A History of the Frozen Meat Trade - Forgotten Books

A HISTORY OF THE

FROZEN MEAT T RADE

AN ACCOUNT OF THE DEVELOPMENT ANDPRESENT DAY METHODS OF PREPARAT ION ,

TRANSPORT, AND MARKET ING OF FROZEN ANDCHILLED MEATS

JAMES TROUBR IDGE CR ITCHELL

AND

JOSEPH RAYMOND

W ITH ILLUSTRAT IONS AND D IAGRAMS

S ECOND I NT ION

LONDONCONSTABLE COMPANY LTD

10 ORANGE STREET LE ICESTER SQUARE W C

PREFACE

MUCH that is extremely interesting , and a little that isromantic , is to be found in the history of the industry towhich this book is devoted, and the authors hope that therecords which appear in these pages of the rise and progressof the frozen and chilled meat trades will justify the publication of this volume . Many works have appeared describingthe beginn ings and developments of the great wool industry,but nothing of an historical and exhaustive nature has everbeen published in book form (although pamphlets and newspaper articles without number have been issued) about thefrozen meat business . To provide food is, at least , as important as to supply clothing , and the one industry lends itselfto description as readily as the other .The personnel of the pioneers who worked out the practical

and technical problems of the preparation and transport offrozen meat—successfully sometimes, frequently otherwiseincluded men of a high order of intellect and character . To

read Mr . Mort ’s speech , delivered on September 2, 1875, at theLithgow Valley Works (see p . is to be thrilled with somesense of the exaltation of spirit which must have inspired hishearers in contemplating the world-wide benefit to follow uponthe exportation of Australia’s surplus of meat , the hoped-for eraso eloquently forecasted by Mort . The engineers engagedupon the freezing formulae , the shipowners endeavouring toalter their system to grapple with the new position created bythe Strathleven shipment, the merchants and bankers in Londonapplying themselves to the most important part of the wholetrade—marketing the meat—deserve recognition in the printedpage before the lapse of time destroys all records . It has beendifficult enough , after thirty years from the starting point , to

vi PREFACE

procure data sufficiently reliable to justify the title of this

book .

A chapter was written entitled The Case for Frozen Meat,

setting forth specifically the benefit which the new trade hasbrought to the world at large, but on consideration it wasperceived that the whole of the book , including the illustrations, diagrams, and tabular and graphic matter in theappendices , formed a most complete Case for Frozen Meat

,

”

and the authors venture to hope that their volume will assist ,to some degree

,in popularizing still further the use of frozen

and chilled meat in the Northern Hemisphere, inasmuch asit draws attention to the able and di stinguished men whopioneered the trade, to the sound quality and drastic inspection of the meat before export , and to the excellent systemunder which the transport and marketing systems are conducted .

The chapters have been written in a plain style,and technical

treatment has been av oided in favour of the general treatiseform . Great efforts towards accuracy have been made, and ifsome errors hav e crept in

,the indulgence of readers is asked

for. It has been,of course, the authors

’ desire to achieve impartiality in discussing the work of the pioneers and in touching on the later developments in which gentlemen and businesshouses engaged in the trade hav e been and are concerned .

The part which the journals published in Australia and NewZealand took in helping forward the early efforts of the pioneersby opening their columns to articles and full di scussion

,deserves

a specia l word of acknowledgment . At a critical time, un

doubtedly, this publicity was of considerable assistance to thegrowing industry.

In order to procure information on trade questions, theauthors , wherever possible, hav e gone to the fountain head,and they owe a heavy debt of gratitude to the many gentlemenand firms who hav e been appealed to . Hence they desire inthe fullest and frankest way to return thanks for the promptreplies to the thousands of letters (ov er in all ) written toall parts of the world—only in a few cases has information beenWithheld . Without such kindly assistance there would nothave been any chance of this book being prepared . In par

PREFACE vii

ticular, acknowledgment is due to some of those whose namesappear in the biographical section ; to Mr . Gilbert Anderson,Mr . George Goodsir, and Mr . P . B . Proctor, whose statisticalreports have been drawn upon ; and to the leading firms ofimporters , agents, and merchants, in Great Britain , who havesupplied prac tical commercial details for certain sections of thework . The special assistance of the following gentlemen has

also to be acknowledged : Mr . R . H . Rew , Assistant Secretary ofthe Board of Agriculture and Fisheries : Mr. A . Scott

,Secretary

of Lloyd’s Registe r of British and Foreign Shipping ; Dr. SergioGa rcia Uriburu , Consul General for Argentina in LondonMr . H . W . G .Millman , Clerk and Superintendent of the LondonCentral Markets ; Captain T . R . Mowat , of Messrs . Johnson

’sSons and Mowat ; Mr . Hal Williams , M .I .Mech .E

Mr . M . T . Brown ,B .Sc . Mr . E . R . Baines , of the Port ofLondon

Authority ; Mr . T . Douglas Huggett, of the London Da ilyTelegraph, and Mr. Louis H . Furniss, Secretary of the Incor

porated Society of Meat Importe rs .

The plan on which the book has been prepared is , broadly, totouch on the historical part, with a sketch of the conditionswhich gave birth to the industry, and the personages andleading events figuring in the frozen meat story a s re

frigeration’

s aid was found practicable for conveying the surplusmeat of the Southern Hemisphere to supply the scarcity of theNorthern . The sequence of chapters takes readers to the consideration of the commercial methods under which frozen andchilled meat is transported and handled, and sold in Grea tBritain . The endeavour mainly has been to describe thev arious stages through which frozen meat passes from the timeit is placed on board the steamer until it reaches its predestinedgoal , the meat retailer

’s shop in England or Scotland .

With regard to the pictures appearing in the book,freezing

works are more useful than ornamental , but it has beenthought that to give illustrations of some of these works wouldbe a fitting accompaniment to the written descriptions of themeat freezing industry . Ships, real argosies of the ocean whenfood-freighted on account of the workers of the Homeland ,

need no apology for their presentation in picture form . Many

PREFACE

of the pioneers’ portraits will be found in the book , and thephotographs of some of the leading merchants and importersat present engaged in the trade are also given . It is fittingthat in a work of this kind these men, whose business energyand capital hav e done so much to build up the trade to itspresent commanding position, should receive this specialrecognition at the hands of the authors of the History of theFrozen Meat Trade .

The Index and Appendi ces have been compiled in a verydetailed form , and it is hoped that the particulars thereincontained, as well as the information recorded in the twentynine chapters, will make thi s volume a useful and necessarywork of reference .

The authors acknowledge,with thanks

,the courtesy of the

proprietors of the journals named below , in giving permi ssionfor the use of photographs —Engz

°

neermg, for the two views ofthe La Negra Works on p . 82 ; the Cold Storage and Produce

Review, for the portrait of M . Charles Tellier ; Syren a nd

Shipping for the illustration of the El Zarate on p . 344 ;

I ce a nd Cold Storage for the picture of the insulated v an

on p . 344 ; and the Canterbury Times , New Zealand, for

the page view of the Islington Works of the ChristchurchMeat Company on p . 66 .

LONDON,

Ea ster, 1912.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I .

Barrm’

s CALL FOR v a sm s Se ru ms : Snowmen AND Snarw s

Ea rliest Statistics of Home Supplies—omcial Anxiety—EarlyAttempts at Preserving Meat—Australian and New Zea la ndSurplus ofStock—Boiling Down and Tinning—The United Statesof America exportFrozen Bee f in ISM—Foundations of Argentina's Herds and Flocks—Problem of the Pampas—How it wassolved .

CHAPTER I I .

Ta r. Wonx or run PremiumsMort, his Dreams and Achievements—James Ha rrison—The

Bell Coleman Machine—Tellier ’s Shipment per Fr igorifique in1876—The Pionee r Shipmentof Froze n Mea t to EurOpe per s .e.

Pa raguay in 1877—The Strathleven’aHistoric Shipment—Australian

Exports in the Ea rly 80’s—New Zealand’

s Pa rt—The DunedinBrydone

’

s Forecast.CHAPTER I I I .

THE FREEZING Wonxs or Ansm mLines of Development Queensland , its Works and their

History—New SouthWales’Enterprises—Chilling Up-Country

Victoria—South Australia and Weste rn Australia .

CHAPTER I V.

New ZEALAND FREEZING Woaxs

The New Zea land Re frigerating Company , formed atDun edinin I SM—Canterbury Frozen MeatCompany—Gea rMeatCompa ny.Wellington Nelson Brothers’ Freezing Works ChristchurchMea t Compan y—Wellington Meat Export Company—Esta blishment of the other Freezing Works in New Zealand—The Operations ata New Zealand MeatWorks.

CHAPTER V.

Ta r. Scum Ammucm FmeomrrcosDevelopment Statistics—The Live Cattle Trade and its Stoppage-River Plate Fresh Meat Company and its Founder—SanNicolasWorks—James Nelson and Sons—Compafiia Sansinena de Gam es

Congeladas—The Falkland Islands and Patagonia—Beef fromVenezuela .

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI .

IM PROVING Fnocxs AND FE EDS IN THE SOUTHERNHEM I SPHEBEEvolution of Mutton Sheep in Australasia Mr. J. C. N.

Grigg’

s views—Argentine Imports of Pedigree Stock.

CHAPTER VII .

TheArgentineWay—Australa sianMethods—Buying and Selling

Forwa rd—How the ci f. Trade is Worked—Grading—Ra tes and

Freights—From Ship to Cold Store.

CHAPTER VI II .

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE MEAT INSPECTORNew Zealand I n spection—Australia n—Argentine—The Im

perfect I nspection of Meat killed in the United KingdomPublic Health Regulations—An I nternational Sta ndard wanted .

CHAPTER IX.

THE SHIPOW NERs

’BURDEN .

The Romance and Statistics of Re frigerated Shipping—The FirstFleets—The Shaw-Savill Company, the New Zealand ShippingCompan y , and the Shire Line Pioneer the Frozen MeatCarryingTrade fromNew Zeala nd—Evolution of the Frozen MeatCarrier—The Shipowner as Mercha nt—Freights—Multiplicity of Ma rks—Frozen MeatBill of Lading —How the Australian Shipownerstook up the New Trade—The First Refrigerated Steamers and

when they sa iled—The Methods by which River Plate FrozenMeat was first shipped to Europe The South AmericanRefrigerated Fleet of the Present Day.

CHAPTER X.

THE UNDERWRITERs’

RI SK

The Produce rs’ Supineness—Ea rly Insura nce Covers—Cla ims ,

Surveys , and Allowa nces—The A 1 Clause—Underwriters’ Move

to Reform—Three Views of Meat I nsura nce—Appea l to the Courts—I nsurance Deta ils—Surveyors’ Duties—Classes of Damage .

CHAPTER XI .

COLD STORAGEThe FirstI nstallation in London—Docks Stores—AtSmithfield—Nelson Brothers’ Undertakings—Union Cold Storage Compa ny—Other Cold Stores .

CONTENTS

Tm; Sroaxm rxas’

DormsReaching the Store—Periods of Storage—Marks—Cold Storage

Rates—Dividends—Responsibilities and Risks—Finality of the

Storekeepers’ Weights .

CHAPTER XII I.TEE GREAT Smm rmm MARKET

Smithfield and itsWide I nte rests—Old Smithfield—An HistoricalPicture—The Central Markets and their Growth—The Ja paneseVillage—Evolution ofMa rketingMethods—TheAmerica n I nvasionLondon Corporation ’s Claims in 1904 Trade Operations

Prices for the Day.

REACHING TEE CONSUMERHow the Retail Trade is Divided—The PrOducer the Would be

Reta iler—New Zeala nders’ Eyes on the Retail Business—Lambv . Mutton—Retailing Beef—A Census of Retail Shops—TheMultiple Shop System.

PROVINCIAL DISTRIBUTIONThe Argument for Outports—South Ameri can Meat and Liverpool—The WestCoastService—Review of Liverpool’s FacilitiesManchester Cardiff Bristol Hull Glasgow Serving theProvinces via London .

