A New Artificial Intelligence 4 Kevin Warwick. Philosophy of AI The philosophy behind AI has played a critical role in the subject’s development The philosophy.

A New Artificial A New Artificial Intelligence 4Intelligence 4

Kevin WarwickKevin Warwick

Philosophy of AIPhilosophy of AI

• The philosophy behind AI has played a The philosophy behind AI has played a critical role in the subject’s developmentcritical role in the subject’s development

• What does it mean for a machine to think? What does it mean for a machine to think?

• Can a machine be conscious? Can a machine be conscious?

• Can a machine fool you, in conversation, Can a machine fool you, in conversation, into thinking it is actually human? into thinking it is actually human?

• Is this important? Is this important?

• In looking into the minds of machines we In looking into the minds of machines we must ask fundamental questions about must ask fundamental questions about ourselvesourselves

Human-centricHuman-centric

• The philosophical study of artificial The philosophical study of artificial intelligence has been dogged by the desire intelligence has been dogged by the desire to regard human intelligence as something to regard human intelligence as something specialspecial

• To show how computers can’t do some of To show how computers can’t do some of the things that human brains dothe things that human brains do

• Therefore computers are somehow inferiorTherefore computers are somehow inferior

• This is understandable, after all we are This is understandable, after all we are human and it is easy to fall into the trap of human and it is easy to fall into the trap of thinking that the human way of doing thinking that the human way of doing things is the best way things is the best way

Objective StudyObjective Study

• It is difficult to be objective about something It is difficult to be objective about something when you are immersed in it on a daily basiswhen you are immersed in it on a daily basis

• Ask any academic researcher whose Ask any academic researcher whose research program is the most important – research program is the most important – they will tell you it is theirsthey will tell you it is theirs

• So we face a problem with human So we face a problem with human intelligenceintelligence

• To get around this, external assessment is To get around this, external assessment is required. required.

• We need knowledgeable sources who will We need knowledgeable sources who will give us an unbiased view. give us an unbiased view.

You are an Alien!You are an Alien!

• We must compare in a scientific way – We must compare in a scientific way – perhaps some aspects are more important to perhaps some aspects are more important to one person than they are to another. one person than they are to another.

• To study the philosophy of artificial To study the philosophy of artificial intelligence we need to start by carrying out intelligence we need to start by carrying out an independent assessment of intelligencean independent assessment of intelligence

• You need to forget that you are human and to You need to forget that you are human and to look at human intelligence from the outsidelook at human intelligence from the outside

• You are an alien with no bias towards humans You are an alien with no bias towards humans and you must assess the intelligence of the and you must assess the intelligence of the entities that you observe on earth.entities that you observe on earth.

Starting PointStarting Point

• Let’s look at some of the Let’s look at some of the misconceptions and biases that can misconceptions and biases that can occur occur

• With artificial intelligence we are not With artificial intelligence we are not necessarily trying to copy (simulate) necessarily trying to copy (simulate) the workings of the human brainthe workings of the human brain

• This said - one interesting question is: This said - one interesting question is: could we copy/simulate the human could we copy/simulate the human brain with an artificial intelligent brain?brain with an artificial intelligent brain?

RandomnessRandomness• We all fall into simple traps when studying AI and the We all fall into simple traps when studying AI and the

human brainhuman brain• Consider random behaviorConsider random behavior• It might be said that computers think in a It might be said that computers think in a

mechanistic, programmed way whereas humans can mechanistic, programmed way whereas humans can think randomlythink randomly

• This is incorrect – all human thoughts are from and in This is incorrect – all human thoughts are from and in our brains and are based on the genetic make up of our brains and are based on the genetic make up of our brains and what we have learnt in our livesour brains and what we have learnt in our lives

• Whilst an act may appear random to an outside Whilst an act may appear random to an outside observer, this is simply because they do not observer, this is simply because they do not understand the reasoning behind it. Anything you do understand the reasoning behind it. Anything you do or say will have been based on the signals in your or say will have been based on the signals in your brainbrain

• As a test – do something randomly, say something at As a test – do something randomly, say something at random – whatever your response you will have random – whatever your response you will have made a conscious decisionmade a conscious decision

