Final Report Compressive Strength of Pervious Concrete Pavements A Joint Research Program of Submitted by Manoj Chopra Marty Wanielista Ann Marie Mulligan Stormwater Management Academy University of Central Florida Orlando, FL 32816 Editorial Review by: Ryan Browne January 2007
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Final Report
Compressive Strength of Pervious Concrete Pavements
A Joint Research Program of
Submitted by
Manoj ChopraMarty Wanielista
Ann Marie Mulligan
Stormwater Management AcademyUniversity of Central Florida
Orlando, FL 32816
Editorial Review by: Ryan Browne
January 2007
ii
Disclaimer
The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of the authors andnot necessarily those of the State of Florida Department of Transportation.
iii
•• IiAPPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS
Symbol When You Know I"InlplyBy To Find Symbol Symbol When You Know I"IIUpIyBy To FInd Symbol
LENGTH LENGTH~ Inche. .... mHime•• mm mm mllimel8rl 0.039 -. ~~ tool 0.305 ....... m m ....... 3.28 tool hyd ,- O.a14
me_m m ....... 1.09 ,.0. ,.
0; milel 1.61 kilometers km km "'"""""" 0.621 milel ml
VOLUME VOLUME101 luid ounces 29.57 mllHli1erI ml ml mlililen 0.034 ftuidounon 101gal "'on. 3.785 Hie.. I I i_ 0.264 "'on. galIt' cubio .... 0.028 ClJblcmetn m' m' oul>lc: metanl 35.71 cubio laat It',d' oublcyards 0.765 cubic metlll'l m' m' cubio malarI 1.307 c:ubtc ylWda yd'NOTE: VoIum8J greller 1t1., 1000 I.hal be shown In",a.
MASS MASS0' 0..... 28.35 g""". g g g".". 0.035 0"""" 01II> pound. 0.454 kJIograms kg kg kiJogr'eml 2.202 pound. "T short tons (2000 tb) 0.807 megagrams ... ... megagrams 1.103 short tons (2000 Ib) T
TEMPERATURE (exact) TEMPERATURE (exact)"F F.......holt 6(F-32)1O Ceiciu. 'C 'C CeIciu. l.se +32 Fahrent*!: 'Ftemperllture or(~y1.8 temperabJre temperature tempemure
ILLUMINATION ILLUMINATION
" 1ooI..-ndle. 10.78 ~. I Ix ~x 0.0929 i0oi...-. foI !oot·LamboHlt 3.... oandoIaIm' - <XI'm' cande"ml 0.2919 fool-lamberti I
FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS
bl poundforco .... "8WIon. N N """0'" 0.225 pou""""" Ibt... poundforco ... 6." kliopu<aJ. kJ'a kJ'a kilo...... 0.145 poundforct per ..."",reinoh"",... inoh
• Silt the Iymbollof!he Internatlonal System of Unlu.. Appropria18 (Revised AuguI11992)roul'King shoIAd be lTIIlde 10 c:omply wit. Section 41 01 ASTM E380.
iv
1. Report No.Final
2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
5. Report DateJune, 2006
4. Title and Subtitle
Compressive Strength of Pervious Concrete Pavements6. Performing Organization Code
7. Author(s)Manoj Chopra, Marty Wanielista and Ann Marie Mulligan
8. Performing Organization Report No.
10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)9. Performing Organization Name and AddressStormwater Management AcademyUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, FL 32816 11. Contract or Grant No.
13. Type of Report and Period CoveredFinal Report (one of three onpervious concrete research)
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and AddressFlorida Department of Transportation605 Suwannee Street, MS 30Tallahassee, FL 32399
14. Sponsoring Agency Code
15. Supplementary Notes
16. AbstractThe pervious concrete system and its corresponding strength are as important as its permeabilitycharacteristics. The strength of the system not only relies on the compressive strength of the perviousconcrete but also on the strength of the soil beneath it for support. Previous studies indicate thatpervious concrete has lower compressive strength capabilities than conventional concrete and will onlysupport light traffic loadings. This project conducted experimental studies on the compressive strengthon pervious concrete as it relates to water-cement ratio, aggregate-cement ratio, aggregate size, andcompaction. Since voids are supposed to reduce the strength of concrete, the goal is to find a balancebetween water, aggregate, and cement in order to increase strength and permeability, two characteristicswhich tend to counteract one another. Also important is appropriate traffic loads and volumes so thatthe pervious concrete is able to maintain its structural integrity.This research confirms that pervious concrete does in fact provide a lower compressive strength thanthat of conventional concrete; compressive strengths in acceptable mixtures only reached about 1700psi. Analysis of traffic loadings reinforce the fact that pervious concrete cannot be subjected to largenumbers of heavy vehicle loadings over time although pervious concrete would be able to sustain lowvolumes of heavy loads if designed properly. In all cases, high permeability rates were achievedregardless of the compressive strength.