CHAPTER XVI .

CUsTOMERs m m LANDSEa rly Attempts on the Continent—The French Market—A

Record of Enterprise in Germa ny—Austria—Belgium—OtherEuropea n Countries—Customers in the East—The Stimulus of

Wm —Cold Storage in SouthAfrica—TheMediterranean GarrisonPorts as Customers —What the Future may hold .

THE GRILLED BREE TRADEChilling contrasted with Freezing—First Trials from Australia

andNew Zeala nd—Argentina inthe Field—Sterilizing—AustralianShipments in 1909 , 19 10, and 19 11.

xii CONTENTS

SOME NOTEWORTHY INGIDENTS : 1880 19 10

Statistical Comparison of Producing Countries ’ ExportsAustralia ’

s Progress—Australia ’s Clientele New Zealand ’

s

Prngress—Retail Schemes—Early New Zeala nd Prices—South

America n Beginnings—Chilled Beef—The Argentine FreezingWorks’ Annals M ira bilis—Random Jottings : 1890-1908—War

Office and Frozen Meat—Rival Methods of Distribution—Contreating Sale Systems Producers’ Conferences False TradeDescription—MeatMarking—Rise and Fall of theNorthAmericanDressed Bee f Trade.

A MI SCELLANYCongress of Refrigeration—SouthAfrica as a Meat Exporter

Lord Bacon ’s Frigorific Experiment—Frozen Beef from St. Helena—Hereford Steers atl8d. an Ounce—Frozen Mutton atthe LordMayor ’s Show—Kosher Frozen Meat—An E arly Welcome to

Frozen Meat—Enter Mr. Hooley—A Ca rgo in Coffins—A FrozenMeat Cooking Recipe—A Frigid Message

—Thyroid ExtractTallerma n Enterprises—Frozen MeatSquibs.

CHAPTER XX.

THE DiETETI cS or FROZEN MEAT

Flourishing on Frozen Meat —The Pedigree Foundations ofFreezing Stock—Scientific Tests—Dietetic Excellence—Preservation by Refrigeration—MedicalOfi cers

’Testimony.

CHAPTER XXI .

WHAT THE TRADE HAS DONE FOR AUSTRALIA(Specia lly contributed by Mr. John Cooke.

Ea rly Methods of Disposal of Cattle and Sheep Surplus—FrozenMea t Exports lead to I ncrea sed La nd Values—The Droughtofl9o2—The Benefit to Wool Growers—Source of Income to the

CHAPTER XXI I .

NEW ZEALAND '

S GAIN FROM FROZENMEAT

(Specia lly contributed by the R ightHon . S ir Joseph Wa rd . )The Launching of the Trad e—Statistics of Growth from 1882 to

1910—Frozen Meat and the Prosperity of the Dominion .

CONTENTS

ARGENTINA S DEBT To REFR IGERATION

(Specia lly contributed by Mr . HerbertGibson . )Pro-Freezing Days—Early Pa s tora l Wealth—The Growth of

Flocks and Head s—First Freezing EHorts—Dra bble ’

s Enterp rise—Expanding Production of Chilled Beef—Argentina ’

s PossibleThirty Millions of People by 1960.

CHAPTER XXIV.

How THE BRITI SH PURLIO HAS BRNRFITRD

Early Mea t Prices—Lord Onslow and the Bee fsteak ClubRefrigerated Mea t’S Pa rt in theNational Consumption—London ’SBenefit—The Upper Ten —Frozen Mea t and the Army .

CHAPTER XXV.

THE POSITION or THE BRITI SH FARHER

Mr . Turnbull’s Special Article : 1880 Compared with 1910Ccmpu ison of Prices—The Breeds Question—The Effects of

Frozen Meat Imports - A Yorkshire Farmer’s Plaint—TheSplendid Pedigree Stock ExportTrade—The Fa rmer ’s PositionUnder Free Imports.

CHAPTER XXVI .

THE INCORPORATED SOCIETY OF MEAT IMPORTERS (FROZENMEATTRADE AssociATION)The Call for a Trade Society—The Frozen Meat Importe rs’

Association formed in 1894—Succeeded in 1895 by the FrozenMeat Trade Association—Disclosing Stocks—The Weekly PricesCable—The Charte r and the NewName—List of Presidents and

Vice-Presidents .

CHAPTER XXVII .

MEOHANIOAI . REFRI GERATION

The Principles of Mechanical Re frigeration—Ea rlyDiscoveries—Scme Leaders—Air Compression and Chemical Re frigerantsInsulation—ModernRefrigeratingDevices—TemperatureMeasure

LEADING PERSONALITIES IN THE TRADE

A Collection of ShortBiographies .

PAD!

xiv CONTENTS

THE FUTURE or THE INDUSTRY .

The Home Market ’s Demands Extending The WOrld ’

s mineOyster —Dead Meatthe Trade of the Future—British Capital tobe still Further I nvested in the I ndustry—New Zeala nd LambProspects—Australia ’

s Possibilities—SouthAmerica ’sMea t Export

Outlook—Looking Forward—AFinalWord a bouttheAustralasianand Argentine Systems.

APPENDICES.

I .—CATTLE AND SHEEP IMPORTS INTO GREAT BR ITAIN FOR FOOD

Sketch of the Trade : its Rise and Fall Shown Sta tisticallyCattle Diseases Act, 1896—Foreign Animals Order , 1910

Australia ’

s Abortive Experiment.

11 .—BY-PRODUCTS OP THE SLAUGHTER -HOUSE .

MeatOfials fromNorth Ameri ca , Australasia, and ArgentinaFull Listof American Meat By-Products.

I I I .—THE WORLD’S SUPPLIES OF FROZEN MEAT IN 1910 .

Supplies Dissected and Tabulated—Value of Customersoutside the United Kingdom tothe Frozen Meat Trade.

IV.—INGORPORATED SociETY OF MEAT IMPORTERS

’ WEEKLYQUOTATIONS

Reproductions of the Weekly Quotations of July andJuly

V.—COLD STORES AT THE CH IEF PORTS OF GREAT BR ITAIN

Tabular List with Capacities .

VL—COLD STORAGE MAP OF LONDON

VII —FREEZING WORKS or THE SOUTHERNHEMI SPHEREComplete Tabular Statement of the Situation , Ownership ,

Equipment, Capacities , etc , of the Meat Freezing Works inAustralia ,New Zealand , and South America .

VII I .—THE REPR IGERATED FLEETFull Listof Shipp ing Lines ca rryingChilled and Frozen Meat,

with Total Ca pacities .

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ILLUSTRATIONS

The Steamfi ip Strathleeeu

Thomas Sutclifie Mort—Portra i t and StatusJames Harrison—Portra i t and MonumentCharles Tellier—Portra i t, and the s.s. M orifique

Portrait—Mx. Andrew McIlwraithThe Sa iling Ship Duned in and Capta in Whi tsonThomas Brydone—PortraltThe Freezing Works of the Queensland Mea t Export Cc.,

Brisbane and TownsvilleThe Murarrie Freezing Works, BrisbaneBird’s-eye View of the Riverina Freezing WorksThe Freezing Works of Messrs . Thomas Borthwick and Sons(Austra lasia ) , Ltd . , Portland, Victoria, Australia

The Picton FreezingWorks of the Christchurch Mea t Co.

The Gea r Co.’s Freezing Works.WellingtonThe Freezing Works of Messrs. Nelson Brothers, Ltd., at

Gisborne, New ZealandThe Islington Freezing Works of the Christchurch Mea t 00.

The Freezing Works of the Wellington Meat Export Co.

The Freezing Works of the Gisborne Sheep-Fa rmers’ FTozenMea t 00.

Portra its—The la te Mr. George W. Drabble the la te SchorEduardoOlivera Dr. EmilioFrers

The La Negra FreezingWorks, Buenos AiresThe La Negra Freezing Works ( Interior)The La Pla ta Frigorifico ( Interior)The San Gregorio Freezing Works, Pa tagoniaJohn Grigg, of Longbeach—Portra i t and Sta tueThe -guinea Shorthorn Bull, imported into Argentina in1906

The -gu1nea Lincoln Ram, imported into Argentina in1906

Friars Canterbury LambCapta in Noakes’

s Mechanical ConveyorFacsimile Reproduction of Australasian and Argentine Inspection LabelsE M.

Fa cing Page

22

26

80

40

44

xviii ILLUSTRATIONS

Section of the a.s. Oswa try Grange

The a.s. Emm a

The a.s. Ra /ngatira

The a.s. ArgyllshireThe s.s. ElArgentinoThe a.s. SueviaSmithfield MarketOld Smithfield

Smithfield Market—Interior, and North EntranceSmithfield Market—View from Charterhouse StreetPortra i t—Sir Joseph Ward

, P.C.

Mr. John CookeMr. Herbert GibsonSir Alfred Scale Haslam

Diagrams—The Compression and Absorption SystemsRefrigera tion

The Bell-Coleman Re frigera ting MachinePortra it—Professor Carl von Linde

Mr. T. B. LightfootDiagram—Thermograph Tempera ture LogI nsula ted Motor Van built for the La Negra WorksRefrigera ted Steam Lighter El Za/ratePortra i t—Mr. G ilbert Anderson

Sir Thomas Borthwick, Bart.The la te Sir E . S. Dawes,Mr. H. S. FitterThe la te Mr. J. H. GeddesMr. George GoodsirCapta in H. E . GreenstreetMr. R ichmond KeeleThe la te Mr. E , L . JohnsonSir E . M. Nelson,Mr. WilliamNelsonThe la te Mr. G. F. SwiftMr. J. J. ThomsonMr. W illiamWeddel

A HISTORY OF THE

FROZEN M EAT T RADE

CHAPTER I

BRITAIN’

S CALL FOR OVERSEAS SUPPLIE S : SHORTAGE AND

SURPLUS

Ir must be rather difiicultfor those who are engaged in thevarious branches of the great overseas frozen meat trade torealize that only thirty years separate them from the time ofthe foundation of what is now recognized as one of the mostimportant of the world ’s industries . A commerce that unite scontinents, and is an essential factor in the progress of humancivilization to-day, might well be behav ed to be more than ageneration old

,but it does not need a student of history to recall

that this is not the case .

The industry that hangs on the slender piston-rod of arefrigerating machine , yet feeds nations with a regularity thatdefies famine, had its birth within the recollection of manywho are not yet old . The great changes it has wrought in theworld during the first three decades of its existence make allthe more interesting some preliminary inquiry into the circumstances which led to its establishment .Before coming to the conditions which di rectly gave rise toand immediate ly preceded the refrigerated meat industry, itmay be well to deal somewhat fully with two subjects notcomplete ly bearing upon the title of this book , though notbyany means foreign to it, ( 1) the dwindling flocks and herds inrun . 8

2 A HISTORY OF THE FROZEN MEAT TRADE

Great Britain for some decades prior to the frozen meat eraand (2) the canned meat industry in Australasia . Thi s traderepresented the first attempts of the colonists to ship beef andmutton to the old country, and was the evolutionary form of

the great meat industry,the real and lasting development of

which was to be the preservation and export of meat undercondi tions of refrigeration .

A Nation’s Need.

It was , of course, the demand for greater meat supplies thatcalled for the di scovery of some means for the safe delivery ofthose supplies . The un easiness that was felt respecting the foodsupply in England became very marked by the early fifties

,

and the gradual growth of the ma nufacturing industries madeit clear that Great Britain must be an increasingly importantmeat consumer . Manufacturing demanded energetic , flesh-fed

men,but meat supplies and their prices were on a most unsatis

factory basis for a generation before the establishment of thegreat ov erseas dead meat trade .

