A Perfectly Imagined Ruin Molly McCormick€¦ · The Villa Adriana is an outlier of Architectural history, not only as a collection of structures in a site but also for the vastly

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A Perfectly Imagined Ruin Molly McCormick Narratives of Modernity Professor Marina Lathouri Architectural Association School of Architecture, 2012-2013

, becomes a routine, that the temporary tends to endure, that what is 1

When Marguerite Yourcenar wrote the above in the 1950s she was envisioning the personal struggle of a man who sincerely becomes the tyrant he was only pretending to be. Though specific in its imagining, this quote recalls another from Fredrich Nietzsche Talking much about

2 Between these two reflections we can begin to identify a theme: the modern dilemma of labeling. As technology becomes faster, better, more malleable, as influence becomes vast, exotic and tenuous, it seems that to make a mark, to be remembered, requires a fantastic amount of self-assurance. Doubt is for dreams, regret is for memoirs and in the introduction at least, there can be no room for confusion: this is me. That self-assertion is as much about defining what you are as much as what you are not, often resulting in a simplistic representation of ego that may not fit the intent. To become an icon, the modern author must assume whatever they pretend to be and Architects, as part of the authorial community, are not excused. Within the twentieth century in particular, the labeling of Architects became the most vastly altered element of the field. In 1900 Architects could be seen as a more aristocratic version of a builder/mason, yet by the 2000s the profession has morphed into something more like a director/maestro with construction acting as performance, personality becoming paramount. It might be argued that this change is merely a reaction to an evolving society, but client need is a variation on a theme and seldom alters the internal politics so dramatically. How Architecture views itself is typically an in-house choice and while the labels Architects of the twentieth century choose rarely derived from purely Architectural concepts (instead fusing from sociological or philosophical works), the affect is the same. The two most prominent examples of these self-applied labels within the past century are the Modernist Architect - Architect/Engineers present

themselves as the social saviors, selling a clear, focused and hygienic utopia. Meanwhile the Bricoleurs market a more complicated world, something slightly darker and more textured. Whether the self-assessment and therefore the labels, are truly accurate understandings of their objectives can be tested via a simple case study: how each group views the pre-existing. One ancient site in particular seems to be as philosophically challenging to labels as its designer (the subject of Yource to history: The Villa Adriana.

The Villa Adriana is an outlier of Architectural history, not only as a collection of structures in a site but also for the vastly different ways it can be interpreted. Depending on the author, the Villa could be cast as the experimental workshop of a genius or the grotesque fantasy of a despot, an idyllic center for learning, or a junk pile of hedonism. UNESCO World                                                                                                                      1  Marguerite  Yourcenar,  Memoirs  of  Hadrian  trans.  Grace  Frick  (New  York  NY:  Farrar,  Straus  and  Giroux,  original  printing  1951,  current  2005),  page  13    2  Frederich  Nietzsche,  Beyond  Good  and  Evil  trans.  Helen  Zimmern  (Madison  WI:  Cricket  Books,  original  printing  1886,  current  2012)  page  169  

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Heritage ... 3 It appears in The Classical Tradition

4 while takes a much more neutral assessment, describing it mperial summer residence5 The ity to inspire ambivalence is what

makes it exceptional, a quality not lost on those who reference it. If we use the Villa Adriana as a case study example of the sometimes inaccurate self-labeling of the Architect (especially the labels of Architect/Engineer and Bricoleur) then two prominent figures are self-evident, Le Corbusier and Colin Rowe. Both writers use the Villa Adriana as a paradigm of excellence in Architecture and planning (via Vers Une Architecture and Collision City and the Politics of Bricolage respectively). However, that is where the similarities stop. Le Corbusier, looking for a traceable lineage to justify his work, alluded to the Villa as a prime example of moral, geometric and rational planning. While Rowe, aiming to contradict and reinterpsaw it as the fusion of fragmented objects with competing agendas. By looking at how these two authors use the Villa Adriana to construct their arguments, it becomes easier to understand the problems with their self-identification; specifically by studying the philosophies that produced the labels and the media representation that they chose to depict their findings.