19. Security Classif. (of this report)Unclassified
20. Security Classif. (of this page)Unclassified
21. No. of Pages 22. Price
v
Executive Summary
The pervious concrete system and its corresponding strength are as important as itspermeability characteristics. The strength of the system not only relies on thecompressive strength of the pervious concrete but also on the strength of the soilbeneath it for support. Previous studies indicate that pervious concrete has lowercompressive strength capabilities than conventional concrete and will only support lighttraffic loadings. The authors of this work investigated prior studies on the compressivestrength on pervious concrete as it relates to water-cement ratio, aggregate-cementratio, aggregate size, and compaction and compare those results with results obtainedin laboratory experiments conducted on samples of pervious concrete cylinders createdfor this purpose. The loadings and types of vehicles these systems can withstand willalso be examined as well as the design of appropriate thickness levels for thepavement.
Since voids are supposed to reduce the strength of concrete (Klieger, 2003), the goal isto find a balance between water, aggregate, and cement in order to increase strengthand permeability, two characteristics which tend to counteract one another. In thisstudy, also determined are appropriate traffic loads and volumes so that the perviousconcrete is able to maintain its structural integrity. The end result of this research willbe a recommendation as to the water-cement ratio, the aggregate-cement ratio,aggregate size, and compaction necessary to maximize compressive strength withouthaving detrimental effects on the permeability of the pervious concrete system using theparticular local materials available in central Florida.
This research confirms that pervious concrete does in fact provide a lower compressivestrength than that of conventional concrete; compressive strengths in acceptablemixtures only reached an average of around 1,700 psi. Extremely high permeabilityrates were achieved in most all mixtures regardless of the compressive strength.Calculations of pavement thickness levels indicate these levels are dependent on thecompressive strength of the concrete, the quality of the subgrade beneath thepavement, as well as vehicle volumes and loadings.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................. viLIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................viiiLIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... ixLIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................ x1.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1
1.1 Definition ................................................................................................................11.2 History....................................................................................................................21.3 Uses.......................................................................................................................41.4 Advantages and Disadvantages.............................................................................41.5 Objectives of Present Research.............................................................................51.6 Outline....................................................................................................................6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................82.1 Previous Studies ....................................................................................................82.2 Water ...................................................................................................................262.3 Aggregate Type and Size.....................................................................................282.4 Aggregate-Cement Ratio .....................................................................................292.5 Compaction..........................................................................................................302.6 Soil Type ..............................................................................................................30
3.0 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................333.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................333.2 Unit Weight of the Aggregate ...............................................................................333.3 Cylinders used for Testing ...................................................................................343.4 Permeability, Specific Gravity, and Compressive Strength of Pervious Concrete 383.5 Site Investigation of Existing Systems..................................................................383.6 Design Vehicles ...................................................................................................393.7 Pavement Thickness Design................................................................................39
4.0 FINDINGS ...............................................................................................................444.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................444.2 Specific Gravity and Unit Weight of the Aggregate ..............................................444.3 Cylinders used for Testing ...................................................................................454.4 Permeability, Specific Gravity, and Compressive Strength of Pervious Concrete 47
4.4.1 Permeability...................................................................................................474.4.2 Specific Gravity and Unit Weight ...................................................................504.4.3 Compression Testing.....................................................................................53