Official statistics of the flocks and herds of the Uni tedKingdom at the middle of the nineteenth century do not exist ;in fact, no official enumeration of live stock was made in theUnited Kingdom before 186 7 . But the estimates of Mulhalland McCulloch were, no doubt, fairly accurate . Accordingto Mulhall, in the ten years 1851—1860, the decade in whichmeat imports were first brought into the Uni ted Kingdom ,

the average production of meat—beef, mutton , and pork—inEngland, Scotland, and Ireland was tons

,which gav e

72 lbs . per head per annum ; thi s was supplemented by anaverage import of live cattle furnishing tons

,making

in all 75 lbs . of meat per head of population yearly . In the186 1—1870 decade the av erage home production of mea t hadincreased to tons , and imported meat totons . It is significant that the home production of thesemeats showed no increase from that point up to the days ofthe beginnings of frozen meat imports . In the year 1882 thehome production was tons

,and the Continental and

BRITAIN‘S CALL FOR OVERSEAS SUPPLIES

overseas supplies had grown to tons these quantitiesyielded a per capita annual supply of meat equal to 1 10 lbs . ,of which the imported supply claimed 43 lbs . The homeproduced meat in 1882 consisted of tons of beef ,

tons of mutton , and tons of pork,and the

imported meat was still mainly in the form of live cattle andsheep . The population of the United Kingdom in 185 1—1860averaged and had grown by 1882 toThe following totals of the food animals of the United King

dom—c attle , sheep , and pigs together—may be useful as arecord and as showing the decline in home stocks between 186 7and 1880, the arrest of that fall , and restoration to the figuresof 186 7 , brought about by the importation of live and deadmeat in the period of thirty years up to 19 10

(Mulhall )(official )

So, prior to the introduction of frozen meat, supplies of homestock were being overtaken by consumption , and it was plainthat the inhabitants of England would hav e to be contentwith less meat or pay fancy prices for it , or arrange for largelyincreased supplies of dead meat to be brought across the seasto be sold at a moderate price .

Mulhall helps us again in showing how , with sta gnant homesupplies of meat

,the price advanced . In the ten years

1851—1860, the average of the wholesale prices of firstquality meat—beef, mutton , and pork together—was 6M.

per lb . , during the next decade it had risen to 7d . per lh. , andin 1882 the price was 85d . per 1b . A parliamentary returnissued in 19 11 gives the following average prices for beef offirst quality —1851, 42d . per lh. ; 186 1, per lh . ; 187 1 ,

8d . per lb . and 1881, Sid . per lb .

It is interesting to examine the meat import movement intothe United Kingdom of the last fifty years . For the quin

quennial period 186 1—1865 the average quantity of fresh beef,B 2


mutton, and pork imported amoun ted to only 01 lb . perhead of the population . The coming of frozen meat in 1880sentup the average imports for 1881

—1885 to 35 lbs . For thefive years 189 1—1895 the average imports were 12 4 lbs . , andfor 1906—19 10each unit of the population was provided forto the extent of 28 lbs . of fresh meat imported from Britishpossessions and foreign countries .Harking back to the days of 1850—1860, the difficulty that

lay ahead had not escaped official notice, for about 1860 thePrivy Council discussed the question of the national food supply

,

and numbers of societies and institutions followed the lead thus

given . In 186 3 the Privy Council laid down a rule that, toavoid starvation diseases , the weekly food of an average adultmust contain grains of carbon and grains ofnitrogen .

”Dr. Brown , in The Food of the People, published

in 1865, wrote The plague spot, the skeleton in the closetof England, is that her people are underfed .

” This conditionof things was accompanied by the abuse which one wouldexpect

,terrible and shameless adulteration , and the poor were

further defrauded by traders giving short weight .The most practical step in the direction of providing a more

ample food supply was the formation of a committee of

the Society of Arts, which first met on December 21, 186 6 .

Amongst those present were Messrs . H . C . E . Childers , M.P. ,

Harry Chester, W . Ewart , M .P. , Benjamin Shaw, and LordRobert Montagu , M .P. As early as 1853 Mr . Chester, indelivering the centenary address of the Society, asked whyAustralia should be content with exporting wool and tallow ,

and not the mutton itself to the hungry masses of thiscountry ?” The proceedings at the committee’s meetingsmake most interesting reading . The committee subdiv ideditself into four sections meat, milk , fish , and cooking . Thatwas the time when canned meats were on their trial . Mr . C . G .

Tindal,Mr . Robert Tooth , Mr . McCall, and others , were ex

amined , and explained their processes . Dr. Bancroft’s pemmican and Mr . Alexander’s powdered beef were tested . (Boththese gentlemen were Queenslanders . ) The committee foundthat, weight for weight, the dried beef was four times more



Melbourne meat was found to be in an advanced state ofdecomposition .

” As far back as 1843 the Society of Arts gav eits medal for attempts made in Australia to render down thelean of meat by means of the water bath and the introductionof the extract in a solid form . Samples of this extract weresent on a voyage to Buenos Aires and back

,and failure

resulted . This, the authors believe, was the earliest attemptmade in Australia to preserve meat for export .It was a matter for regret that this committee of the

Society of Arts , after a vigorous and most useful campaignof fifteen years , came to a sudden st0p in 1881 . In thatyear the commi ttee delivered a gloomy report

,and found itself

unable to award the £100 prize whi ch Sir Walter Trevelyanhad presented for the best means of preserving fresh meat .This £100 was disposed of by being divided into fiv e sums of

£20 and granted to food and cooking exhibits at the 1884Health Exhibition . Without doubt

,the introduction of frozen

meat in 1880 settled the whole di fficulty which the Society of

Arts ’ commi ttee had spent so many years in trying to solv e ,and it could only have been blindness to facts—the success ofthe Strathleven

’

s trial was common knowledge in 1881—thatmade the commi ttee in its report neglect its obvious dutyof stating that the introduction of frozen meat removed allits difliculties . Emphatically, Sir Walter Trevelyan

’

s £100

prize should have been awarded to Thomas Sutcliffe Mort,of

Sydney, as Chapter II . of thi s volume will show .

It may be remarked at thi s point,where attention has been

drawn to the necessity of Britain,already fully stocked wi th

cattle and sheep , looking abroad for her further needful foodsupplies, that, apparently, France , Germany, Austria, Italy,and Switzerland are reaching , or have now reached, the samestage in their economi c dev elopment . In the early part of thetwentieth century the peoples of these Continental countries aremaking the same investigations as to the nature and sourceof their future imported meat , and entering upon the samestruggles in their initial efforts to secure supplies from the landsof the south

,as did the inhabitants of England in the sixties

and seventies .

BRITAIN‘S CALL FOR OVERSEAS SUPPLIES 7

Surplus of Live Stock in the Southern Hemisphere .

So much for a nation ’s need and the experimental and un

practical efforts made to relieve it . Next may be consideredthe circumstances in the countries in the Southern Hemisphere ,Australia , New Zealand

,and Argentina, from which , to a

limited exten t by means of mea t preservation , and eventuallymore thoroughly through refrigeration ’s aid

,the real relief was

to come .

In Australia and New Zealand in the seventies sheep hadincreased so rapidly in number that it was apparent that , as awool producer only , the full value of the animal was not beingrealized . The flocks grew , the population remained small , andthere was no means of adequately dealing with the surplusstock . It was in the eventful period 186 8 to 1879 that thefrozen meat trade had its genesis, when Harrison and Mort inAustralia, andTellier and Carré in France , were experimenting ,and when the successful voyage of the Stra thleven set all doubtsat rest as to whether the surplus mea t of the New World couldbe brought in a perfectly fresh and sound state to supply theshortage in the Old .

Tinned meat export had been instituted in Australia priorto the establishment of the frozen meat trade , and of thiscollateral industry some brief particulars as to its pioneeringmay be given here .

Apropos of meat tinning or canning , it is interesting to notethat the first person to preserve meat in closed jars by employing hea t was a Frenchman , Appert . Earliest mention of his

process occurred in 1809 . At first glass bottles were used ,and soon afterwards iron tins (English patent 1810,

Heine) . The soldered tins made of tinplate were introducedthrough the French brothers Pellier about 1850. The greatGe rman chemist , Liebig , gave a lead to the Australian pionee rsof the canning industry by applying chemistry to the inv entionof extract of beef . Replying to an inqui ry as to whetherLiebig ever studied the problem of applying cold to meatstorage and transport , Dr . L . Geret , of the Liebig Co .

’s scien

tific department,Antwerp

,reports that Liebig never considered


refrigeration in this connection . In Lieb ig’

s ChemicalLetters (Vol . XL ,

32md letter, p . 139 , 4th edi t . ) he alludes tothe surplus cattle in Australia and the River Plate as merelyexport material for tallow and hides production .

”Lieb ig

’

s

first experiments on a commercial scale in the manufacture ofextract were carried outin the River Plate about 186 3 or 186 4 .

Mr . G . C . Gieb ert was the first general manager in SouthAmerica of the Lieb ig

’

s Extract of Meat Co .

The first men to preserve meat by practical tinning methodsin Australia were the late Henry Dangar, of the Hunter River,New South Wales

,and his brother, the late William Dangar,

of Turanville , Scone . Discontented with the wretchedly lowvalues of cattle—they had sold a mob of splendid bullocks inSydney for £2 12s . 6d . a head in 1846—Messrs . Dangar setabout starting tinning works . Towards the end of 1847 theybegan operations at Honeysuckle Point , near Newcastle, NewSouth Wales . Mr . Charles Gedye was manager the meat waspacked in 4 1b . and 6 lb . tins , and hermetically sealed, the tinsbeing pain ted and labelled in London . The meat (beef,mutton , tongues , and soup and boui lli ) sold readily in London,and the Admiralty took quantities of it . The factory wascarried on with success—meat at first cost only éfd . per lb—butthe gold discov eries in 1851 raised the price of cattle to such aprohibitive figure that the works were closed early in thefifties , and now Honeysuckle Point is covered with dwellinghouses . Messrs . H . E . and M . Moses , of New South Wales,were also canning meat about that time .

In 1850 there were 1 10 boiling down establishments inAustralia, and the production of tallow was enormous . Thesheep slaughtered for this purpose numbered cattle

the tallow exported in that year was close ontons , valued at At one works (Russell

’s, HunterRiver) sheep were boiled down in four weeks . In 1851the scale of boiling down enterprise greatly increased , and

probably about 10 per cent . of all the sheep in Australia fellvictims to this wasteful process in that year . Dr. Lang , oneof Australia’s ablest pioneers in the problems of public life,religion , and education , inveighed against this wholesale and


enormous destruction of valuable animal food going on in NewSouth Wales for eight years . Viewed in connection withthe fact that there are millions at home on the brink ofstarvation, this des truction is discreditable to Great Britainand her rulers , and cannot but be peculiarly offensive in thesight of Heav en .

”

The tinn ing trade was certainly a useful outlet for the surplussheep and cattle in the ea rly days . A few years before thetime when the millions of visitors to the Great Exhibition of1851 were confronted with Australian tinned mutton , cattlein the grazing regions of Australia were worth only £2 to £4 perhead , but the gold discoveries of 1851 proved a time of blessingto cattle owners

,prices then going up to £8 to £10 per head .

But the increas ing flocks were ever a problem to the Australiansheep farmer . Boiling down for tallow , the earliest methodof supplementing the pa storalist ’s returns from his wool, was acrude system

, wi th strict limitations . The following ta blegives some idea of how the pastoralis ts and graziers of Australiastood with regard to their local market, and why they wereforced to find markets abroad

Population. Ca ttle.

After Messrs . Dangar’

s meat tinning ente rprise of thelate forties

,not much appears to have been done in Australia

till 1865 and 186 6 . In the former year Mr . Robert Toothbegan making extract at Yengarie, Queensland , and Tooth

’sExtract of Meat 00 . (London Bridge) states that Messrs .Allen and Hanbury were the consignees of the first parcelto be imported , on July 24

,186 6 . About 1875 Mr . Tooth

retired from the business , and devoted himself to sugargrowing in Manila . Mr . C . G . Tindal, a pioneer in meatpreservation , studied Lieb ig

’

s works when he was a young man,

and came across a chemist at Clapham named Deane, who was


making splendid extract and selling it at 353 . per 1h. Brady,of Newcastle, and Reynolds , of Leeds, were making a cheaperextract . Mr. r

fi ndal worked with Deane for some time, andthen began making Lieb ig

’

s extract of meat at Ramorni e, NewSouth Wales

,on September 13 , 186 6 . From that year manu

facture and export have been continuous . Mr . Alban Gee ,the present manager of the Sydney Meat Preserving Co .

