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A Level Sociology

Unit 3: Theory and Methods

Topic 4

Globalisation, Modernity and Postmodernity

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Objectives: Know some of the reasons for the trends towards globalisation Understand the difference between modernity, postmodernity and late modernity Be able to evaluate the strengths and limitations of postmodernist and other theories of

recent changes in society

Modernity:

Functionalists, Marxists and feminists are all modern theorists, who are part of the enlightenment project – the idea that society can progress through the use of human reason. Rationality and science will enable us to discover true knowledge about society. Through this knowledge we can progress and develop.

Modern society first emerged in Western society from 18th century onwards and has these key features:

1. The nation-state – is a key political unit in modern society. We tend to think of the modern world as made up of a series of separate societies, each with its own state

2. Capitalism – this involves private ownership of the means of production and the use of wage labourers. Wealth distribution is unequal, resulting in class conflict. Production is based on the mass production of standardised products in large factories using low skilled labour

3. Rationality, science and technology – science becomes increasingly important

Globalisation:

However, many sociologists argue that we are now increasingly affected by globalisation – the increasing interconnectedness of people across national boundaries. We live in one interdependent ‘global village’ and our lives are shaped by a global framework. Four changes have helped bring this about:

1. Technological change – we can now cross entire continents in a matter of hours or exchange information across the globe with a click of the mouse. We now have a time-space compression which closes the distances between people. It also brings risk on a global scale, for example Greenhouse gases.

2. Economic change – the global economy is increasingly weightless or electronic. Instead of producing physical goods much activity involves the production of information. Money never sleeps. Global 24-hour financial transactions occur now.

3. Political change – globalisation has undermined the power of the nation state. TNCs have more power economically than national governments.

4. Changes in culture and identity – we have a global culture in which Western-owned media companies spread Western culture to the rest of the world. Identity has also become fragmented.

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Postmodernism:

This body of thought emerged in the 1970s and argues that we are now living in a new era of postmodernity. Postmodernity is an unstable, fragmented, media-saturated, global village, where image and reality are indistinguishable. In postmodern society we define ourselves by what we consume. They argue modernist theory no longer applies.

Knowledge – there are no sure foundations to knowledge – no objective criteria we can use to prove whether a theory is true or false. This has two consequences:

1. The Enlightenment project of achieving progress through true, scientific knowledge is dead. If we cannot guarantee our knowledge is correct, we cannot use it to improve society

2. Any all-embracing theory that claims to have absolute truth such as Marxism is a meta-narrative, someone’s version of reality, not the truth. Therefore there is no reason to accept the claims that the theory makes

The French philosopher Lyotard, rejects meta-narratives on the grounds that they have helped to create oppressive totalitarian states that impose their version of the truth on people. Rejecting meta-narratives that claim absolute truth, Postmodernists take a relative position instead. We should therefore recognise and celebrate the diversity of views rather than seek to impose one version of the truth on everyone.

BAUDRILLARD: SIMULACRA

Like Lyotard, Baudrillard argues that knowledge is central to a postmodern society. He argues that society is no longer based on the production of material goods, but rather on buying and selling knowledge in the form of images and signs. However, unlike signs in past societies, those today bear no relation to physical reality.

Instead, signs stand for nothing other than themselves; they are not symbols of some other real thing. Baudrillard calls such signs simulacra. For example, tabloid newspaper articles about fictitious soap opera characters are ‘signs about signs’ rather than an underlying reality. He describes this as hyper-reality – where the signs do not represent anything real, they are literally meaningless.

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If you type ‘apple’ in to google the image opposite appears rather than the fruit. What does this sign represent?

Culture, identity and politics - postmodernists argue that culture and identity in postmodern society differ fundamentally from modern society, especially because of the role of the media in creating hyper-reality. The media are all pervading and they produce an endless stream of ever changing images, values and versions of the truth. As a result, culture becomes fragmented and unstable, so that there is no longer a coherent, fixed set of values shared by members of society.

In postmodern society identity also becomes destabilised. Bauman discusses how we do not have a fixed identity based on class, we construct our own identity, by changing our consumption patterns. We pick and mix cultural goods and media-produced images to define ourselves. This element of choice suggests people are active, have free will and can act without constraint.

Baudrillard is pessimistic about the postmodern condition. Media-created hyper-reality leaves us unable to distinguish image from reality. This means we have lost the power to improve society: if we cannot grasp reality, then we have no power to change it. It seems that, while we can change our identity by going shopping, we cannot change society.

