., 1998. South Coast Sustainable Development
Study: Phase 1, Prepared for the Government of Jamaica. Tech. Rept. 2, (of 14 vols),
Marine Resources, Kingston
LaPointe B.E., Thacker K., Hanson C., Getten L., 2011, Sewage pollution in Negril,
Jamaica: effects on nutrition and ecology of coral reef macroalgae, Chinese Journal of
Oceanology and Limnology, Vol. 29 No. 4, P. 00-00, DOI: 10.1007/s00343-011-
0000-0
Manning G., 2008, March 16, Hotel pollution drives fish away - UWI scientist
downplays impact of climate change, The Jamaica Gleaner, retrieved from
www.jamaica-gleaner.com.
Meggs, L., 2011, The Establishing of Jamaica’s First Offshore Protected Area –The
Pedro Cays Fish Sanctuary ,Conference Proceedings of the JIEP's 5th Conference on
the Environment: Balancing National Development and Environmental Protection
Munro J.L , 1983 “Caribbean Coral Reef Fishery Resources”, Page 3, .,ICLARMP
Special Publications No. 7, Manila, Philippines, 245pp
MyFWC.com, 2011, The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission,
http://myfwc.com/RULESANDREGS/Saltwater_Regulations_spearing.htm, retrieved
on January 23, 2011
95
Ocean Hunter Ltd, 2010,
http://www.oceanhunter.co.nz/EDUCATION/Spearfishing/Types+of+Spearfishing.ht
ml, retrieved on Jan 18, 201
Passley D, Aiken K., Perry G., 2010, Characterization of Jamaican Spearfishing
Activities.
Passley, D., 2009, Characterization of Jamaican Spearfishing Activities
Roberts, Callum. The Unnatural History of the Sea, Island Press, 2007, p. 238
Sary, Zsolt, 2001, ‘The Small Scale Reef Fishery on the Central North Coast of
Jamaica in 2000-2001: A Biological and Socio-Economic Survey”, ICLARM, p.1
Spearboard.com, 2000-2011, http://spearboard.com/showthread.php?t=56728,
retrieved on Jan 15, 2011
The Islands of the Bahamas, 2008 – 2011,
http://www.bahamas.com/bahamas/regulations-0, retrieved on Jan 20th, 2011
UN Data, http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Jamaica, retrieved on July
11, 2011
Visitnorway.com, 2011, http://www.visitnorway.com/uk/Articles/Theme/What-to-
do/Extreme-sports/Diving/Legislation-and-rules-for-diving-in-Norway/, retrieved Jan
25th, 2011
96
97
APPENDIX A
Table 9: Names and Aliases of All Spear-fishers Interviewed.
Beach Parish Name Alias
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Kenroy
Grant
Kenroy
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Steve
Powell
90 Pound
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Joseph
Crawford
Joseph
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Laurel
Richmond
Silverman
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Winston
Bissiney
Bredda
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Garth
Ferguson
Garth
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Uton Fuller Car
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Vincent
Richmond
Fiberman
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Kemthon
Jones
Rotten Box
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Joseph
Williams
Breadfruit Head
98
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Assalovan
Scott
Artist
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Albert
Mckenzie
Breezy
Rocky
Point, C
Clarendon Ricardo
Crawford
Floodboy
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Lloyd
Robinson
Lloyd
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Basil
Powell
Boon
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Roxroy
Powell
Down
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Leon
Wilson
Leon
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Mark
Wilson
Marky
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Comar
Sinclair
Bulla
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Randal
Ford
Randall
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Leon
McDonald
Muta
Alligator Manchester Peter Ford Antony
99
Pond
Alligator
Pond
Manchester Sefton
Bromfield
Sefton
Manchioneal Portland Gary
McKenzie
Bull
Manchioneal Portland Michael
Davis
Eddie White
Manchioneal Portland Roger John
Brown
Joe
Manchioneal Portland Patrick
Kenton
Kayda
Manchioneal Portland Dwayne
Bailey
Bagga
Manchioneal Portland Mansel
Gordon
Bye
Manchioneal Portland Roger
Rodney
Roger
Manchioneal Portland Omar
Coulson
Boongsy
Manchioneal Portland Romain
McDonald
Face
Sailors Hole St. Ann Richard
Morris
Richie
100
Sailors Hole St. Ann Bruce Lee
Morris
Come-a-shop
Sailors Hole St. Ann Kirkland
Henry
Old School
Sailors Hole St. Ann Syvan
Sexton
Captain
Sailors Hole St. Ann Raymond
Taylor
Waterbird
White River St. Ann Curtis
Simpson
Ninja
White River St. Ann Sheldon
Clarke
Thicka
White River St. Ann Antony
Allen
Cowskin
White River St. Ann Stilford
Blundy
Jack-I
Salem St. Ann Rorie
Bennett
Lobban Boy