,

went out from England to Ramornie in 186 6, and the late

Mr . Thomas Cordingley went to the same place in 1872 . In1875 Mr . Cordingley started preserving mutton in Botany Bay,and later, supported by Mr . Tindal , he formed the North Queensland Meat Export Cc . at Alligator Creek , North Queensland, asuccessful concern now working under the management of Mr .

Harold Cordingley . Mr . C . G . Tindal , in answer to an inquiry ,writes as follows : I hold an autograph letter from BaronLiebig on the subject of making his extract , which has beenmade use of in two tri als at law, and which established theright of myself and other makers to call the extract we makeLieb ig

’

s Extract ’ throughout Great Britain . But the LawCourts on the Continent decided against us .”

The Melbourne Meat Preserving Co . was formed in 1868 ,

Mr . S . S . Ritchie, who had been a partner with Mr . JohnMcCall, of London, being mainly instrumental in its establishment . Messrs . J . McCall and Co. were intimately associatedwith the building up of the tinned meat trade .

The Sydney Meat Preserving Cc . , Ltd . , of Sydney, whi ch wa sa concern established in 186 9 for the purpose of prev enting thefluctuation of the price of fat stock brought to the Sydneymarket

,has a paid-up capital of and reserves amount

ing to but no dividends are paid upon the capital . Themode of operation is for persons who send stock to Flemington ,Sydney

, to allow the Sydney Meat Preserving Co . a rebate of

25 per cent . on its purchases this, in ordinary years , meansan eighth of a penny per 1h . The payment of this rebate isnot a compulsory charge , and is not allowed by all the persons

who sell stock , but all the larger stockowners allow the rebateto the company . The purchases of stock vary, of course ,from year to year, in accordance with the condi tion of the

BRITAIN‘S CALL FOR OVERSEAS SUPPLIES l l

market if the markets are good , very little stock is purchased .

The account up to June 30, 19 10, shows that during theprevious half-year the company bought sheep and

cattle . The stock purchased by the company are killedat its yards . None of the meat is sold , but the whole of thecarcasses are canned or turned into tallow, so that the purcha sesof the company do not come into competition with those of theordinary butchers .Australian canned meat began to be known to the British

public by the year 186 7 . Before that time preserved meathad only been used by the services , by explorers , and onsailing ships , but it appealed to the public very soon afte rthe first imports came along—the Midlands took a greatfancy to it, and clamoured for it . Shipments were easilyabsorbed . No American meat of any kind was importedduring the sixties , and Australia was the pioneer of thetinned as she was of the frozen meat trade . South Americantinned meat was first imported in 1871 . Boiled mutton wasthe principal article turned out when the business began , andcorned beef was also shipped . The growth of this tradewas remarkable ; in 186 7 the United Kingdom

’s imports fromAustralia were lbs . , in 1868 no less than lbs . ,

While in 186 9 they adv anced to lbs . In 1880 GreatBritain imported lbs . of canned meat .The position in New Zealand was much the same as in Aus

tralia ,there being a large surplus of sheep which the small

population was quite unable to deal with profitably . Aftershearing it was not an uncommon thing for the old and inferioranimals to meet the fate of the Gadarene swine . Boiling downworks were the first means introduced to deal with this surplus ,and on many of the stations in New Zealand are still to be seenthe primitive plants erected for that purpose . There was , ofcourse , enormous waste the sheep were kept during the flushof grass in the summer and then boiled down for tallow—wooland tallow were the only products . All sorts of plans weretried legs of mutton packed in tallow were shipped to England ,

and although the meat arrived in good condition ,the ente r

prise failed .


The next step was cann ing . About 186 9 a large company,the New Zealand Meat Preserving Cc . ,

established worksin various districts—Templeton , Styx, Kakanui , Washdyke,Green Island, and Woodlands ,

in the South Island , and ina few North Island centres

,though at that time the North

Island carried but few sheep . At these works the best jointswere preserv ed

,and the rendering of tallow from the rest of

the carcass was a lso carried on . Preserving was rough andready

,as there was no chilling process available to hold the

meat for any time . All the offal and the skin were wasted .

Owing to unreliability of quality, the canning business did notpay, and all the works were ultimately closed down . The sheepindustry in New Zealand at this period was unprofitable thesurplus animals often went for 6d . or 18 . per head , and , as a rule ,the measure of value was the skin on their backs . Variousattempts were made to preserve meat by chemical and othermeans

,but were not successful

,and from 186 5 to 1882 run

holders in New Zealand had a very bad time . It is a matterof great regret that very few of them were able to standagainst the adverse conditions till the better day brought bythe frozen meat export trade had dawned .

The population of New Zealand at the start of the frozenmeat trade was about and the statistics of NewZealand ’s herds and flocks from 1851 to 1881 are as follow

Population. Cattle. Sheep.

The R eal Genesis of MeatExport.

Australia and New Zealand were not, of course, the onlycountries striving to realize on their surplus liv e stock , andthe United States of America was the first countryto inauguratea meat trade dependent on artificially cooled storage during



went beyond the needs of the small population,and even in

those ea rly days the question of export was mooted to relievethe congestion caused by ov erstocking . But the ideas of thecattle-owners did not soar beyond hides

,to export which to

Spain and Brazil the Governor and Captain General of theprovince of the Riv er Plate issued licences . This was theposition in 16 16 , when the ship Our Lady of Refuge left BuenosAires with hides

,valued at reales—about £117 .

So, three hundred years ago, pastoral products were of littleaccount in the River Plate . From the first the herds and flocksmultiplied enormously, and in the seventeenth century it wasrecorded that all the wealth of these inhabitants consists intheir animals , whi ch multiply so prodigiously that the plainsare covered with them , particularly with bulls, cows, sheep ,horses , mares, mules , asses, pigs , deer, and other sorts, in suchnumbers that, were it not for the dogs that devour the calv esand other tender animals

,they would devastate the country

—a sort of internecine strife between the animals that precededthe latter day organized onslaught of the frigorifico.

Mr . Herbert Gibson , in hi s book on The Sheep BreedingIndustry in the Argentine Republic ,

” states that sheep wereneglected and despised . They were almost classed with wildbeasts and fowl , looked upon as public property, and allowedto roam at will , and increase or die off as the years were element

or sev ere .

” They were of two classes, the pampa sheep ,descended from the mountain long-wools imported from Spain ,and the criollo, the much degenerated descendants of theSpanish merinos . It is curious to note that the two greatsheep countries of the world , Australia and the Riv er Plate,introduced the improved Spani sh merino at the same date .

In 1794 Don Manuel José de Labarden exported ten rams andtwenty ewes from Spain to the Banda Oriental (the old romanticname for Uruguay) , which at that time was one of the provincesof the Riv er Plate Viceroyalty. In 1813 Mr . Henry Lloyd

Halsay imported 100 improv ed Spanish merino sheep andfounded the first fine-woolled merino flock in the province ofBuenos Aires. The first introduction of English sheep tookplace in 1825, with the purchase of thirty Southdowns , and


the first Lincolns were imported in the forties . Pa rticulars

in de tail of British pedigree stock imported into Argentina will

be found on p . 98 .

Harking back to the general position of live stock , theestancieros had now to consider how to find an outlet forthe enormous herds of cattle and flocks of sheep that wererunning almost wild over the River Plate plains . Somebold spiri ts about 17 17 started a large salting works atBuenos Aires

,and the beef was exported . In 1794 the live

stock breeders of Buenos Aires and Monte Video presenteda petition to the Minister, Don Diego Cardogin , urging thefree exportation of tallow and jerked beef, the trad e to be

as sisted by the introduction of eight or nine hundred Irishmen

,bachelors and Roman Catholics . In the early eighties

so great was the congestion of the sheep that in one case aflock was driven to the coast and a portion were precipitatedover the cliffs into the sea . By 1822 the export trade in hides ,tallow,

and wool, had grown to a total for the year valued atWe find news of increasing quantities of salted

meat passing through the Buenos Aires customs house forexport from 1862 quintals) to 186 6 quintals ) .The importance of this trade to-day is seen when it is

stated that nearly one-half of the cattle of Argentina dependon the up

-river saladeros , where the number slaughte redexceeds the total number handled at the frigorificos—suchis the importance of the Argentine salted and jerked beefbusiness . The first Shorthorns were imported in 1865 by DonJuan N . Fernandez—a historic ev ent . The foundation of theArgentine Rural Society quickly followed

,and marked the

systematizing of the laudable efforts of cattle farmers who hadalready commenced to convert the primitive cattle raisingbusiness into a well-organi zed and intelligent pastoral industry.

It was from 1850 to 1860 that the importation of pure-bredstock was started on a commercial scale for the purpose of

improving the herds of Argentina . In 1868 the Governmentof Argentina offered for the discovery of a practicalmeans of preserving fresh meat, and in 1877 the export dutieson fresh meat were suspended for five years . In 1882 these


duties were abolished . It may be interesting to give here thefigures of the four official stock censuses that have beentaken in Argentina

At this stage of the great Argentine Republic ’s livestock industry, the estancieros perceived that the meanshi therto employed of dealing with the ever-increasing surplus

of animals were both unscientific and obsolete . Boilingdown , the last resort of the stock breeder , was found tobe as unprofitable as it was wasteful , and in the seventiesthe sheep of Argentina had increased to such an extentthat even this desperate remedy for the accumula ting flocksfailed to dispose of the surplus . The saladeros’ profitableconsumption of cattle was also found to be limited . The idealbefore the stock breeders was (1) to use their fat cattle and sheepto good purpose financially (2) to handle the surplus in sucha way as would lead to a trade at once permanent and increasing and (3) to see to it that the new outlets should involvea steady improvement in the standard of quality of the herdsand flocks . It was perceived that only one avenue promisedthe realization of these conditions—the export of the Republic ’sstock to supply the needs of European countries , wherefat sheep and cattle were few and men were many . So in 1874the export of live cattle and sheep began , and by the end of1879 close on head of cattle and sheep hadbeen shipped away . On p . 75 appears a full statement of therise and fall of this industry .

The essay in 1876 of the steamer Frigoriflque, with CharlesTellier at the helm ,

was possibly the stimulus which helpedto set going the Argentine frigorificos on their successfulcareer . (But the success of the Strathleven venture had moreto do with it . ) The steamer Paragua y, two years later, with

BRITAIN’S CALL FOR OVERSEAS SUPPLIES 17

frozen meat on board for the Old World , kept the ballrolling , and prepared the country for the real start in 1883

of the great Argentine export trade in dead meat . Whenthe River Plate Fresh Meat Cc .

,at Campana , and Messrs .

S . G . Sansinena and Co. , at Barracas , built their meat works ,

the sheep of the country were by no means pretentious .

“ Woollies ” were purchasable at $2 to 33 a head . Theimprov ement of the Argentine sheep by the introduction of thepure bred English Lincoln and other breeds was yet to comethe average weight of the frozen carcass was 35 lbs . This wasconfirmed by the fact that the Smithfield salesmen were wontto speak of the Argentine mutton carcasses when they firstarrived as rats . The advantage of exporting their stockin the form of dead meat, as compared with the live stock trade,was quickly appreciated by the cattle and sheep breeders ofArgentina, who found , as the industry took root and expanded ,that in the frozen meat trade they had found a way of dealingwith their stock at once profitable, economic , and scientific .