4.5 Site Investigation of Existing Systems..................................................................614.5.1 Parking Area 1 - Florida Concrete and Products Association........................604.5.2 Parking Area 2 – Sun Ray Store Away ..........................................................634.5.3 Parking Area 3 – Strang Communications.....................................................654.5.4 Parking Area 4 – Murphy Veterinary Clinic....................................................67
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..........................................................755.1 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................755.2 Recommendations for Future Research ..............................................................77
APPENDIX A: CALCULATIONS....................................................................................84APPENDIX B: ITE TRIP GENERATION MANUAL GRAPHS........................................84APPENDIX C: TEST CYLINDER PHOTOGRAPHS AND GRAPHS .............................89APPENDIX D: TABLES FOR PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN..............................121REFERENCES ............................................................................................................126
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1.1 Pervious Concrete ...................................................................................2Figure 1.1.2 Comparison of Conventional Concrete and Pervious Concrete ..............2Figure 2.1.1 Compressive Strength vs Time .............................................................10Figure 2.1.2 28 Day Compressive Strength vs. Unit Weight......................................11Figure 2.1.3 28 Day Compressive Strength vs. Water Content .................................14Figure 2.1.4 28 Day Compressive Strength vs. Unit Weight......................................15Figure 2.1.5 28 Day Compressive Strength vs. W/C Ratio........................................16Figure 2.1.6 Compressive Strength vs Air Content....................................................17Figure 2.1.7 28 Day Compressive Strength vs. A/C Ratio.........................................20Figure 2.1.8 Compressive Strength vs Air Content – 4 sacks Cement ......................24Figure 2.1.9 Compressive Strength vs Air Content – 5.5 sacks Cement ...................25Figure 2.1.10 Compressive Strength vs Air Content – 7 sacks Cement ......................25Figure 4.4.1 Strength vs W/C Ratio ...........................................................................55Figure 4.4.2 Strength vs A/C Ratio ............................................................................56Figure 4.4.3 Unit Weight vs Strength.........................................................................57Figure 4.4.4 Unit Weight vs Porosity .........................................................................58Figure 4.4.5 Permeability vs A/C Ratio......................................................................59Figure 4.4.6 Permeability vs Compressive Strength..................................................60Figure 4.5.1. Parking Area 1 – FC&PA Office ............................................................62Figure 4.5.2. Parking Area 2 – Sun Ray Store Away..................................................64Figure 4.5.3. Parking Area 3 – Strang Communications.............................................66Figure 4.5.4. Parking Area 4 – Murphy Veterinary Clinic............................................68Figure 4.5.5. Parking Area 5 – Dental Office ..............................................................70
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1.1 Relationship between Compressive Strength and W/C & A/C Ratios.........10Table 2.1.2 Relationship between 28 Day Compressive Strength and Grading ............11Table 2.1.3 Relationship between 28 Day Compressive Strength and Aggregate ........12Table 2.1.4 Relationship between 28 Day Compressive Strength and Water Content..14Table 2.1.5 Relationship between 28 Day Compressive Strength and Unit Weight ......15Table 2.1.6 Relationship between 28 Day Compressive Strength and W/C Ratio.........16Table 2.1.7 Relationship between Compressive Strength and A/C Ratios ....................19Table 2.1.8 Traffic Categories .......................................................................................21Table 2.1.9 Thickness Design by AASHTO Method ......................................................22Table 2.1.10 Thickness Design by PCA Method ...........................................................23Table 2.6.1 Subgrade Soil Types and Approximate k Values........................................31Table 2.6.2 AASHTO Soil Classification........................................................................31Table 2.6.3 ASTM Soil Classification.............................................................................32Table 3.3.1 Mixtures and Corresponding Parameters ...................................................36Table 3.7.1 Parameters and Values ..............................................................................43Table 4.2.1. Specific Gravity Experiments - Aggregate .................................................45Table 4.4.1 Permeability Experiments ...........................................................................49Table 4.4.2 Specific Gravity Experiments - Concrete ....................................................51Table 4.4.3 Maximum Compressive Strength................................................................54Table 4.6.1 Minimum Pavement Thickness for 5% Trucks ............................................71Table 4.6.2 Minimum Pavement Thickness for 10% Trucks ..........................................72Table 4.6.3 Minimum Pavement Thickness for 15% Trucks ..........................................73Table 4.6.4 Minimum Pavement Thickness for 20% Trucks ..........................................74