Penrose’s Pitfall IPenrose’s Pitfall I• Roger Penrose said: “there is a great deal of Roger Penrose said: “there is a great deal of

randomness in the (human) brain’s wiring”randomness in the (human) brain’s wiring”• This is simply not trueThis is simply not true• A human brain is a complex network of highly A human brain is a complex network of highly

connected brain cells, the connections have connected brain cells, the connections have been made due to biological growth - directed been made due to biological growth - directed by our genetic make up and learning by our genetic make up and learning

• Because something is complex and difficult to Because something is complex and difficult to understand this does not mean it is randomunderstand this does not mean it is random

• If you do not understand what is going on, a If you do not understand what is going on, a telephone exchange can appear complex – it telephone exchange can appear complex – it does not act randomly, otherwise we would does not act randomly, otherwise we would never be able to make a telephone call – we never be able to make a telephone call – we could be connected with absolutely anyone (at could be connected with absolutely anyone (at random).random).

Penrose’s Pitfall IIPenrose’s Pitfall II• Do you agree with these Penrose Do you agree with these Penrose

statements?statements?• ““Genuine intelligence requires that Genuine intelligence requires that

genuine understanding must be present” genuine understanding must be present” - “intelligence requires understanding”. - “intelligence requires understanding”.

• ““Actual understanding could not be Actual understanding could not be achieved by any computer”. Computers achieved by any computer”. Computers will never be able to understand.will never be able to understand.

• ““Computers will always remain Computers will always remain subservient to us (humans), no matter subservient to us (humans), no matter how far they advance”. how far they advance”.

• This is all pure Hollywood, fantasy land! This is all pure Hollywood, fantasy land!

Let’s be serious!Let’s be serious!

• When one cow Moos to another they presumably When one cow Moos to another they presumably have some concept of what is being uttered, they have some concept of what is being uttered, they often seem to respond. often seem to respond.

• One cow appears to understand another cow. But One cow appears to understand another cow. But do we humans understand them, can we do we humans understand them, can we communicate with them? From this, Penrose logic communicate with them? From this, Penrose logic follows -follows -

• Humans do not ‘genuinely understand’ cows etc, Humans do not ‘genuinely understand’ cows etc, therefore we are not as intelligent as them. therefore we are not as intelligent as them.

• As a result we will always be subservient to them – As a result we will always be subservient to them – cows will rule the earth!! cows will rule the earth!!

• The argument is just plain silly – so, in the same The argument is just plain silly – so, in the same way, is Penrose’s argument for computers to way, is Penrose’s argument for computers to always be subservient to humans.always be subservient to humans.

To the pointTo the point

• Computers may well understand things in a Computers may well understand things in a different way to humans, animals understand different way to humans, animals understand things in a different way to humans, some humans things in a different way to humans, some humans probably understand some things in different ways probably understand some things in different ways to other humans. to other humans.

• This doesn’t make one intelligent and another not. This doesn’t make one intelligent and another not. It means that one is intelligent in a different way to It means that one is intelligent in a different way to another. It’s all subjective. another. It’s all subjective.

• As for computers always being subservient - that is As for computers always being subservient - that is pure fiction. It may make someone feel nice to say pure fiction. It may make someone feel nice to say that, but there is no logic to it at all. It’s a cocoa that, but there is no logic to it at all. It’s a cocoa statement!statement!

• When the Aztecs and the Red Indians were When the Aztecs and the Red Indians were defeated by Europeans, the ‘better’, more defeated by Europeans, the ‘better’, more intelligent, culture lay with the home teams. The intelligent, culture lay with the home teams. The invaders brought technology that the home teams invaders brought technology that the home teams didn’t understand. Because something is not didn’t understand. Because something is not intelligent in the same way as we are does not intelligent in the same way as we are does not mean it will always be subservient to us!mean it will always be subservient to us!

Weak AIWeak AI

• The possibility that machines can act The possibility that machines can act intelligently as a human does or act intelligently as a human does or act as if they were intelligent as a as if they were intelligent as a human is referred to as human is referred to as Weak AIWeak AI

• This stems from Minsky’s definition This stems from Minsky’s definition of AI - machines do things that of AI - machines do things that appear to be intelligent actsappear to be intelligent acts

• This concept is though not accepted This concept is though not accepted by some.by some.