Label Makers

Vers

Une Architecture (first published in 1923) has an inherently paternalistic and proselytic quality. There is a

with his modernist rationale being presented as a cure-all for societal needs. While he is clearly from the lineage of French engineering-based designers, such as Viollet Le Duc and Auguste Perret there is also the concept in Vers of the Architect as social reformer, vaguely reminiscent of the writing of Ebenezer Howard and to a greater extent, (as Jean-Louis Cohen points out) Joseph

August Lux and Robert de La Sizeranne6. Through Le Corbusier this savior quality emerges from its Victorian roots to blend with a

                                                                                                                     3  UNESCO  (United  Nations  Educathttp://whc.unesco.org/en/list/907    (accessed  December  1,  2012)    4  Anthony  Grafton  et  al.,  The  Classical  Tradition  (Boston  MA:  Harvard  University  Press,  2010),  418  5  Dumont  Mair  et  al.   ,  (New  York  NY:  Mairs  Geographischer  Verlag,Kurt  Mair;  1  Pap/Map  edition,  2008),  744 6  Jean-­‐Louis  Cohen,  Introduction  to  Toward  an  Architecture  by  Le  Corbusier  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press  2008)  page    

Figure  1:  Le  Corbusier  Toward  An  Architecture  trans.  John  Goodman  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  2008),  pg  119

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mechanical rational, finally forming the label of the Architect/Engineer. According to Vers, this method is not only the most efficient way to design; it is also the most ethical. In describing the aesthetic of the Architect/Engineer Le Corbusier Architecture, since they use calculations that issue from the laws of nature, they make us feel harmony 7 In the feeling for the mechanical, there is something of moral feeling. The man who is intelligent, coolheaded, and calm has acquired wings. Men who are intelligent, coolheaded, and calm: they

8 Additionally the Architect/Engineer stands against what he sees as the great evil of building Architecture today no longer remembers what got it started. Architects make styles or talk structures to excessive length; the client and the

9 Tellingly, the stringent attention paid to matters of truth and virtue is made even more noticeable in comparison to the apparently flippant use of Architectural estimation, all the great builders of history all just happen to fit into the label of Architect 10 and as a result Le Corbusier sees the aspects of modernist engineering in places where it was never intended, simultaneously placing his own work on par with the greatest in all Western history. This shows the real flaw in the label of the Architect/Engineer. It is supposed to be unbiased and analytical, yet in ignoring the aspects that contradict his manifesto such as the context and intent of historical buildings, Le Corbusier proves that his analysis is not necessarily

he criticizes. Over 50 years after the publication of Vers Une Architecture, Colin Rowe (and Fred

Koetter) reacts to the Architect/Engineer with a label of his own via Collision City and the Politics of the Bricolage (an essay in the greater collection of Collage City). 11 While Vers is a clear-cut

prospects, Collage City is a series of critiques with pert wit and subversive intent that backhandedly praises and dismantles what Reyner Banham

Architecture 12 Where Le Corbusier ignores or edits historical context, Rowe embraces it, where the former sees purity towards a goal, the later sees contradictions towards multiplicity. It seems to be more than coincidence that just a few years prior to the publishing of Collision City the last of the Pruitt-Igoe buildings, arguably

Ville Contemporaine, were infamously demolished.13 In the wake of this crumbling idealism, Architects were looking to design in a manner that was a little less scientific and a little more collective, a little less systematic, a little more human. These ide

                                                                                                                     7  Le  Corbusier  Toward  An  Architecture  trans.  John  Goodman  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press  2008),  page  95  8  Ibid.  176  9  Ibid.  96  10Jean-­‐Louis  Cohen,  Introduction  to  Toward  an  Architecture  by  Le  Corbusier  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  2008)  page  6,  

 11  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982)  86-­‐117 12  Nigel  Whitely  Reyner  Banham:  Historian  of  the  Immediate  Future  (Cambridge,  MA:  MIT  University  Press  2003),  67  13  William  Ramroth  Planning  for  Disaster:  How  Natural  and  Manmade  Disasters  Shape  the  Built  Environment  (London,  UK:  Kaplan  Publishing  2007),  163    