x
LIST OF ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS
A/C Ratio Aggregate-Cement RatioAASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation OfficialsADT Average Daily TrafficASTM American Society for Testing and MaterialsCd Drainage CoefficientEc Elastic Modulus of Concrete in psif’c Compressive Strength of Pervious Concrete in psiGY Total Growth Factorin inchesJ Load Transfer Coefficientk Modulus of Subgrade Reaction in pcilbs Poundsmin Minutepo Initial Serviceability Indexpt Terminal Serviceability IndexΔPSI Change in Serviceability IndexPCA Portland Cement Associationpsi Pounds per square inchpci Pounds per cubic inchR Reliability in percentSo Standard DeviationSc Modulus of Rupture of Pervious Concrete in psisk per cu yd Sack per Cubic YardT Percentage of Trucks in ADTTf Truck Factorvs VersusW/C Ratio Water-Cement RatioZ Standard Normal Deviate
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition
Pervious concrete is a composite material consisting of coarse aggregate, Portland
cement, and water. It is different from conventional concrete in that it contains no fines
in the initial mixture, recognizing however, that fines are introduced during the
compaction process. The aggregate usually consists of a single size and is bonded
together at its points of contact by a paste formed by the cement and water. The result
is a concrete with a high percentage of interconnected voids that, when functioning
correctly, permit the rapid percolation of water through the concrete. Unlike
conventional concrete, which has a void ratio anywhere from 3-5%, pervious concrete
can have void ratios from 15-40% depending on its application. Pervious concrete
characteristics differ from conventional concrete in several other ways. Compared to
conventional concrete, pervious concrete has a lower compressive strength, higher
permeability, and a lower unit weight, approximately 70% of conventional concrete.
Figure 1.1.1 provides a photograph of in-situ pervious concrete and Figure 1.1.2 shows
pervious concrete compared with conventional concrete.
2
Figure 1.1.1 Pervious Concrete
Figure 1.1.2 Comparison of Conventional Concrete and Pervious Concrete
1.2 History
Pervious concrete had its earliest beginnings in Europe. In the 19th century pervious
concrete was utilized in a variety of applications such as load bearing walls,
prefabricated panels, and paving. In the United Kingdom in 1852, two houses were
constructed using gravel and concrete. Cost efficiency seems to have been the primary
reason for its earliest usage due to the limited amount of cement used.
3
It was not until 1923 when pervious concrete resurfaced as a viable construction
material. This time it was limited to the construction of 2-story homes in areas such as
Scotland, Liverpool, London, and Manchester. Use of pervious concrete in Europe
increased steadily, especially in the post World War II era. Since pervious concrete
uses less cement than conventional concrete and cement was scarce at the time, it
seemed that pervious concrete was the best material for that period. Once again
housing construction was its primary use. Pervious concrete continued to gain
popularity and its use spread to areas such as Venezuela, West Africa, Australia,
Russia, and the Middle East.
Since the United States did not suffer the same type of material shortages as Europe
after World War II, pervious concrete did not have a significant presence in the United
States until the 1970’s. Its use began not as a cheaper substitute for conventional
concrete, although that was an advantage, but for its permeability characteristics
(Ghafoori, 1995). The problem encountered in the United States was that of excessive
runoff from newly constructed areas. As more land development took place the amount
of impervious area increased. This produced an increase in runoff which in turn led to
flooding. This had a negative impact on the environment, causing erosion and a
degradation in the quality of water. Pervious concrete began in the states of Florida,
Utah, and New Mexico but has rapidly spread throughout the United States to such
states as California, Illinois, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.
4
Although it had sluggish beginnings, the use of pervious concrete as a substitute for
conventional concrete has grown into a multi-functional tool in the construction industry.
1.3 Uses
Practical for many applications, pervious concrete is limited by its lack of durability
under heavy loads. This lack of resiliency restricts the use of pervious concrete to
specific functions. Pervious concrete is limited to use in areas subjected to low traffic
volumes and loads. Although once used as load bearing walls in homes (Ghafoori,
1995), pervious concrete is now utilized primarily in parking lots but does have limited
applications in areas such as greenhouses, driveways, sidewalks, residential streets,
tennis courts (limited to Europe), and swimming pool decks.
1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages
Pervious concrete is advantageous for a number of reasons. Of top concern is its
increased permeability compared with conventional concrete. Pervious concrete
shrinks less, has a lower unit weight, and higher thermal insulating values than
conventional concrete.