As the improvement in quality,both of sheep and cattle

,

became general , the frozen meat from the Argentine commen ded a better price in the home markets

,and enabled the

freezing companies to outbid the live-stock exporters evenbefore the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in 1900 broughtthe trade of the latte r to a termination . In subsequent yearsthe average prices paid for wethers and ste ers hav e exceededthe highest ever obtained in the period when the live-stockexporter compete d with the freezer, and the Argentinebreeder is now persuaded that the dead meat trade is hismost profitable market . The economy it represents is tooobvious to merit discussion ; the labour employed in thefactories , the hides , tallow , and offal that remain at theArgentine end, the economy in space and in freight, all combine to secure for the exporting country the maximumquantity of the total value of the animal . In the improvedmethods of handling and carrying the dead meat , its collectionin cold storage in the Argentine and its distribution in theEuropean markets, the River Plate has achiev ed the mostscientific application of its commerce .

s .s .

CHAPTER II

THE WORK on THE PIONEERS

WI TH the light of less than four decades shining on thebrilliant achievements of those who played the part of pioneersin the frozen meat industry

,the task of according each name

concerned the exact importance it bears in relation to succeeding progress is not an easy one . For instance, while the dateon which one inventor patented a certain freezing process maybe prior to the launching of a scheme by another, pioneeringpride of place may belong to a third whose foresight of theultimate situation was clear, and whose early work , therefore,was more material in setting the industry on its legs .The work of the French chemi st and engineer Carré must

always be regarded for its early date James Harrison, whoserecord of early struggle

,achievement, and failure , is tersely

recorded in a Geelong cemetery,can never be forgotten ; while

the efforts of Mort in Australia, and the Americans whoestablished the earliest refrigerated trade across the Atlantic ,must have a pre-eminence of their own .

Thomas Sutclifl'

e Mort.

The figure of Thomas Sutclifie Mort stands out boldlyamongst all the pionee rs and experimenters in Australia andelsewhere whose efforts laid the foundations of the frozenmeat trade . Mr . Mort cheerq y spent a large fortune inexperimental enterprises in practical meat freezing, and his

conception of the future that awaited the industry wasprophet-like

,so sympathetic and keen was his grasp of the

subject—as will be seen in reading the sentences extractedfrom his speech, which are given below .

Mr . Mort was born at Bolton , Lancashire , on December 23,1816

,emigrating to Australia in 1838

,and later founding the

MAS SU'

I'

C IJ FFE MOIC'

I’

, AND THE STATUE BREi'TED TO HIS MEMORY AT SYDNEY .

To fa cr p . 18 .



reads curious ly, for in 186 7 not an ounce of (mechanically)frozen meat had reached England !) The meat upon whichMr . Mort feas ted his 300was

, of course, all frozen , and he statedthat some of it had been kept since June

, 1874 . He told his

guests that Australia was destined to become the great feederof Europe .

Before long France and England will look to us almostentirely for their supply of food . Mr . Mort suggested thebreeding of Highland cattle, as thi s breed secured top pricesin English markets . Mr. Mort’s classic peroration must begiven verbatim .

I feel , as I have always felt, that there is no work on theworld ’s carpet greater than this in whi ch I have been engaged .

Yes, gentlemen , I now say that the - time has arrived—at allev ents , is not far distant—when the various portions of theearth will each give forth their products for the use of each andof all that the over-abundance of one coun try will make upfor the deficiency of another ; the superabundance of theyear of plenty serving for the scant harvest of its successor forcold arrests all change . Science has drawn aside the veil , andthe plan stands revealed . Faraday ’s magic hand gav e thekeynote , and inv ention has done the rest . Climate , seasons ,plenty

,scarcity, di stance, will all shake hands , and out of the

commingling will come enough for all, for the earth is theLord ’s and the fulness thereof,

’ and it certainly lies withinthe compass of man to ensure that all His people shall bepartakers of that fulness . God provides enough and to sparefor every creature He sends into the world ; but the conditionsare often not in accord . Where the food is, the people are notand where the people are, the food is not . It is, however, asI have just stated, wi thin the power of man to adj ustthese things

,and I hope you will all join with me in believi ng

that the first grand step towards the accomplishment of thisgreat deed is in that of whi ch you yourselves hav e this daybeen partakers and witnesses .

”

Mr . Mort is supposed to have spent in connectionwith his freezing experiments, and besides was put

up by Australian squatters for a trial shipment to England

THE WORK OF THE PIONEERS 21

about 1876 , for which the sailing ship Northam was chartered .

Mr . Andrew Mcllwra ith, who happened to be in Sydney at thetime the vessel was being fitted with an ammonia installa tionsimilar to that used on land , supplies for these pages thefollowing special account of this historic effortWe found that a considerable space in the square of the

main hatch had been bulkhead ed off as a meat chamber. Theinsulation consisted of a 15-inch space between two bulkhead srun in with tallow, and inside the chamber the cold brine pipeswere fixed . It occurred to us as we went round that therewas a danger of destruction to the meat in having the pipes inthe chamber, should the movement of the ship strain the pipesand a leakage occur , and , as a matter of fact, that is what tookplace , but fortunately before the vessel left the harbour .The meat had to be discharged , thus making an end of the

experiment before it had really begun . This failure was aterrible blow to Mr . Mort, and hastened his death . He died atBoda lla, New South Wales , in 1878

,and to his memory a

monument was erected by public subscription . Had Mortspent less time in research work on the mechanical side ofrefrigeration , his actual achievement in starting the new trademight hav e been greater . There were many engineers workingout the scientific problems in Europe at the time , and had Mortdepended on their labours rather than spending his timeexperimenting along with Nicolle

,it is possible that the commer

cia l beginning of the trade might have been in 1876 inste ad of1879 .

Before pas sing to another pioneering record a word may besaid about Mr . Mort ’s associate ,

Eugene Dominique Nicolle .

Mr . Nicolle was born at Rouen in 1824, visited Australia in1853 , and became manager for the well-known Sydneyhouse , P . N . Russell and Son . In the days when Mortand Nicolle were actively engaged in overcoming the difficulties of meat and provision export ( 1860 to ice wasimported from America

,and Mr. Nicolle did interesting work in

running a factory at Darlinghurst for the manufacture of ice bychemical process . As a preliminary to the plac ing on boardship of a freezing machine to be used for the frozen mea t trade


contemplated by Mr . Mort and himself, Mr . Nicolle erected aspecial chamber at the back of the Royal Hotel , George Street ,Sydney, where the process was tested for fifteen months .Negotiations were first opened up with the owner of the wellknown trader Whampoa , but fell through when it was heardthat liquefied ammonia was to be the freezing agent . In thesame year as Mr . Mort died, Mr . Nicolle retired from business and settled on Lake Illawarra, where he di ed a comparatively short time ago .

James Harrison .

James Harrison , another Briton who made Australia thescene of pioneer work in meat freezing and also in the manufacture of ice, was born in Glasgow in 1816 , the same yearas Mort first saw the light . That Harrison deserves place asone of the pioneers , if not the pioneer, of the frozenmeat tradeadmits of no shadow of doubt . In an article in the M elboume

Age (of which important journal Harrison was edi tor forsome time) , written in 1893 , at the time of his death , onSeptember 3 , 1893, aged 77, at Geelong , occurs this passageIt is a striking proof of his insight that he was the first tosee the enormous source of wealth that lies still undevelopedin the export of meat from the Australian pastures . The v eryindustry which Mr . Russell tells us has pulled New Zealand

outof the shoals into calm water was receiving Mr . Harrison ’sstrenuous adv ocacy thi rty years ago.

” Long before the yearindi cated by the Age ( 1863 ) Harrison was not only advo

cating but busily experimenting with his ice-makingmachinery .

He emigrated to Sydney about 1837 . In 1840 he settled atGeelong , Australia Felix ,

”—as Victoria was styled in the earlydays—taking up journalism , and in 1850, having some leisure ,devoted himself to the working out of an ice-making scheme .

He acquired land at Rodey Point , on the Barwon , and thereerected his first ice factory at a cost of In 1851 thebrewing firm of Gla sgow and Co. , Bendigo, installed a refri

gerator of the Harrison type . This was the world ’s pioneerof such machines . Perceiving that the works were too small

JAMES HARRISON.

MONUMENT TU JAMES HAR RISON IN G RELONG CEMETERY .

To fa re I ) .


to make a commercial profit , Harrison travelled to London in1857 . His two first English patents (see Appendix ) aredated March 28, 1856 , and September 10, 1857 two yearspreviously the machine had been patented in Australia . Hehad corresponded with Faraday and Tyndall, and di scussedfreezing problems with those distinguished men . He also gotinto touch with Siebe Brothers , who had a jobbing foundry inRed Lion Court , Holborn , and Mr . Siebe mad e a large machinefor him

,which was taken to Hobson ’s Bay in the ship Tricolor

on Harrison ’s return to Australia . It may be mentioned thatMr . H . J . West, an early inventor of refrigerating machineryand founder of the firm of refrigerating engineers which borehis name

,was manager of, and later a partner in , the firm of

Siebe Brothers , and knew Mr . Harrison well . Mr . West died

in 19 10.

On his return to Australia Harrison devoted himself specially

to mea t freezing , and before attempting export he experi

mented in the preservation of meat for lengthy periods on land .

At Melbourne , about 1873, he publicly exhibited his cold-pro

ducing machine , and by its means several carcasses of sheep ,sides of beef, poultry, fish , etc . , were frozen , and six monthsafterwards these viands were consumed at a public banquet .Like Mort , three years later, James Harrison failed when he

put his process of meat preservation to the test of sea voyage,

and the failure ruined him . All the profits of his newspaperwere ea ten up in his experiments and by the disas ter which

b efel the shipment when the 20 tons of mutton and beef placedon board the Norfolk went bad on the journey to London .

The vesse l sailed in July, 1873 , from Sandridge Railway Pier,Melbourne ; the meat had been frozen on board in

“ two tanks ,”

ice and salt freezing mixture being used to effect the refrigeration of the cargo . The tanks leaked , and when the vesselarrived at London m October the meat was unsaleable . Thisterrible blow, no doubt , crushed the inventor

’s spirit,as it

ruined his fortunes , for he soon sought retirement in London ,where he spent some years in scientific study .

The refrigerating machine of Harrison’s which was put towork in a paraffin factory in England in 1860 was probably


the first refri gerating plant ev er applied to a manufacturingprocess , though the Americans sta te that Professor Twining ,

about the same time,had an ether machine at work at Cleve

land,Ohio . The Patent Office is probably the best guide to

settle priority in inventions , and, according to this , Harrison,excepting Perkins ,

whose 1834 patent never seems to have gotbeyond Chancery Lane, was years ahead of all rivals ; Carréwas four years after him, Tellier eight years , Mort elev en,Little twelve

,Pictet thirteen , and Postle seventeen years later ,

according to London Patent Office records . The accompanyingreproduction of a photograph of the inscription on JamesHarrison’s tomb at Geelong tells briefly the story of the man ’s

Mr . J . D . Postle must be numbered among Australianpioneers as an experimenter, about 186 9 , at Melbourne withthe chilling of meat by means of an air compression machine .

Evidence of the early spread of enterprise in the new industryis afforded by the fact that the Melbourne Austra la sia n from186 8 to 1880 contained a great mass of correspondence dealingwith the earliest days of meat freezing and the merits of thevarious systems of refrigeration .

The Bell-Coleman Machine .

The name Bell-Coleman must, where meat freezing isconcerned, ever remain an honoured one in the two hemispheres ,for it was through the agency of a Bell-Coleman refrigeratingmachine that there was landed in London early in 1880 thefirst shipment of fresh meat ev er successfully ca rried fromAustralia . In the career of Mr . (now Sir) Henry Bell iscontained the history of this and other pioneering efforts inmeat refrigeration , and some account of his early work hasproper place here .

Mr. Bell ’s first connection with meat refrigeration was when ,

early in 1877 , he took up the Glasgow agency of the dressedbeef shipping business from New York established by Mr . T . C .