Salem St. Ann Carlisle
McFarlane
Mac
Salem St. Ann George
Bailey
Spragga
Salem St. Ann George Juicy
101
Henry
Salem St. Ann Norris
Henry
Chuck Norris
Salem St. Ann Michael
Francis
Dog
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Dicky
Wallace
Matural
Hellshire St. Catherine Everton
Smith
Pickney
Hellshire St. Catherine Moses Pitt Pitt
Hellshire St. Catherine Karhounda
White
Monday
Hellshire St. Catherine Cleveland
Taylor
Lawyer
Hellshire St. Catherine George
Powell
Turbo
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Andrew
Simpson
Prezy
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Jermaine
Clark
Frassy, Rasta
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Herman
Coley
Diver
Old Harbour St. Catherine Herbert Yellow
102
Bay Fannel
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Carlton
Rodney
Yellow
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Davian
Davis
Daddy Biggs
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Anthony
Hibbert
Shoot First
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Christopher
Willis
Bigga
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Andrew
Nemhard
Zeddy
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Leroy
Abdul
Barry
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine Vincent
Jordan
Vash
Old Harbour
Bay
St. Catherine George
Facey
George
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Deron
Leckie
Foodie
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Rohan
McCarty
Papa
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Ricardo
Wright
Boogie
103
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Donovan
Scott Lee
Cookie
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Michael
Green
Rainbow
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Carlos
Chatrie
Captain
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Granville
Black
Granville
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Michael
Williams
Mikey
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Augustus
Williams
Jughead
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Steve
McQueen
Hall
Steve
Port
Henderson
St. Catherine Vincent
Brown
Joshee
Long Acre St. Elizabeth O'Brian
Lyons
Lumber
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Kenrick
Bowes
Hero
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Robert
Honeyghan
Robert
104
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Oneil
Henry
Poochee
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Sheldon
Ducalley
Billy
Black River St. Elizabeth Oneil
Daley
Mawga
Black River St. Elizabeth Neville
Ebanks
Mutty
Harveys
Beach
St. James Rylon
Johnson
Lepre (chaun)
Harveys
Beach
St. James Conroy
Brown
Weedy
Harveys
Beach
St. James Isaac
Taylor
Zack
Harveys
Beach
St. James Kenyouth
Haughton
Hammer
Harveys
Beach
St. James Donovan
Rose
Crawb-up
River Bay
Beach
St. James Ferdival
McMahon
Ferdi
River Bay
Beach
St. James Spence
Cornelius
Raggy
River Bay St. James Nicolas Nicky
105
Beach Collins
River Bay
Beach
St. James Dalton
Grey
Taylor
River Bay
Beach
St. James Ian
Beswick
Overdose
Annotto Bay St. Mary Ricardo
Cameron
Tucku
Annotto Bay St. Mary Favian
Molar
Tommy
Annotto Bay St. Mary Lionel
Downer
Mug
Annotto Bay St. Mary Everald
Williams
Tantan
Annotto Bay St. Mary Everton
watson
Cisco
Robins Bay St. Mary Linton
McFarlane
Grismo/ LuhLuh
Robins Bay St. Mary Marlon
Simpson
Marlon
Robins Bay St. Mary Collin
Saunders
Mutty
Robins Bay St. Mary Patrick
Smith
Pancho
106
Robins Bay St. Mary Shavon
Saunders
Shavy
Pagee St. Mary Leon
Mordecai
Wiggles
Pagee St. Mary Steven
Ashman
Cali
Pagee St. Mary Oral
Davidson
Jacko
Pagee St. Mary Donovan
Francis
Shooter
Pagee St. Mary Donovan
Green
Babba
Rocky
Point, S
St. Thomas Gilmore
Sterling
Nish
Rocky
Point, S
St. Thomas Rohan
Fagan
Leggy
Rocky
Point, S
St. Thomas Kenneth
Davidson
Bama
Rocky
Point, S
St. Thomas Franklyn
Nelson
Guy
Lyssons
Beach
St. Thomas Kyle
Kilburn
Kyle
Lyssons St. Thomas Steve Pickey
107
Beach Ricketts
Lyssons
Beach
St. Thomas Antoneil
Wilkinson
Neily
Lyssons
Beach
St. Thomas Ronald
Thompson
Batchelor
Lyssons
Beach
St. Thomas Dene
Andre
Boothe
Medium
Lyssons
Beach
St. Thomas Julian
Alford
Diego
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Marvin
samuels
Cakesoap Jackson
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Courey
Brown
Ziggy
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Robert
Robinson
Doc
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Christopher
Reynolds
Bad Blood
108
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Andre
Foster
Scooter
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Richard
Green
Richkid
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Vernon
Blackwood,
Jr.