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Bricolage, as an Architectural term, became influential in late Twentieth century urban planning as a response to the modernist insistences of urban modularity and superstructure.14 Originally presented by Claude Levi-Strauss in La Pensee Sauvage (1962, English translation 1966) the Bricoleur is a figure who adapts and solves problems by using whatever tools are available, constantly picking up new information and influences, creating solutions of varying character. The term was pivotal to several different writers, including Aldo Rossi in Architecture of the City (1966, English translation 1982), Manfredo Tafuri in Theories and History of Architecture (1968, English translation 1980) and of course, Colin Rowe. In using this label, Rowe is creating is a direct affront to the ideals of Le CorbusArchitect/Engineer, which derives medical and systematic solutions off the basis of a pre-determined plan. The schism between Architect/Engineer and Bricoleur is allegorically simplified when they are labeled hedgehogs and foxes , respectively.

to have here are the types of two psychological orientations and temperaments, the one, the hedgehog, concerned with the primacy of the single idea and the other, the fox, preoccupied with multiplicity of stimulus;... and, as we turn to Architecture, the answers are almost entirely predictable. Palladio is a hedgehog, Giulio Romano a fox; Hawksmoor, Soane, Philip Webb are probably hedgehogs, Wren, Nash, Norman Shaw almost

15 To solidify his blasphemy, Rowe labels Le Corbusier Hedgehog disguise16

17 However the label Rowe chooses, the Bricoleur, has the rhetorical problem of being too contradictory. In defining the label, he must clarify all the things that a Bricoleur is not, which implies a label not strong enough to stand for itself. Further when both the Architect/Engineer and the Bricoleur are confronted with the Villa Adriana their rationales do not entirely support their self-labeling.

                                                                                                                     14  Nigel  Whitely  Reyner  Banham:  Historian  of  the  Immediate  Future  (Cambridge,  MA:  MIT  University  Press  2003),  65-­‐70  15  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  93  16  Ibid.  93    17  Ibid.  102

Figure  2:  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  110

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Case Study Le Corbusier praises the Villa Adriana Western planning on the grand

18 as well as on how truly Romans] did not have before them the problem of devastated regions, but that equipping of conquered regions. So they invented

methods of construction and with this they did

19 This praise is both accurate and inaccurate. The Villa Adriana is Roman by author, Roman by location and Roman by construction, however the buildings within the acreage of the Villa were meant to be a multinational catalogue of faraway lands. The Greek theater, the references to Egyptian gods, the Caryatids20, these were all adoptions

during the expansion and were built because they were specifically un-Roman, yet still under

Imperial control. The Villa was meant to evoke Hadrian's travels and in the emperor's eyes at least, were exotic, colossal souvenirs.21 meaning, in favor of making a statement about the glory of simple engineering over the popularity of eclecticism refer

accomplice to 22 Le Corbusier intent for the Villa is to highlight site

homogeny, regardless of the intent of design, which boils down to two engineering elements: 23. The strategy defined as how the buildings address the landscape,

and the legislation being how the parts all function towards the common goal of pleasing the Emperor.

Yet in using this selective method of categorizing information, Le Corbusier is more ambitious than investigatory. He merely requires an ancient site that confirms the Architect/Engineer lineage; tcontradictory. However, without the design intent, the site becomes just a series of objects in a space, an experiment. The Architecture of Le Corbusier (and by proxy his analyses of sites) in the 1920s and 30s has systematic organization, rationality, commodity and even beauty, but                                                                                                                      18  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  102  19  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  New  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989)  page  199  20  UNESCO  (United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific  and  Cultural  Organization)  World  Herhttp://whc.unesco.org/en/list/907    (accessed  December  1,  2012)  21  Anthony  Grafton  et  al.,  The  Classical  Tradition  (Boston  MA:  Harvard  University  Press,  2010),  418-­‐419  22  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  New  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989)  page  199  23  Ibid.  199

Figure  3:  Le  Corbusier  Toward  An  Architecture  trans.  John  Goodman  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press    Current  2008),  149

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there is a malfunction when he ignores the factor of context, making the experiment flawed and biased. If the label is to be believed, then the ideal world for Architect/Engineers is neither tabula rasa nor the perpetual construction of the Futurists. It is something in the middle, a vision where everything is new but feels old. The early Modernists were dreaming of a whole new architecture, using the previous one for legitimacy but rarely depicting what it meant to be in a place with both new and old existing together.