Evaluation:

What are the main criticisms of postmodern theory?

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2.

3.

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Late modern theories:

Unlike postmodernism, late modern theorists argue that the rapid changes in society is not the dawn of a new postmodern era. On the other hand, these changes are actually a continuation of modernity itself. They believe that we have entered society’s late modern phase and they still subscribe to the enlightenment project. They still believe we can discover objective knowledge and use it to improve society.

GIDDENS

He believes we are now at the stage of late modernity and we are experiencing rapid social change. There are two key features of this type of society:

Disembedding – we no longer need face to face contact in order to interact which makes interaction more impersonal. Disembedding also breaks down geographical barriers

Tradition no longer tells us how to act – we are forced to become reflexive. We have to constantly monitor, reflect on and modify our actions in the light of information about the possible risks and opportunities that they might involve. Customs also become less important and no longer serve as a guide to how we should act and we become more individualistic

Together, disembedding and reflexivity account for the rapid and widespread nature of social change in high modernity.

BECK

He believes that today’s late modern society – which he calls ‘risk society’ – faces new kinds of dangers:

In the past, society faced dangers as a result of its inability to control nature, such as drought or famine

Today, the dangers we face are human made and manufactured, such as global warming

Tradition no longer governs how we act, we think for ourselves and reflect on the consequences of our actions. We constantly take account of the risks attached to the different courses of action. We have become risk conscious, we seek to avoid or minimise risk.

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EVALUATION – Not everyone is free to re-shape their lives accordingly to reduce exposure to risks. The poor are generally exposed to more environmental risks because they are more likely to live in heavily polluted areas, but may be unable to afford to a move to a healthier one.

Overview:

Summarise each type of society in the box below:

MODERN POSTMODERN LATE MODERN

Marxist theories of postmodernity:

Like Beck and Giddens, Marxists believe in the Enlightenment project of achieving objective knowledge and using it to improve society. For example, Marx claimed his theory showed how a working-class revolution could overthrow capitalism and bring an end to exploitation.

However, unlike Beck and Giddens, they argue that we have moved to a postmodern society. They agree with postmodernists that have been major changes in society and they describe postmodern culture in similar terms, emphasising the importance of media images, diversity and instability. Rather than seeing postmodernism as a fundamental break with the past (Baudrillard) they regard it as merely the product of the most recent stage of capitalism. To understand postmodernity, therefore, we must examine its relationship to capitalism.

Postmodernity arose out of the capitalist crisis of the 1970s, which saw the end of the long economic boom that had lasted since 1945. This crisis gave rise to a new regime of accumulation – a new way of achieving profitability, which Harvey describes as flexible accumulation. This involves the use of information technology, an expanded service and finance sector, job insecurity and the need for workers to be flexible to meet their employers needs. It permits the production of customised products for niche markets instead of standardised production for mass markers.

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Flexible accumulation also brought changes in consumption. It turned leisure, culture and identity in to commodities. Cultural products such as fashion, music and sports have an important source of profit. Postmodernity represents a more developed form of capitalism because it commodifies virtually all aspects of life, including our identities.

Harvey argues that this more developed form of capitalism also leads to another feature of postmodernity – the compression of time and space. The commodification of culture, the creation of worldwide financial markets, and new information and communication technologies, all serve to shrink the globe.

How does this view differ from postmodernist views?

Quick check questions:

1. Identify three features of modern society

2. Suggest two factors that may be giving rise to a global society

3. What do postmodernists mean by the term meta-narrative?

4. What are simulacra?

5. Suggest two criticisms of postmodernism

6. Suggest two ways in which Marxists see flexible accumulation as promoting a post-modern culture

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Concept grid:

KEY WORD DEFINITION Globalisation

Modern society

Postmodern society

Meta-narratives

Simulacra

Hyper-reality

Late modernity

Reflexivity

Risk society

Marxist theories of postmodernity

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Exam technique:

Item A

According to some sociologists, recent changes such as those associated with globalisation have resulted in a major change in the nature of today’s society. For example, postmodernists argue that we no longer live in modern society, but we are now living in a media saturated postmodern society in which it is impossible to distinguish image from reality or to change society for the better. As a result, postmodernists argue we need new theories to explain this new kind of society.

However, some critics argue that although there have been major changes in society, these are a continuation of modernity rather than a completely new type of society.

Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the claim we are now living in the postmodern age (20 marks)

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