Although advantageous in many regards, pervious concrete has limitations that must be
considered when planning its use. The bond strength between particles is lower than
conventional concrete and therefore provides a lower compressive strength. There is
potential for clogging thereby possibly reducing its permeability characteristics. Finally,
5
since the use of pervious concrete in the United States is fairly recent, there is a lack of
expert engineers and contractors required for its special installation.
1.5 Objectives of Present Research
In this report, the effects of varying the components of pervious concrete on its
compressive strength are investigated. The goal is to achieve a maximum compressive
strength without inhibiting the permeability characteristics of the pervious concrete. This
will be accomplished through extensive experiments on test cylinders created for this
purpose. Experiments include specific gravity tests, permeability tests, and
compression tests.
Loadings on pervious concrete are also an area of concern. Existing pervious concrete
pavements are studied. Data drawn from these pavements are utilized along with the
results of the compression tests to determine vehicular loadings and volumes that the
pervious concrete can sustain over time. Additionally, pavement thickness design will
be conducted on varying soil types and loadings.
As with any research, the experiments performed are subject to limitations. These
limitations are in regards to the type and size of aggregate used and the curing process.
These restrictions are discussed further in more detail.
6
1.6 Outline
1.6.1 Chapter 2.0
Prior to any experiments, research must be conducted on similar areas of studies. Data
was gathered on results of previous experiments performed by researchers on
compressive strength of pervious concrete. A summary of their results and conclusions
are presented in a series of graphs and tables.
In order to achieve the best possible pervious concrete system, the elements that make
up the concrete must be analyzed. Water, aggregate, cement, and their corresponding
relationships with one another are discussed along with the potential impact each can
have on the strength and permeability of pervious concrete.
1.6.2 Chapter 3.0
All good research should be reproducible. This chapter will discuss procedures used in
experiments conducted for this study. These experiments include specific gravity,
permeability, and compressive strength tests. Methods used for determining traffic
loadings and volumes on existing pervious concrete systems are also examined.
Explanations of calculations for pavement thickness design are also addressed.
7
1.6.3 Chapter 4.0
Here, an in depth discussion about the results of all experiments is given and also
presented in tables and graphs. Comparisons are made between compressive strength
and varying ratios of water, cement, and aggregate. Acceptable vehicle types, their
loadings, and volumes are also provided. Pavement thickness design tables are
provided utilizing the data obtained from experiments.
1.6.4 Chapter 5.0
Conclusions about acceptable ratios, loadings, and pavement thicknesses are drawn
from the resulting data obtained from experimentation. Recommendations for future
research with pervious concrete and its usage are also given.
8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Previous Studies
To create a pervious concrete structure with optimum permeability and compressive
strength, the amount of water, amount of cement, type and size of aggregate, and
compaction must all be considered. A multitude of experiments have been previously
conducted throughout the past few decades by a variety of researchers comparing
some or all of these elements. The results are presented in a series of tables and
graphs.
In 1976, V.M. Malhotra discussed pervious concrete as it relates to applications and
properties. He provided details on such properties as consistency, proportions of
materials, unit weight, compactibility, and curing in an attempt to maximize permeability
in the pervious concrete. Malhotra also conducted multiple experiments on various test
cylinders in an attempt to find a correlation between compressive strength and any of
the material’s properties. He concluded that the compressive strength of pervious
concrete was dependent on the water cement ratio and the aggregate cement ratio.
Table 2.1.1 and Figure 2.1.1 illustrate the relationship between compressive strength
and time using various water cement ratios and aggregate cement ratios. He also
concluded that even the optimum ratios still would not provide compressive strengths
comparable to conventional concrete. Malhotra went on to investigate the effects of
compaction on compressive strengths. Table 2.1.2 and Figure 2.1.2 show the
9
correlation between compressive strength and unit weight when different aggregate
cement ratios along with various aggregate grading are employed. Malhotra also
experimented on different types of aggregates and their effect on compressive strength.
Table 2.1.3 shows the relationship between aggregate type and compressive strengths.