interpretation of the site. To that end, a portion of Collision City sets out to examine Le and

in its singular goal of pleasing an Emperor. Like his predecessor, Rowe studidesign against the Palace of Versailles and similarly he states that in comparison to the rigid totality of Versailles, the Villa Adriana is more aware of the surrounding plain. However, unlike in Le Corbusier , this environmental sensitivity does not connote a unified plan.

autocratic than Louis XIV but unlike him the display of constant autocracy 24 he continues

casual, who proposes the reverse of any

accumulation of disparate ideal fragments...the apparently uncoordinated

25 Collision City presents the Villa as an irreverent meandering collection of influences springing from flexible minds and

26 rationalism. By selecting the Villa Adriana as the premier example of the Bricoleur at work, Rowe is playing an

seeing how far he can stretch them before they break. On the one hand he confirms

he

accumulation of set pieces in collision27 This brings a sense of hubris to Collision City: just as Le Corbusier used personal interpretation to his advantage, so here does Rowe. Yet, by asking the reader to see Le Corbusier (who would have perceived himself, at least in 1923, as the ultimate Architect- y praising him, pointing out Vers interpretive and opportunistic understanding of the Villa as the by-product of a mind which can edit source material intelligently. Nevertheless Rowe may be giving too much credit to the modernist. In his assessment of the earlier Architect indirectly implies that Le Corbusier knew that he selected a site riddled with contradictions, that he was planting the seeds for reinterpretation, an act which shows Rowe at his most overtly                                                                                                                      24  Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter, Collage City (Cambridge MA: MIT University Press 1982)  91  25  Ibid.  91  26  Ibid.  117  27  Ibid.  93

Figure  4:  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),    91

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revisionist. Rowe respects Le Corbusier as an Architect, so he invents a scenario in which he can claim him as a Bricoleur, as one of them. So the story, that of an intentional Bricoleur who is then studied by a reluctant Bricoleur is simply imagination: entertaining, clever, charming and ultimately false. A Room with a View

The visual presentation of Vers Une Architecture and Collision City are as much tied to

their respective labels (which took place 4 times  between 1907 and 1922)28 the premier Architectural depiction of the

from the mid-eighteenth century.29 There had been other depictions of the site of course30, but none of them really captured its scale and drama. Simultaneously poetic and detailed, Piranesi understood the layout as a series views; light and dark, eerie and beautiful. The jump from Piranesi to Le Corbusier in the notable visual depictions shows that prior to Vers, the understanding of the site was in a strictly nostalgic sense. These were remains of a wonderful and impossible past, now serving as memento mori. 31 Yet in his assessment of the site, Le Corbusier ignores the assumption that the Villa signifies failure in any way, indeed quite the opposite. When he illustrates the views he does so literally, sketching rather than using photography. This choice seems to be specific, as several other sites in Vers are shown in photograph form. To understand this choice we need only look to the context.

                                                                                                                     28     "  MAXXI:  Museo  Nazionale  Delle  Arti  del  XXI  Secolo  Via  Guido  Reni  4A  -­‐  00196  Rome  18  October  2012  -­‐  17  February  2013  curated  by  Marida  Talamona  29  Dana  Arnold  and  Andrew  Ballantyne  Architecture  as  Experience:  Radical  Change  in  Spatial  Practice  (London,  UK:  Routeldge  2004)  68-­‐71  30  Including  Romantic  Painter,  Richard  Wilson  whose  work  is  available  for  viewing  at  the  Tate  Britain,  London  Reference  Number:N00302    

31  Thorston  Opper  Hadrian:  Empire  and  Conflict  (Cambridge,  MA:  Harvard  University  Press  2008)  30,  137  

Figure  5:  Giovanni  Piranesi  Remains  of  the  Temple  of  Canopus  (1774)                                    Clarence  Buckingham  Collection  -­‐  Art  Institute  of  Chicago

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s possible that when Le Corbusier 32 he may have been referencing the devastation of the