Eastman . To Mr . Eastman , by the way, must be given thecredit of having first introduced chilled meat into Great Britain

(ride a personal note below) . The refrigerating process



the world that they could bring meat across the ocean theyfitted up in the engineering works of Messrs . D . and W . Henderson and Cc . , of Glasgow, a space similar to the

’tween decks ofan ordinary steamer, and therein put meat and kept it chilledfor ninety days, subsequently bringing it up to Smithfieldmarket and selling it there . That consignment was kept ata temperature of 30° F the cattle were slaughtered close tothe chi lling chamber, and the meat was not moved after itwas put into the chamber, never being actually frozen . Allthrough 1878 and 1879 the inventors were receiving meatfrom the United States on Mr . Eastman’s account, cooled byfreezing mixture .

Queen Victori a 8 Approv al.Although it is only an incident , it is worth mentioning here

that as early as 1875 American chilled beef met with Royalapproval . The followmg information received from Mr . F .

Link,of the Centra l Markets, forms an interesting and a Royal

remini scenceMr . T . C . Eastman was the shipper, from New York in

October,1875, of the first lot of American chilled beef

,and to

him must be given the credit and honour of this innov ation,

undertaken at considerable risk and expense to himself . Abaron of that beef was sent to Queen Victoria at WindsorCastle

,and Eastmans, Ltd . , have the Royal Seal in connection

with that transaction . The Queen pronounced the meat verygood .

’ The shippers of this early American chilled beefincluded Toffee Brothers, Gillette (Jersey City) , Martin Fuller

(Philadelphia) , and Sherman (Philadelphia) , and Mr . J . D .

Link acted as agent for Mr . Eastman up to the time when

Messrs . John Bell and Sons took over the agency .

Charles Tellier.

Having recounted the early efforts of Mort and Harrison inAustralia

,one is tempted to proceed at once to a description

of the first frozen meat shipment successfully finding its wayfrom those shores to the Mother Country . It must not beforgotten

,however, that refrigerating experiments were being


carried on elsewhere , and it is well to rev iew the part playedby such a scientist and engineer as the Frenchman , CharlesTellier

,who was responsible for a shipment of meat brought

at a chilling temperature from Buenos Aires to Rouen as earlyas 1877 , this being in fact the first meat cargo shipped throughthe tropics under refrigeration . Tellier was the inventorof an ammonia-absorption refrigerating machine as early as1859 , and in 186 7 he produced an ammonia-compressionrefri gerating plant . M . Tellier

’

s first essay at shipping meatunder refrigeration was in 1868 . fi nancially supported byMr . Fran cisco Lecocq , of Monte Video, he put an ammoniacompression machine into the City of R io de Janeiro . Heshipped 300 kilos of beef from London to that city as a te st,the intention being on the homeward journey to import meatfrom Uruguay into France . But twenty-three days out anirreparable accident occurred to the apparatus, and the meat waseaten on board . The temperature was

'

32°

F. Next we cometo the Frigorifique, a slow steamer, previously named the Eboe,210 feet in length , and with a meat hold 85 feet long , 25 feetwide

,and 13 feet high . This was bought in Liv erpool in 1875

for francs by a company formed in France toimport fresh meat from La Plata, Texas , or Madagascar .Three of Tellier’s refrigerating engines were installed at thestern , and all the room forward of the engines was given up tocooled space for meat . The insulating material was powderedcork and chaff. The vessel sailed from Rouen on September 19 ,1876 , and arrived at Buenos Aires on December 25, carrying

some meat from France . Dark spots were reported onsome of this meat when inspected by the deputy president ofthe Argentine Rural Society, who also said that at table theygave us small dishes prepared from the meat, the flavour ofthe most part of it was rather unpleasant .” (Turf , broughtas ballast, was the alleged cause of this . ) Afte r considerabledifficulty in assembling a return cargo of meat, theship Frigorifique sailed for Rouen, where she arrived onAugust 14, 1877 , after a voyage of 104 days : some ofthe meat when landed there had been preserved for 110days .Le Ra ppel de Paris of December 2

,1877 , stated that a


certain portion of the meat did not arrive in good condition , and a rather careful selection had to be made .

”

But, it adds , the problem was solved .

” No particulars areto hand as to the realization of the cargo, but the French peoplewere indifferent

,and ev en in those early days it was in Ehigla nd

where there were the best chances of exploiting Tellier’

s

process , for it seems that one of Mr . Tallerman’

s companies ,the London Meat Importation and Storage Cc . , arranged tobuy the Frigorifique and send her out again to South America .

The negotiations, however, fell through , and the v essel experienced many vicissitudes , almost knocking down one of the Seinebridges on one occasion , and being put up for sale in May, 1879 .

A Mr . Robert MacAndrew was introduced to the Frigorifiquecompany to finance it . Actually ten tons of the desiccatedbeef brought ov er by the ship reached London . Notan atomof mould was on it , Mr . Tallerman says , and he ad ds themeat was like leather, and had lost 30 per cent . of weight ,which was regained in cooking This loss of weight may seemincred ible . But in Harrap and Douglas ’s Public Abattoirsand Cattle Markets it is stated that a piece of beef 1 16 ouncesin weight lost 50 ounces in 6 7 days (43 per cent . ) by

“ aircoolin g . M . Tellier patented his process in all the countries ofEurope, and in Victoria, Australia, from 1874 to 1878 .

The Shipment by the Pa ra gua y in 1877 .

Although the shipment by no means marked the sta rt of therefrigerated meat export trade from South America, the successful carriage of a cargo of frozen meat on the Pa ragua y

from Buenos Aires to Havre in 1877 must be chroni cledas actually the first entirely successful frozen meat shipmentin the world’s history . About 1860 an ammonia-compressionmachine called the engine Carré was constructed

,an inv en

tion with which M . Charles Tellier was in some way associated .

M . Carré ’s name must stand out as that of the pioneer in Europeof thefrozenmeat trade forTellier nev er brought his meat belowfreezing point, and the Argentine meat brought by the Prigori

fique was a thing apart—nothing has ever since been seen like


it . Records of the solitary attempt made by the SocietyJullien Company for the transport and preservation of freshmeat by means of cold (Carré-Jullien system ) , BoulevardNational , 386 , Marseilles , are fairly clear . Messrs . Jullienwere shipowners , running vessels engaged in the Mediterraneanfish trade . They fitted a Carré ammonia machine in thes.s. Pa ragua y, tons . Captain Lefevre was in charge

,

the engineer was M . Lescornet, and the refrigerator wasconstructed by Messrs . Hanthonille , of Marseilles , fromM . Carré ’s designs . The engineers were so determined to makea new departure and congeal their meat that they kept thetemperature during the homeward passage at about 17

°

F .

The chronicler says the meat was petrified , as hard as a stone .

Extraordinary precautions were taken with some meat sentout from France

,as a test . The Argentine Vice-Consul at

Marseilles sea led up the refrigeration chamber and the fourqua rters of beef and ten sheep therein . The vessel sailed onAugust 13 , 1877 , and arrived at Buenos Ai res on September 29 .

The Pa ragua y commenced to take in her meat from SanNicolas for freezing on board on October 7 , and she did nota rrive at Havre till about May 7 , 1878 , owing to having beencompelled to put into St . Vincent for repairs after a collision .

There she stayed four months , yet she arrived at the Frenchport with the meat in tip-top condition—a marvellous

performance for 1878 Her cargo consisted of carcassesof mutton . The reporter at Havre was enthusiastic . Thecongealing completely destroys the germ of putrefaction ,

” hewrote , and the good people at Havre received the consignmentwith joy . The 80 tons were used to the last morsel .” Thegarrison troops feasted on it and , mirab ile dietu , the GrandHotel in Paris used the meat for a whole week . As the Frenchwere so ready to welcome frozen meat, and partook of it sofreely

,one concludes that the regulations now built up against

its import must be artificial or engineered . The Jullien Co .

prepared the Pa ragua y for a second essay on a grander scale

(800 tons of meat) , but, as Dr . Pierre Berges has recorded,as it happened , the project was never reali zed , and this new

industry of the freezing ofmeat was abandoned by the French .

”


Dr. Berges says, a little bitterly, in another place : As hasoften happened in the history of industries , it has been theFrench who have made the discov eries, and the English whohave turned them to account to their profit . The refrigeratingindustry belongs to this number.” A parcel of this meat wassent to London . Messrs . John Schmidt and Cc . ,

6 9 ,Mark Lane,E .C. were the consignees

,and the mutton was reported to be

of extraordinarily good flavour , but very small .” Messrs .

Jullien wished to build a fleet of steamers,

tons each,to

conv ey to France Argentine frozen meat and remounts for thearmy . Had the French capitalists come forward

,the whole

course of the commercial genesis of the mea t trade would havebeen altered .

The J’

tra tb leven .

The Strathleven shipment was the outcome of an inqui ryinstituted early in 1878 by Queensland squatters , who, havingheard of the Pa raguay voyage from South America to Havre ,cabled to London

,and Mr . Andrew McIlwra ith and Mr. Beard

more Buchanan went to Havre to inspect the steamer . Theyreported adversely to the application to the Australian tradeof the refrigeration system employed , and shortly afterwardsMr .McI lwraith got into touch with Messrs . Bell and Coleman inGlasgow . Experiments were made with dry air at 30

°

E ,

which resulted in the conviction that Mr . Mort’s freezingtheories were correct . Negotiations were opened with Messrs .Bell and Coleman for a machine designed and arranged for shipboard , and Mr . Andrew McIlwraith chartered the s .s . Strath

leven (gross tonnage from Messrs . Burrell and Son , andinstalled the Bell-Coleman machine on board . The vesselsailed from Plymouth in 1879 under the control of Mr. JamesCampbell, a civil engineer, and Mr. Matthew Taylor Brown ,B .Sc . , went out as representative of the Bell-Coleman Cc . ,

and returned with the v essel on its epoch-making voyage . Thecaptain was Mr . C . W . Pearson . Mr . (afterwards Sir) ThomasMcIlwraith, Mr . B . D . Morehead, and Messrs . William andRobert Collins were amongst the Queensland gentlemen whotook a leading part in helping forward the movement, and



Mr . Hastings Cuningham and Mr . George Fairbairn in Victoriarendered assistance , but Mr . McIlwra ith

’

s firm , McIlwraith,

McEacharn and Cc . ,bore the risk of the v enture .

The late Sir Malcolm McEacharn left London for Sydney tomake all arrangements there for the Strathleven ’

s loading .

The vessel sailed thence on November 29, 1879 ; Melbournewas made a second port of call, and the vessel left that porton December 6 , 1879 , for London , where she arrived onFebruary 2

,1880, with 40 tons of beef and mutton . The

meat had been frozen on board . One of the first persons toinspect the new commodity, destined to revolutionize theworld’s meat trade, was the produce representative of the NewZealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Cc . , and it was recordedin the market report of that company that On inspectionof the meat while the vessel lay in dock, it was found tobe in a perfectly sound state , frozen quite hard and coveredwith an artificial rime .

” The representative was , however,doubtful about several things, including the possible earlydecomposition upon thawing, deficient flavour , and partialdestruction of the natural j uices . But, on the whole ,he took a sanguine view, and his comments form the pioneerreport upon a trade which has attracted the most exhaustiveattention from commercial writers . The meat, which had costfrom lid . to 2d . per lb . in Australia, was placed in the hands ofMr. J . D . Link , of Smithfield Market, and realized 4M. to 55d .

per lb . for the beef and 55d . to 6d . per lb . for the mutton . Alunch to celebrate the success of the venture took place onthe Strathleven on February 6

,1880. Messrs . Andrew and

Thomas McIlwraith, Sir R . R . Torrens, Colonel Taylor, Messrs .W. Westgarth , W . Jordan , and E . Alford Wallace, amongstothers , were present. A carcass of lamb was sent to QueenVictoria and a sheep to the Prince of Wales . A joint wasgiven to the Travellers ’ Club, and the late Lord Hathertonhappened to be lunching at the Club when the said joint wasbrought to table . He found it so good that he asked for

another helping, and was surprised when he learned thatthe mea t which he had enjoyed so much represented a hiddenattack on his, or, rather, his tenants

’

,industry .