Argument from disabilityArgument from disability• Computers can now do many things better than Computers can now do many things better than

humans do - things we feel require understanding – humans do - things we feel require understanding – playing chess, mathematics playing chess, mathematics

• The “argument from disability” as Turing said is that The “argument from disability” as Turing said is that some will say “a machine can never ….” Examples some will say “a machine can never ….” Examples given by Turing are: “be kind, resourceful, beautiful, given by Turing are: “be kind, resourceful, beautiful, friendly, have initiative, have a sense of humor, tell friendly, have initiative, have a sense of humor, tell right from wrong, make mistakes, fall in love, enjoy right from wrong, make mistakes, fall in love, enjoy strawberries and cream, etc”.strawberries and cream, etc”.

• There is no reason that a computer could not do any There is no reason that a computer could not do any of these of these

• Whether a computer does them in the same way as a Whether a computer does them in the same way as a human, whether it ‘understands’ are quite different human, whether it ‘understands’ are quite different questions. questions.

• We can’t know whether another human ‘understands’ We can’t know whether another human ‘understands’ or ‘feels’ things in the same way that we do. The or ‘feels’ things in the same way that we do. The person may say, and think that, they understand – but person may say, and think that, they understand – but do they? How can we be sure?do they? How can we be sure?

Strong AIStrong AI

• The possibility that a machine can The possibility that a machine can actually think in the same way as a actually think in the same way as a human, as opposed simply to human, as opposed simply to appearing to simulate human appearing to simulate human thinking, is referred to as thinking, is referred to as Strong AIStrong AI

• This would mean that it would be This would mean that it would be possible to build a computer that possible to build a computer that completely replicated the functioning completely replicated the functioning of the human brain in every aspect.of the human brain in every aspect.

Brain in a Vat ExperimentBrain in a Vat Experiment• When you are born your brain is removed and When you are born your brain is removed and

placed in a vatplaced in a vat• It is kept alive and fed with suitable nutrients to It is kept alive and fed with suitable nutrients to

allow it to grow and develop connectionsallow it to grow and develop connections• Signals are sent to the brain to feed it with a Signals are sent to the brain to feed it with a

purely fictional world and motor signals from the purely fictional world and motor signals from the brain are sent to the world such that your brain is brain are sent to the world such that your brain is able to modify it and move around in itable to modify it and move around in it

• The world appears to be realThe world appears to be real• In theory your brain, in this state, could have the In theory your brain, in this state, could have the

same sort of feelings and emotions as a brain same sort of feelings and emotions as a brain which has developed in a body in the which has developed in a body in the usual/normal way.usual/normal way.

QualiaQualia

• If the two brains have been able to develop in If the two brains have been able to develop in identical ways then it all rests on the nature of the identical ways then it all rests on the nature of the fictional world. fictional world.

• If it was absolutely identical to the real world then If it was absolutely identical to the real world then the brains would have no way to tell the difference the brains would have no way to tell the difference and they must have developed in the same way. and they must have developed in the same way.

• In practice - simulations are not the same as the In practice - simulations are not the same as the real thing and there would be small discrepancies – real thing and there would be small discrepancies – referred to as qualia, intrinsic experiences. referred to as qualia, intrinsic experiences.

• A supporter of strong AI would feel that the A supporter of strong AI would feel that the differences are so slight as not to matter, but an differences are so slight as not to matter, but an opponent would feel that the differences are opponent would feel that the differences are absolutely critical. absolutely critical.

Materialists –v- SpiritualistsMaterialists –v- Spiritualists

• Some approach the subject from a Some approach the subject from a materialist viewpoint, assuming that materialist viewpoint, assuming that there are no spiritual aspects involved, there are no spiritual aspects involved, there is no such thing as the immortal there is no such thing as the immortal soul, and that “brains cause minds”. soul, and that “brains cause minds”.

• Some feel that no matter what Some feel that no matter what physical elements are involved, where physical elements are involved, where the (human) brain is concerned, there the (human) brain is concerned, there is something else that cannot be is something else that cannot be measured and it is this that is the measured and it is this that is the important thing. important thing.

GodGod

• From a scientific basis the “brains cause From a scientific basis the “brains cause minds” argument is the more obvious.minds” argument is the more obvious.

• It is also pointless to argue against It is also pointless to argue against someone who says that no matter what someone who says that no matter what we experience or measure, there is we experience or measure, there is something else – possibly Godlike – at something else – possibly Godlike – at work and it overrides all else.work and it overrides all else.