O'niel
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Osbourne
Mowatt
Paragon
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Dennis
Edwards
Humpty
Falmouth
fishing
Village
Trelawney Gerald
Spence
Remo
Whitehouse Westmoreland Jaffeth
Robinson
Leatherman/Crawny
Whitehouse Westmoreland Howard
McDonald
Wire Dog
Whitehouse Westmoreland Vincent Night Diver
109
Johnson
Whitehouse Westmoreland Junior
Stewart
Junior
Whitehouse Westmoreland Oshane
Daley
Oshane
Smithfield Westmoreland Uriah
Dillion
Parrot
Smithfield Westmoreland Osbourne
Morales
Ozzie
Smithfield Westmoreland Alfred
Brown
Cox
Smithfield Westmoreland Antony
Morales
Blackbird
Smithfield Westmoreland Delroy
Russel
Chineyman
St. Mary's
Beach
Westmoreland Mark
Taylor
Blacka
St. Mary's
Beach
Westmoreland Harry
Owen
Junior
St. Mary's
Beach
Westmoreland Sherlock
Vassel
Biscuit
St. Mary's
Beach
Westmoreland Trevor
Blair
Ranks
110
St. Mary's
Beach
Westmoreland Carlton
Taylor
Colour
Negril
Beach
Westmoreland Daniel
Daley
Killa
Negril
Beach
Westmoreland Floyd
Forrester
Mega
Negril
Beach
Westmoreland Antonio
Scott
Tony
Negril
Beach
Westmoreland Dennis
Brown
Beggaman
Negril
Beach
Westmoreland Dennis
Evans
John
111
APPENDIX B
Samples of Spearfishing Catch from Various Beaches Visited
All Photographs taken by Z. Ennis, 2011
Plate 5: A sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Harbour Bay
Plate 6: A second sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Harbour Bay
112
Plate 7: Sample of Spearfishing catch from Annotto Bay.
Plate 8: A Spearfisher and his catch in Portland
113
APPENDIX C
Selected photos of Spear-fishers and Gear
Plate 9: An Air Compressor, an integral part of the Hookah apparatus, at Long Acre Beach
Plate 10: The hose used in conjunction with the compressor in the Hookah Apparatus. Taken at Long Acre.
114
Plate 11: Compressed Air Cylinders (tanks) at Port Henderson.
Plate 12: A freelung spearfisher and his gear at Old Harbour Bay
115
Plate 13: A freelung spearfisher and his gear in Portland.
116
APPENDIX D
Kruskal Wallis H Tests
Air Supply and Daily Catch (kg)
Ranks
Air Supply N Mean Rank
Daily Catch (kg)
Compressed Air Cylinder 20 91.13
Freelung 97 55.29
Hookah 31 123.89
Total 148
Test Statisticsa,b
Daily Catch (kg)
Chi-Square 63.879
df 2
Asymp. Sig. .000
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Air Supply
117
Air Supply and Daily Effort (hours per day)
Ranks
Air Supply N Mean Rank
Daily Effort (Hours per Day)
Compressed Air Cylinder 20 44.15
Freelung 97 75.36
Hookah 31 91.39
Total 148
Test Statisticsa,b
Daily Effort
(Hours per Day)
Chi-Square 15.063
df 2
Asymp. Sig. .001
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Air Supply
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