The newspapers and the trade gave a most fri endly receptionto thi s pioneer shipment of frozen meat the Times , the Da ilyTelegraph, the Mom ing Advertiser , the M a rk La ne Express, theGlobe, etc . , were enthusiastic . The Da ily Telegraph, in referringto the meat, wrote It has been tested by the ordinarymethods of cooking , and found to be in such good conditiontha t neither by its appearance in the butchers’ shops , nor byany peculiarity of flavour when cooked for the table , could itbe distinguished from freshly ki lled English meat .” Thefollowing interesting credential emanated from the LondonCentral Markets

This is to certify thatwe , the undersigned meatsalesmen , doing businessat the Central Mea t Ma rket, London , inspected the mea t imported fromAustralia ex Strathleven . We found it in perfectly sound ma rketa ble con

di tion , and it readily fetched prices a veraging 5M. per 1h. Both beef andmutton were excellentin quality, for those of us who ta sted the mea t whencooked pronounced it tender, and its flavour very good. From the success

which has a ttended this shipment, we are of opinion thatsimilar suppliesfrom Australia will find a la rge and ready sa le in this ma rket.

(Signed ) J. D . Link . Wm. Bowyer.Ha nnahWa rd and Co. Archer and Malthouse .

Charles Mathew and Son . H . S. Fitte r .B. W . Frostand Co. H . Killby and Sons.

B . Vena b les and Sons. H . Hicks and Son .

The Strathleven,after its hi storic voyage, was stripped of

its refrigerating machinery and insulation , and was sold byMess rs . Burrell and Son in 1899 to Messrs . Abram and Addie,of Glasgow, who kept her running in the American trade .In January, 1901

, she was lost in the Atlantic during aheavy gale while on passage from the Gulf of Mexico to the

The Australian Frozen MeatExport Company .

It was felt by the leading pastoralists of the Riv erina districtof New South Wales and of Victoria that thi s highly successfulopening of the new trade should be followed up in a businessway . Both the squatters and the mercantile communityentered enthusiastically into the consideration of how to

proceed in the most practical manner to exploit this industry .

Meetings were held in Melbourne at the end of 1879 and in 1880


at Scotts ’ Hote l , and Sir James McCulloch, Sir Samuel Wilson ,and Messrs . George Fairbairn , J . H . Douglas , J . L . Currie

,

Lloyd Jones , James Blackwood (Dalgety , Blackwood andHastings Cuningham , and C . M . Officer, were prominentamongst the gentlemen who supported the movement . TheAustralian Frozen Meat Export Cc . , Ltd .

,was formed with a

subscribed capital of in £ 100shares, and somewas spent in developing the trade . The gentlemen abovenamed were the directors of the company, Sir James McCullochbeing Chairman—all these gentlemen have passed away . Mr .

F . W . Armytage joined the board later . Mr . John Hotson wasappointed secretary and manager .At that time there were neither freezing works nor fitted

steamers , but during the early months of 1880 temporary workswere put up at Maribyrnong , and subsequently substantialfre ezing and storing works were erected at Newport , nearMelbourne . Then the company chartered the Protos , andfitted up the v essel with refrigerating machinery ; the insulationof the chamber consisted of nine inches of wool . Refrigeratingmachines were manufactured in Melbourne by Messrs . RobisonBrothers

,engineers . The machine was a duplicate of the

Gifla rd refrigerator which the company had imported . Towardthe end of 1880 the Protos was loaded and despatched toLondon with about sheep and lamb carcasses ,and 100tonsof butter, all of which produce was landed in London in excellentcondition on January 17th , 1881, at a moment when the citywas cut off from supplies owing to heavy snowstorms . Themea t sold from 5§d . to 7d . per lh. , and the butter fetched18 . 3d . per lb . These pri ces , of course, represented a substantial profit . After the success of the Protos shipment ,Mr. Thoma s Brydone , of New Zealand, visited the Melbourneworks , and no doubt the information gathered by him there wasof great help in preparing the Dunedin shipment—to be referredto later on in this chapte r . Another steamer was chartered andfitted in Melbourne

,the es . Europa , the insulation being char

coal—the Protos wool insulation had been unfitted in Londonand sold in good condition . A larger and more powerfulrefrigerator was made for the Europa by Robison Brothers .

ram. 1)

34 A HISTORY OF THE FROZENMEAT TRADE

Some carcasses of mutton and lamb,and some quantity

of butter, were despatched to London, where thi s shipment alsowas landed in excellentcondition . The prices realizedwere about35d . per lb . for the meat

,and 18 . 1d . per lb . for the butter .

After these ventures it occurred to the directors of thecompany that one of the regular lines of steamers trading fromAustralia to London should take up the trade . The OrientLine was approached in 1881

,and readily entered into the

suggestion . The s .s. Cuzco and two other steamers of the linewere fitted up by the Orient Co . with Haslam machines . TheCuzco was the first v essel to sail with meat ; she tookfrozen carcasses

,the freight paid at that time was 2M. per lb .

The Orientand Ga ronne followed . Difficulties were many atthi s stage of development

,and the Australian Frozen Meat

Export Co. had to struggle with low prices for their produce aswell as high rates of freight

,and soon the capital of the company

was seriously reduced . Drought set in , and exports fromMelbourne had to be suspended for a time .

The company was wound up in 1886 . In 1887 the Newportfreezing works were purchased by the Victorian Government,which used them in connection with the starting of the exportbutter business . In 1893 the firm of John Hotson and Co .

leased the Newport works from the Gov ernment for a periodof years, and in 1896 the works passed into the hands of thepresent owners, Messrs . John Cooke and Co. , who in 1899

reorganized and reconstructed them wi th new plant . On acalm survey of the events just chronicled , it is clear that theenterprise of the directors and shareholders of the AustralianFrozen Meat Export Co. at Melbourne , coming just after theinauguration of the frozen meat trade by the Strathleven shipment, was very helpful in giving the industry a good start .

Queensland’s First Freezing Enterpri se .

The first freezing enterprise in Queensland was that of theCentral Queensland Meat Export Co . at Lake’s Creek , nearRockhampton . This company had its origin in a boiling-downworks at Laurel Bank , on the Fitzroy River, opened in 186 8 byMessrs . Berkelman and Lambert . Messrs . Whitehead and Co .


subsequently acquired the factory . The Lake ’s Creek workswere started in 1871 by the Central Queensland MeatExport Co . This company had but a few years of precarious existence . Difiiculties occurred as time went oncattle became sca rce and dear, and in 1874 the works wereclosed . The preserving works had absorbed the surplus cattleand raised the stock in the district to prohibitive prices . Theworks remained closed until 1877

,at which date Whitehead

and Co . purchased the property from the liquidators , and transferred the plant at the Laurel Bank factory to the Lake’s Creekworks . About 1880 No . 2 Central Queensland Meat ExportCo . was formed , with Mr . Bertram as manager, and about 1883the company added a freezing plant to its establishment .The freezing chambers were full of meat ready for shipment inSeptember, 1883, by the Fiado. The vessel was a fortnightlate in arrival , and on September 13 what would have beenQueensland’s pioneer enterprise in the shipment of frozen meatwas wrecked by a disastrous fire at the works

,which caused a

loss of (It is curious that in 1884 another of Nature’s

wrecking forces , a hurri cane , frustrated the Poole Islandpioneers in their initial effort to ship frozen meat by the samevessel : see p . Not until August

,1884

, did the works restart .

In 1885 the company went into liquidation,and in 1886 the

property was purchased by a Melbourne syndicate , includingin its members Messrs . Andrew Rowan , George Fairbairn , andJohn Living . Mr . M . C . Thomson was managing director ofthe new company formed , which retained the former style, andMr . Bertram was general manager until 1890

,when he was

succeeded by Mr . Alexander Paterson . Mr . Paterson heldoffice for nine years , and during his period of managementexcellent results were obtained from the works . Mr . W. S .

Lambe (who has of late years been associated with the management of South American frigorificos) in 1899 became worksmanager . An average of the ann ual outtum of the Lake ’sCreek works for five years struck at this stage of the company ’shistory showed cattle treated and sheep meatfrozen lbs . , and meat preserved lbs . In1901 the company and business were taken over by a syndicate

D 2

36 A HI STORY OF THE FROZEN MEAT TRADE

of London capita lists , including Sir Montague Nelson , Mr .

George Mackenzie,and Mr . James Caird . The Central Queens

land Meat Export Cc . was registe red in London , where the officeis at 14

,Dowgate Hill , E .C. Mr . G . H . Hopper was installed

as the general manager at Lake’s Creek , a position he still holds .

The property is one of the largest meat preserving and freezingestablishm ents in Australia, possessing modern machinery andplant . The land held by the company is about acres ,of whi ch are freehold . When the works are in fullOperation 700 to hands are employed . Quite a smalltown is built round the factory for the employees a dininghall to seat 200 men , a mission hall, school , school of arts ,rowing , cricket, and football clubs, are amongst the socialfeatures of the Lake’s Creek meat works .Absolute ly the first shipment of frozen meat actually

despatched from Queensland left Moreton Bay, Brisbane , onMay 20, 1884 . Concerning this shipment, the Brisba ne Courierof May 21

,1884

,said : The British India Co .

’s steamer

Dorunda , with the first shipment of frozen meat for Londonfrom this colony, left the Bay yesterday afte rnoon . Thefrozen cargo consisted of sheep and 100 quarters of

beef,and the shipment may be attributed to the enterprise

of the Queenslan d Freezing and Food Export Co . The cattlewere the property of Mr . Collins , one of the earliest and mostconsistent of the supporte rs of the meat export trade . Theshipment was not a success , but the company afterwardsdemonstrated the vessel ’s capacity for carrying meat .”

Poole I sland .

An early and gallant attempt to follow up the successachiev ed by the Strathleven with its epoch-making shipmentwas made in Queensland in 1881 , when the Australian Cc . ,

Ltd . ,

was registered in London on April 29 of that year . Mr . RobertChri stison , owner of large flocks and herds on his Lammermoorand other stations in North Queensland , conceiv ed the idea ofes tablishing meat freezing works in that part of Australia andof forming a London company to work the enterprise . At thattime there was no market in the North of Queensland to speak



from the works was put on board the s .s. Fia do, which wasfitted with Bell-Coleman refrigerating machinery . The vesselwas bound for Batavia, and a remunerativ e price for the mea twas anticipated . Here , unfortunately , has to be recorded avery aggravated instance of the ill luck which so often dogsthe footsteps of pioneers and wrecks their enterprises . OnJanuary 30, 1884 , just as the F iado was ready to sa il, occurredone of the terrible cyclones that occas ionally visit the NorthQueensland coasts . When the storm abated , it was found thatthe Fiado lay high and dry on the mainland . The companylost heavily, and after mature consideration it was decided towind up affairs . Ultimately the buildings and effects weresold to the British India Steam Navigation Co. ,

whichconcern , employing steamers of their own , and those of theDucal Line, owned and managed by Messrs . J . B . Westrayand Cc . , began in 1885 the lifting of the meat from the PooleIsland works . The first shipment of tons was made bythe s .8 . Duke of Westminster in the year named , runningon the British India Queensland mail line . In the freezing ofthis meat v arious difficulties presented themselv es , and at onepoint so critical was the position that the zinc-lined pianocase of Mr . Stevens, the manager, was impounded and turnedto use as an extra condenser . One or two shipments were mad esubsequently on the joint accoun t of growers and shipowners ,but the works lacked that efficiency and perfection of detailequipment since attained elsewhere . The new owners of theworks found the enterprise was attended with such lack of

success that in 1886 it was di scontinued . It must be remembered that the works had been erected on an island , the onlyapproach to whi ch was at low tide , when the cattle had to cross,sometimes up to their girths in water . Apart from this incon

v enience, the early management had to contend with thedi fficulties usually experienced by pioneers , lack of tradeorgani zation and markets , besides the prejudi ce against frozenmeat

,which in those days was v ery marked . The British

India Co . still own the site and what remains of the works, butthe machinery and boilers hav e been sold, the latter to theAlligator Creek Works , North Queensland .