Free willFree will

• How can a mind, restricted by physical How can a mind, restricted by physical constructs, achieve freedom of choice?constructs, achieve freedom of choice?

• A materialistic argument to this A materialistic argument to this concludes that free will is merely the concludes that free will is merely the decisions taken by an individual – decisions taken by an individual – these are based on their genetic make these are based on their genetic make up, their experience and the sensed up, their experience and the sensed environment.environment.

• There is no mystical element at work!There is no mystical element at work!

Consciousness & a shoeConsciousness & a shoe

• Consciousness – hmmm. Consciousness – hmmm. Consider the Consider the statements:statements:

• What does it What does it feelfeel like to smell a rose? like to smell a rose? • How can a computer possibly How can a computer possibly feelfeel such a thing? such a thing? • Why does it Why does it feelfeel like something to have brain states like something to have brain states

whereas it does not whereas it does not feel feel like anything to be a shoe? like anything to be a shoe? • A conclusion is drawn (Searle) that a shoe cannot A conclusion is drawn (Searle) that a shoe cannot

be conscious – therefore a computer cannot be be conscious – therefore a computer cannot be conscious!conscious!

• These issues and questions are encountered These issues and questions are encountered regularly in texts on artificial intelligence. regularly in texts on artificial intelligence.

• Please be aware of them, but use what you have – Please be aware of them, but use what you have – your intelligence – to “think” about the arguments your intelligence – to “think” about the arguments made.made.

Human biasHuman bias

• We We knowknow what it is like to be ourselves. We do not what it is like to be ourselves. We do not knowknow what it is what it is like to be a bat, a computer, another human, a cabbage or a shoe. like to be a bat, a computer, another human, a cabbage or a shoe.

• We should not We should not presumepresume we know what someone or something else we know what someone or something else is thinking. is thinking.

• The (previous) argument employs the human sense of smell. The (previous) argument employs the human sense of smell. • A shoe does not appear to have a sense of smell, human or A shoe does not appear to have a sense of smell, human or

otherwise. otherwise. • A human is compared with a shoe – the assumption is that a A human is compared with a shoe – the assumption is that a

computer is similar to a shoe and conclusions drawn regarding the computer is similar to a shoe and conclusions drawn regarding the consciousness of a shoe therefore also apply to a computer consciousness of a shoe therefore also apply to a computer

• I have not yet witnessed a shoe that is similar to a computer I have not yet witnessed a shoe that is similar to a computer • Comparing a human with a shoe is akin to comparing a computer Comparing a human with a shoe is akin to comparing a computer

with a cabbage – can the cabbage deal with mathematics, can it with a cabbage – can the cabbage deal with mathematics, can it communicate in English, can it control a jet aircraft? communicate in English, can it control a jet aircraft?

• The same logic used in the consciousness argument for humans-The same logic used in the consciousness argument for humans-shoes means that if a cabbage can’t do these things then neither shoes means that if a cabbage can’t do these things then neither can a human. Clearly these are ridiculous comparisons, but so too can a human. Clearly these are ridiculous comparisons, but so too is comparing a human with a shoe is comparing a human with a shoe

Strong & weak AIStrong & weak AI

• The possibility that a machine can act as if The possibility that a machine can act as if it was as intelligent as a human is referred it was as intelligent as a human is referred to as Weak AIto as Weak AI

• The possibility that a machine can think in The possibility that a machine can think in exactly the same way as a human is exactly the same way as a human is referred to as Strong AI. referred to as Strong AI.

• Both positions suffer from a human-centric Both positions suffer from a human-centric comparisoncomparison

• The starting point is that there is only one The starting point is that there is only one “Okay” intelligence – human intelligence – “Okay” intelligence – human intelligence – to which all other forms of intelligence to which all other forms of intelligence (including that of aliens if they exist!) can (including that of aliens if they exist!) can only aspire.only aspire.

Modern AIModern AI

• We need an up to date viewpoint that We need an up to date viewpoint that is representative of the computers, is representative of the computers, machines, robots of today and machines, robots of today and encapsulates the different forms of encapsulates the different forms of intelligence witnessed in life intelligence witnessed in life

• A modern, open view of consciousness, A modern, open view of consciousness, understanding, self awareness and free understanding, self awareness and free will is required for us to really get to will is required for us to really get to terms with artificial intelligence.terms with artificial intelligence.