First World War, arguing that Architects should not design in the Romans, because the ancients had different objectives: theirs was to build, not to re-build. It should also be noted that for all his praising of th small depictions of it in Vers. 33

Instead, Le Corbusier depicts the Villa as series of clean, solid, almost clinical sketches,

a method which solves the visual problems for Architect/Engineers at the Villa. Firstly, by not depicting the site as particularly detailed, Le Corbusier avoids the seductive and dangerous misunderstandings of Imperial power (which is the kind of nationalistic reimagining that builds up unnecessary large militaries). Secondly, this drawing met romantic ruin and therefore ideologically obsolete. Lastly the framing may have also been the Architect o the problem of scale, allowing him complete control over the sprawling

by simply editing them out. Rowe picks up on the distinct, though not entirely accurate

visuals and in response, makes his depiction of the Villa Adriana almost pedantically clear, though it should not be assumed that the depictions in Collision City are any less tailored than Vers. Where Vers limits the scale and framing, Collision City shows a larger plan and                                                                                                                      32  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  New  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989)  page  199  33  Including    Ibid.  149    

Figure  9:  Ibid,  185            Figure  8:  Ibid,  186            

Figure  7:  Ibid,  193            Figure  6:  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  new  Architecture  

trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  

Books  Ltd  1989)  194  

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photography of a scale model directly adjacent to one another, allowing for a simple side-by-side comparison.

This is a technique Rowe uses multiple times within the text and it shows an individualistic understanding of urban experience, while maintaining combining perspective and plan into a cohesive unit he shows the visual explanation of a Bricoleur: combining many elements to form one. However Rowe, like Le Corbusier, does not use any on-site photography meaning that the reader is asked to see the Villa not as a series of ruins, but as the whole it was originally designed to be, the one Hadrian intended not the Le

ls attention to a series of interconnected and sometimes opposing moments. These

fragmented scenes build towards a larger narrative, the whole site. Bricolage yes, but perhaps a little bit of montage as well.

As both writers are committed to the visuals of their self-assigned labels, they succeed diagrammatically highlighting their respective Le Corbusier, using the Architect/Engineering method, edits the experience to what he deems to be the most convincing of the spaces. By being strategically vague and surgically removing the contradictory aspects, he shows that Architect/Engineers perceive the Villa as an experiment (a particularly biased one), rather than Architecture. Meanwhile Rowe, acting as a Bricoleur, uses a much wider view to argue that the meandering nature of the site and the eclectic influences are the most significant quality. However in making his case against an experimental depiction of the Villa

Figure  10:  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  90-­‐91

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Adriana, Rowe creates a fantasy. If one would actually experience the site, it would not be in nd, so by avoiding the eye-level views, Rowe removes the

humanistic experience of the Villa, which is one of the core goals of phenomenology, an Architectural movement inspired by the Bricoleur philosophy.

While neither one of these visual depictions is totally inaccurate, neither are they strictly truthful. Beautiful as it is the Villa Adriana, at least partially, is a failure. The design may be excellent but the site was a victim of centuries of disuse, violent pillaging and opportunistic visitors who removed major portions of material and decoration. Rowe and Le Corbusier avoid the elephant in the room: that the site is a ruin and ruins cannot be treated as a living city.

How Do You Solve A Problem Like Adriana?

Though their Architectural solutions are arguably timeless, in choosing their self-applied labels, Colin Rowe and Le Corbusier define themselves within the context of twentieth century mind frame. In choosing self-apply their own labels, rather than allowing the reader to decide, they are cemented by their criticism. Le Corbusier writes as a Modernist, authoritative in intent and language. Rowe writes as a quasi-post-modern/quasi-phenomenological critic, ambiguous in his prose. The earlier writer was still witnessing the aftermath of World War I, coming out of the tradition of Architectural eclecticism while maintaining a growing interest in abstraction and Freudian psychology. The later was writing from the perspective of a post-war, post-pop, post-rationalist scholar knowing from historical precedent that manifestos are inherently flawed. Le Corbusier had learned from movements like the Italian Futurists that plan-based, decoration-less construction would not be marketable ideas without a dynastic lineage. He could not sever

ord to alienate potential clients with a sense of haughty supremacy, like Adolf Loos. Rowe had a distinct advantage to his analysis, as he knew what Le Corbusier would eventually become, that he would shed the white machine aesthetic in favor of rough textures and bright colors later in his career; that the early Modern worldview was overly idealistic. The Architect/Engineer is looking to sell his goods and the Bricoleur is someone living in the aftermath. Neither of the world-views is completely incorrect means.