10
(Aggregate Size _ “ Gravel)Table 2.1.1 Relationship between Compressive Strength and W/C & A/C Ratios
AggregateCement
Ratio(A/C)*
WaterCement
Ratio(W/C)**
Age ofTest
(days)Density(lb/ft3)
Cement(lb/yd3)
CompressiveStrength
(psi)6 0.38 3 125.8 436 1295
7 125.4 436 166028 124.8 436 2080
8 0.41 3 120 326 8507 119.5 326 1055
28 119.4 326 136510 0.45 3 116.7 261 625
7 116.4 261 78028 116.2 261 1015
Compressive Strength vs Time
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30Time, days
Com
pres
sive
Stre
ngth
, psi
6:1, 0.38
8:1, 0.41
10:1, 0.45
Figure 2.1.1 Compressive Strength vs. Time
Source: Malhotra (1976), ACI Journal, Vol. 73, Issue 11, p 633.*A/C Ratios are by volume.**W/C Ratios are by weight.
A/C Ratio,W/C Ratio
11
* A = minus 3/4 in, plus 3/4 in** B = minus 3/4 in, plus 1/2 in*** C = minus 1/2 in, plus 3/8 inSource: Malhotra (1976), ACI Journal, Vol 73, Issue 11, p 634
Table 2.1.2 Relationship between 28 Day Compressive Strength and Grading
Grading
AggregateCement Ratio
(A/C) by VolumeUnit Weight
(lb/ft3)CompressiveStrength (psi)
A* 8 119.2 1230 116.8 975 116 1090 113.2 815
B** 9 117.6 1040 113.6 825 112.4 745
C*** 7 117.2 1280 115.6 1030 114 1000 114 950
28 Day Compressive Strength vs Unit Weight
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
112 114 116 118 120Unit Weight, lb/ft 3
Com
pres
sive
Stre
ngth
, psi
A, 8:1
B, 9:1
C, 7:1
Figure 2.1.2 28-Day Compressive Strength vs Unit Weight
(Water Content = 0.36)
Grading,A/C Ratio
12
Source: Malhotra (1976), ACI Journal, Vol. 73, Issue11, p 634
(Water Content = 0.40)Table 2.1.3 Relationship between 28 Day Compressive Strength and Aggregate
All single units 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.16 0.04-0.16 Tractor semitrailers
4-axle or less 0.98 0.48 0.71 0.46 0.40 0.40-0.98
5-axle 1.07 1.17 0.97 0.77 0.63 0.63-1.17
6-axle or more 1.05 1.19 0.9 0.64 - 0.64-1.19
All multiple units 1.05 0.96 0.91 0.67 0.53 0.53-1.05
All trucks 0.39 0.23 0.21 0.07 0.24 0.07-0.39
126
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Brown, Dan, Pervious Concrete Pavement: A Win-Win System, Concrete TechnologyToday, August 2003, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp 1-3.
Das, Braja M., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th ed., Brooks/Cole, California,2002.
Ghafoori, Nader, Development of No-Fines Concrete Pavement Applications, Journal ofTransportation Engineering, May/June 1995, Vol. 126, No. 3, pp 283-288.
Ghafoori, Nader, Laboratory Investigation of Compacted No-Fines Concrete for PavingMaterials, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, August 1995, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp 183-191.
Ghafoori, Nader, Building and Nonpavement Applications of No-Fines Concrete, Journalof Materials in Civil Engineering, November 1995, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp 286-289.
Ghafoori, Nader, Pavement Thickness Design for No-Fines Concrete Parking Lots,Journal of Transportation Engineering, November/December 1995, Vol. 121, No. 6, pp476-484.
Huang, Yang H., Pavement Analysis and Design, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, New Jersey,2004.
Klieger, Paul, Further Studies on the Effect of Entrained Air on Strength and Durabilityof Concrete with Various Sizes of Aggregate, Concrete International, November 2003,Vol. 25, No. 11, pp 26-45.
Malhotra, V.M., No-Fines Concrete – Its Properties and Applications, ACI Journal,November 1976, Vol. 73, Issue 11, pp 628-644.
Mather, Bryant, How much w in w/cm?, Concrete International, August 1988, Vol. 10,No. 8, pp 20-27.
Mather, Bryant, Hime, William G., Amount of Water Required for Complete Hydration ofPortland Cement, Concrete International, June 2002, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp 56-58.
Meininger, Richard C., No-Fines Pervious Concrete for Paving, Concrete International,August 1988, Vol. 10, No. 8, pp 20-27.
127
Trip Generation Manual, ITE, 1991.
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO, 2004.