Alien landingAlien landing• Assume that an alien being lands on earth, having Assume that an alien being lands on earth, having

travelled billions of miles from its planet in order to do travelled billions of miles from its planet in order to do so so

• It must have intellectual properties way beyond those It must have intellectual properties way beyond those of humans as humans have not yet figured out how to of humans as humans have not yet figured out how to travel so far and stay alive.travel so far and stay alive.

• If the alien is of a completely different form to humans If the alien is of a completely different form to humans – maybe it is a machine – then would we say that it is – maybe it is a machine – then would we say that it is not aware of itself because it is not like me, a human? not aware of itself because it is not like me, a human?

• Would we say it is not conscious because it does not Would we say it is not conscious because it does not think in exactly the same way as me? think in exactly the same way as me?

• It’s doubtful that the alien would bother about our It’s doubtful that the alien would bother about our thoughtsthoughts

• Yet the alien may well not meet our definition of Weak Yet the alien may well not meet our definition of Weak AI, never mind Strong AI - it’s not human!AI, never mind Strong AI - it’s not human!

What is needed?What is needed?

• We need a viewpoint that is less anthropomorphic We need a viewpoint that is less anthropomorphic than classical AIthan classical AI

• We need to include distributed information processing, We need to include distributed information processing, autonomy, embeddedness, sensory motor coupling autonomy, embeddedness, sensory motor coupling with the environment, forms of social interaction and with the environment, forms of social interaction and more. more.

• Humans exhibit such features but so too do other Humans exhibit such features but so too do other animals and machines.animals and machines.

• We need to incorporate psychological and cognitive We need to incorporate psychological and cognitive characteristics, e.g. memory systems, without which it characteristics, e.g. memory systems, without which it is unlikely that a truly intelligent behavior can be is unlikely that a truly intelligent behavior can be observed. observed.

• We need to be open to the fact that any behavior that We need to be open to the fact that any behavior that can be characterized in this way is truly intelligent can be characterized in this way is truly intelligent regardless of the nature of the being that generated it.regardless of the nature of the being that generated it.

Rational AIRational AI• Rational AI means any artifact fulfilling such a definition Rational AI means any artifact fulfilling such a definition

can act intelligently and think in their own right, in their can act intelligently and think in their own right, in their own way. own way.

• Whether this is similar to the intelligence, thought, Whether this is similar to the intelligence, thought, consciousness, self awareness of a human is not important. consciousness, self awareness of a human is not important.

• Weak AI and strong AI still have meaning with regard to Weak AI and strong AI still have meaning with regard to human intelligence.human intelligence.

• Other creatures conforming to rational artificial intelligence Other creatures conforming to rational artificial intelligence are intelligent and think in their own way, dependant on are intelligent and think in their own way, dependant on their particular senses and how their brain is structured.their particular senses and how their brain is structured.

• Artificial intelligence, of silicon or carbon forms, takes its Artificial intelligence, of silicon or carbon forms, takes its place as one version of intelligence, different in place as one version of intelligence, different in appearance and characteristics from human and animal appearance and characteristics from human and animal intelligence. intelligence.

• As humans are intelligent in different ways from each other As humans are intelligent in different ways from each other so artificial intelligence is diverse in terms of the different so artificial intelligence is diverse in terms of the different machines that are apparent.machines that are apparent.

CommentsComments

• Classical AI is human-centricClassical AI is human-centric• Classical AI philosophy assumes Human Classical AI philosophy assumes Human

intelligence is superior to all elseintelligence is superior to all else• Strong & weak AI based on comparison Strong & weak AI based on comparison

with human intelligencewith human intelligence• Need to respect all types of intelligence – Need to respect all types of intelligence –

including machine intelligenceincluding machine intelligence• Rational intelligenceRational intelligence

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• Philosophy of AI IIPhilosophy of AI II

Contact InformationContact Information

• Web site: Web site: www.kevinwarwick.comwww.kevinwarwick.com

• Email: Email: [email protected]@reading.ac.uk

• Tel: (44)-1189-318210Tel: (44)-1189-318210

• Fax: (44)-1189-318220Fax: (44)-1189-318220

• Professor Kevin Warwick, Department Professor Kevin Warwick, Department of Cybernetics, University of Reading, of Cybernetics, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AY,UKWhiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AY,UK