However the most dangerous aspect of labeling in Architecture and even the greater authorial . By defining themselves as either an Architect/Engineer or Bricoleur, both authors create walls that do not necessarily support their visions. The selection of the Villa Adriana emphasizes the inherent problems these labels entail. Architect/Engineers can only truly function within their own contexts because it does not depend on an exterior world to survive. The self-sufficiency means that when entered into a context, the concepts become foreign and Bricoleurs cannot conceive of completely new systems, but can only re-interpret and adapt. They do not create in the conventional sense; theirs is a design of mimicry and alteration. If both authors had avoided the labeling of themselves as one name or another, it would then be on the reader to determine their influences, which argues for a more interpretive (and possibly more interesting) understanding, rather than the cut and dry explanation of the Architect role.

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The Villa Adriana could serve as a me Architectural biases, particularly in how they relate to philosophy and history. Architecture is one of the few areas of study in which every time a structure is seen in person, it becomes a firsthand account of what it means to be there. The first-person account is something to which all other forms of history aspire to understand, either through research, reenactment or recreation. Yet in Architecture it is common place. What the Villa Adriana reminds us of is that there are many different ways to look at the same object and by setting a ridged self-labeled dogma you close the doors on variety. A self-label can make you memorable, sure, but they also simplify, and not always for the better.

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Works  Cited    

1  -­‐  Marguerite  Yourcenar,  Memoirs  of  Hadrian  trans.  Grace  Frick  (New  York  NY:  Farrar,  Straus  and  Giroux,  original  printing  1951,  current  2005),  page  13      2-­‐  Frederich  Nietzsche,  Beyond  Good  and  Evil  trans.  Helen  Zimmern  (Madison  WI:  Cricket  Books,  original  printing  1886,  current  2012)  page  169  

3  -­‐  http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/907  (accessed  December  1,  2012)    

4  -­‐  Anthony  Grafton,  et  al.,  The  Classical  Tradition  (Boston  MA:  Harvard  University  Press,  2010),  418  

5  -­‐  Dumont  Mair  et  al.   ,  (New  York  NY:  Mairs  Geographischer  Verlag,Kurt  Mair;  1  Pap/Map  edition,  2008),  744  

6-­‐Jean-­‐Louis  Cohen,  Introduction  to  Toward  an  Architecture  by  Le  Corbusier  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press  2008)  page  6    7-­‐Le  Corbusier  Toward  An  Architecture  trans.  John  Goodman  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press  2008),  page  95    8-­‐  Ibid.  176    9-­‐  Ibid.  96    10-­‐  Jean-­‐Louis  Cohen,  Introduction  to  Toward  an  Architecture  by  Le  Corbusier  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  2008)  page  6,  

   11-­‐  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982)  86-­‐117    12  -­‐  Nigel  Whitely,  Reyner  Banham:  Historian  of  the  Immediate  Future  (Cambridge,  MA:  MIT  University  Press  2003),  67    

13-­‐  William  Ramroth,  Planning  for  Disaster:  How  Natural  and  Manmade  Disasters  Shape  the  Built  Environment  (London,  UK:  Kaplan  Publishing  2007),  163  

14-­‐  Nigel  Whitely,  Reyner  Banham:  Historian  of  the  Immediate  Future  (Cambridge,  MA:  MIT  University  Press  2003),  65-­‐70  

15  -­‐  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  93    16-­‐  Ibid.  93      17-­‐  Ibid.  102  

18-­‐  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  102    

19-­‐  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  New  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989)  page  199    

20-­‐  UNESCO  (United  Nations  http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/907    (accessed  December  1,  2012)    

21-­‐  Anthony  Grafton,  et  al.,  The  Classical  Tradition  (Boston  MA:  Harvard  University  Press,  2010),  418-­‐419    

13    

22-­‐  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  New  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989)  page  199    23-­‐  Ibid.  199  

24-­‐  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982)  91    

25-­‐  Ibid.91    26-­‐  Ibid.  117    27  -­‐  Ibid.  93  

28  -­‐ -­‐  00196  Rome  18  October  2012  -­‐  17  February  2013  curated  by  Marida  Talamona    29-­‐  Dana  Arnold  and  Andrew  Ballantyne  Architecture  as  Experience:  Radical  Change  in  Spatial  Practice  (London,  UK:  Routeldge  2004)  68-­‐71    30  -­‐Including  Romantic  Painter,  Richard  Wilson  whose  work  is  available  for  viewing  at  the  Tate  Britain,  London  Reference  Number:N00302    

31-­‐  Thorston  Opper  Hadrian:  Empire  and  Conflict  (Cambridge,  MA:  Harvard  University  Press  2008)  30,  137  

32-­‐  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  New  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989)  page  199    33-­‐    (referenced  in  this  paper  on  page  4)  Ibid.  149    IMAGES  

Figure  1:  Le  Corbusier  Toward  An  Architecture  trans.  John  Goodman  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  2008),  pg  119

Figure  2:  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  110

Figure  3:  Le  Corbusier  Toward  An  Architecture  trans.  John  Goodman  (Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press    Current  2008),  149

Figure  4:  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),    91

Figure  5:  Giovanni  Piranesi  Remains  of  the  Temple  of  Canopus  (1774)    Clarence  Buckingham  Collection  -­‐  Art  Institute  of  Chicago

Figure  6:  Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  new  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  (Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989)  194  

Figure  7:  Ibid,  193            

Figure  8:  Ibid,  186            

Figure  9:  Ibid,  185            

Figure  10:  Colin  Rowe  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  (Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982),  90-­‐91

14    

Bibliography  

 Arnold,  Dana  and  Andrew  Ballantyne  Architecture  as  Experience:  Radical  Change  in  Spatial  Practice  London,  UK:  Routeldge  2004    Cohen,  Jean-­‐Louis,  Introduction  to  Toward  an  Architecture  by  Le  Corbusier  Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press  Current  2007    Giovanni  Piranesi   Remains  of  the  Temple  of  Canopus    Clarence  Buckingham  Collection  -­‐  Art  Institute  of  Chicago    Grafton,  Anthony  et  al.,  The  Classical  Tradition  Boston  MA:  Harvard  University  Press,  2010    

Guido  Reni  4A  -­‐  00196  Rome  18  October  2012  -­‐  17  February  2013  curated  by  Marida  Talamona    Le  Corbusier  Toward  An  Architecture  trans.  John  Goodman  Los  Angeles  CA:  Getty  Foundation  Press  2008    Le  Corbusier  Towards  a  New  Architecture  trans.  From  13th  French  Edition  Cornwall,  UK:  MPG  Books  Ltd  1989      Mair,  Dumont,  Verlag  Karl  Baedeker  et  al.   ,  New  York  NY:  Mairs  Geographischer  Verlag,Kurt  Mair;  1  Pap/Map  edition,  2008    Nietzsche,  Frederich  Beyond  Good  and  Evil  trans.  Helen  Zimmern  Madison  WI:  Cricket  Books  2012    Opper,  Thorston  Hadrian:  Empire  and  Conflict  Cambridge,  MA:  Harvard  University  Press  2008    Ramroth,  William  Planning  for  Disaster:  How  Natural  and  Manmade  Disasters  Shape  the  Built  Environment  London,  UK:  Kaplan  Publishing  2007    

Rowe,  Colin  and  Fred  Koetter,  Collage  City  Cambridge  MA:  MIT  University  Press  1982  

http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/907    (accessed  December  1,  2012)    Whitely,  Nigel  Reyner  Banham:  Historian  of  the  Immediate  Future  Cambridge,  MA:  MIT  University  Press  2003    

Reference  Number:N00302    Yourcenar,  Marguerite  Memoirs  of  Hadrian  trans.  Grace  Frick  New  York  NY:  Farrar,  Straus  and  Giroux,  2005