New Zealand enters the Field .

It will be convenient at this point to turn to New Zealandand consider the beginnings of the export trade from thatColony in frozen mutton . In 1851 there were sheepin New Zealand , and by 1880the flocks had grown toowned by farmers .

A notable pioneer of the New Zealand meat export trad ewas the New Zealand and Australian Land Cc . , the headquarters of which concern are at Edinburgh . Mr . W. S .

Davidson , who became general manager of that company in1879 , provides an exceedingly interesting and detailed accountof the circumstan ces in which New Zealand’s pioneer frozenshipment was made on the Dunedin . Realizing the great needof an outlet for the large surplus of sheep , and perceiving thepossibilities of the frozen export trade already indi cated bythe first attempts from Australia, Mr . Davidson inv estigatedthe whole business , his directors agreeing that a trial shipmentfrom New Zealand might be arranged for on the part ofthe New Zealand and Australian Land Cc . , at the same timeauthorizing a preliminary expenditure of In Feb

ruary ,1880, Mr . Davidson communicated with the late Mr .

James Galbra ith , a director of the Albion Shipping Cc .,and

wi th him had a first interview with Messrs . Bell and Colemanin Glasgow . It was under Mr . Coleman ’s able supervisionthat the sailing ship Dunedin was fitted up , his early assurance to the promoters being that if the carcasses were hardfrozen they would suffer no deterioration in the long v oyageof 100 days or more in a sailing ship ; that they could befrozen on board the ship itself without any refrigerating workson shore to assist ; and , moreov er, that with thorough insulation

of the meat chambers in the ship , and with a prOper system forthe circulation of the cold air , the carcasses when frozen solidmight be stored for the v oyage as closely as they could be pa ckedwithout risk of their being crushed . This was, indeed , amarvellous piece of prescience . Careful investigation havingled Mr . Davidson to the conclusion that a Bell-Colemancold air compression refrigerating machine was the best to


adopt,a contract was finally concluded whereby the Albion

Shipping Co . agreed to fit up one of its best and fastest sailingships with insulated meat chambers , boilers, and BellColeman refrigerating machinery, the Land Co . undertakingto find a cargo of meat (up to sheep , if necessary)to fill the chambers

,and to pay a freight of 2id . per lb . ,

taking all the risk of the cargo arri ving in a marketablecondition .

In support of this enterprise, Messrs . William Ewing and Coinsurance brokers , of Glasgow , were plucky enough to acceptwhat was a totally unkn own risk by cov ering all contingenciesattac hed to the carriage of the meat at the moderate premium

of fiv e guineas per cent . The ship Dunedin , of abouttons, commanded by Captain Whitson, was selected for thev enture

,and Mr . Davidson sent hi s instructions to Mr . Thomas

Brydone, the Land Co .

’s superintendent in New Zealand, toerect a killing shed in which to slaughter the sheep , to securefirst-rate butchers , and in every way to prepare for theprovision of a cargo of the most attractive classes of sheep .

Under Mr . Brydone’

s able direction this work was carriedout , and the slaughterhouse was erected on the company’sTotara Estate . Looking back now ,

too much praise canhardly be given to the extraordinary wisdom and pluck shownby these Duned in men . Failure in their enterprise might wellhav e thrown back the industry for years .

The Voyage of the Duned in .

It was decided to freeze on board , and the work was enteredupon in a ’tween decks chamber on the Dunedin at PortChalmers on December 7 , 1881, when Mr . Davidson and Mr .

Brydone personally stowed the first frozen sheep ever loadedin New Zealand , the question with them being as to whetherthe carcasses , after they had been frozen on board the ship ,should be placed thwart ship or “ fore and aft in thechambers . All went well until December 11

,when a

fracture of the engine’s crank-shaft owing to a flaw in


the casting stopped the work and compelled the sale of the641 sheep then in the chambers and of the 360 killed and intransit . Thus New Zealanders themselves were the first consumers of their own frozen meat . A repair was mad e , and theloading was completed on February 1 1, 1882, the ship sailingon the 15th of that month , and arriving in London Docks onMay 24 , after a long passage of ninety-eight days . During thatperiod the refrigerating machine had worked steadily ; sometimes , in cool weather, it was only run two or three hoursin the twenty-four .The anxiety as to the fate of the meat is aptly described by

Mr . Davidson , who had then returned to London . CaptainWhitson , he says, came on to London ahead of his ship ina pilot boat , looking very strained and carewom as he ente redthe shipping company’s office . He was not quite sure aboutthe condition of the cargo , but thought that most of it wassound . The vicissitudes of his experimental voyage wererelated

,the captain ’s anxieties about the cargo having been

aggravated by his dread that his masts would be burnt, as thesparks from the funnel set fire to the sails on several occasions .Then

,in the tropics the ship was for a long time on one tack ,

and owing to its steadiness the cold air was not sufficiently

diffused amongst the carcasses, and , in fact, the temperaturein the upper chamber remained so high that the engineer wasalmost in despair .” At last Captain Whitson had determinedto alte r the circulation of the air, which was evidently defective ,and to do this he had to crawl down the main trunk , and in theprocess of cutting fresh openings for the bette r escape of thecold air he became so benumbed by the frost that he was onlyrescued from his perilous position by the mate crawling inbehind him and attaching a rcpe to his legs by which meanshe was pulled outof the air trunkIt was found at London Docks that the cargo had arrived

in a sound condition , and its sale at Smithfield was at oncearranged for, the cargo embracing sheep and 449 lambsbelonging to the Land Cc . , and 939 sheep supplied byoutsiders .

The results of the marketing of this pioneer shipment were


officially communicated to New Zea land, and the following isa brief extract of the particulars then forwardedThe discharging of the cargo commenced three days after

arriv al , and the whole shipment was sold within a f ortnight,

the meat being taken out at night and conv eyed to Smithfieldmarket

,so that the sheep were hard frozen when butchers

went to buy them in the morning . There are no auction salesof dead meat in London, and the carcasses were sold at Smithfield in the usual way, by placing so many in the hands of somehalf-dozen salesmen who made as good prices for them as theycould . At first the salesmen were rather doubtful about theventure being a success, especially as it was the first trial fromNew Zealand

,but when they saw the fine big sheep

,whi ch ,

though many of them had been frozen over four months ,

were as clean and bright as newly-killed mutton , they quicklychanged their opinion and pronounced the meat to be asperfect as meat could be .

’ New Zealanders will be pleasedto learn that the shipment was mentioned even in theHouse of Lords . Excepting the very fat coarse sheep weighingover 100 lbs . each—several weighed ov er 150 lbs . , and one182 lb s—the mutton was quite suitable for the English market .Out of the whole cargo only one sheep was condemned .

Including some eight or ten sheep and lambs giv en away,which are ente red at the average price of those sold, thefollowing is an exact statement of the actual results of theshipment

Weight.

lb s sold 111 London299 4 Glasgow477 ca pta in

to order of mana gercondemned

Lambs 425 lb s sold in London24 950 Glasgow

11 4

31 2 11

14 3



being that they ran on icebergs off the Horn , these being verynumerous about that time .

”

Mr. Brydone’

s Forecast.

Mr . Brydone took the deepest interest in the trade, for thesuccessful inauguration of whi ch he was largely responsible .

In 1881 he read a paper at the annual meeting of the OtagoAgricultural and Pastoral Association , giving an account of

his investigations in Australia and elsewhere . His faith neverwav ered , for even as late as 1892, when many people in NewZealand thought that the export then reached ofcarcasses was about the top notch,

” he stated I shouldsay there is ev ery prospect of New Zealand being able to export

sheep ten years hence as easily as we donow .

” Mr . Brydone’

s forecast was correctCanterbury and Otago erected a bui lding in the Agricultural

Hall,Christchurch , to his memory , called the Brydone Hall ,

and the farmers of the Oamaru di strict hav e erected a handsome memorial cairn on the Totara Estate , where the firstsheep for the frozen meat trade were killed and prepared forexport in the ship Dunedin . In reviewing the circumstancesthat led up to the successful pioneer shipment from New Zealand

, one can hav e no doubt of the important part played byThomas Brydone . It is clear that he had grasped some of thepossibilities of the new trade and what they promi sed for thesheep farmer of New Zealand . Deservedly may he take frontrank amongst the pioneers .Supplementing Mr .Davidson ’s statement as to the outturn ofthe meat ex Dunedin , the market circular of the NationalMortgage and Agency Co . of New Zealand, dated June 2 , 1882,declared the shipment to have arriv ed in first-class condition .

The carcasses were pronoun ced excellent in quality,exception ,

however, being taken to the v ery fat and heavy sheep . Theconsignment , it was stated , was selling at prices ranging from55d . to 6gd . per lb . , lambs at 65d . to 74d . per lb . , and it wasadded that the experiment was considered a great success .

The other consignors of meat by the Dunedin referred to

THOMAS BRYDONE.

To { are 11 . «l l .


above were Messrs . James Elder (Maheno ) , J . H . Smith

(Invercargill ) , Murray , Roberts and Cc . , and James Shand .

The Times had a lea ding article on the shipment , and calledthe venture a prodigious fact,

” which it indeed was . TheEnglish butcher, with the fine New Zealand wether sheepbefore him , equal in quality to home-bred mutton , realized thata new era was opened up in the retail meat trade . He waswell justified in his realization, for since May , 1882, some

New Zealand frozen carcasses have been handledby retailers in Great Britain , much to their profit , and moreto the well-being of the British public who have consumedthem .

CHAPTER I I I

THE FREEZING wosxs or AUSTRALIA

THE development of freezing in Australia has not been onsuch an extensiv e scale nor so continuous as in New Zealand .

This has been partly due to the periodic droughts from whichAustralia has suffered and the distances separating the sheepbreeding districts from the shipping ports . Moreov er, in NewZealand the freezing industry arrived in the nick of time toplace farming in that country on a paying basis , and theColony found it absolutely necessary to follow it up withregularity . On the other hand, Australia

’s merino woolproduction—one of the grandest industries in the worldexcept in periods of depressed prices for the golden fleece,has always put the freezing of sheep into a secondaryposition only the surplus sheep have been exported .

Again , in New Zealand freezing has proved fairly profitable,and the business has been organized on systematic lines,while in Australia the freezing works as a whole have gonethrough many vi cissitudes . Large schemes were propoundedfor covering portions of the continent with meat-freezingworks , but before these schemes could be properly carri edout the 1895—1903 drought intervened and prevented theproper development of the enterprises .In a .considerab le number of the Australian works, especially

those in New South Wales,stock are killed at various

centres and then either railed or carted to the freezing works .After being frozen , the carcasses are again either railed or

carted to the steamer,in most instances in insulated vans .

The best works,however

,are conducted on the same principle

THE FREEZING WORKS OF AUSTRALIA 47

as in New Zealand and the Argentine Republic , the anima lsbeing slaughte red alongside the freezing chambers .

Queensland.

In the State of Queensland , where the general freezingscheme has been well designed , there have been big fluctuationsin meat exports

,as the few following figures will show

Frozen Beef Exports toCattle in the Sta te.the United Kingdom.

Most of the meat works are situated at the point of

shipment .Centra l Queensla nd Mea t Export 00.

—The first freez ingente rprise in Queensland was that of the Central QueenslandMeat Export Co . at Lake ’s Creek , near Rockhampton . As ameat works Lake’s Creek was opened in 187 1, and a freezingplant was added in 1883 (see p . 34 for a sketch of the earlyhistory of this concern) .

Queens la nd Mea t Export a nd Agency Cc .—The Queens

land Meat Export and Agency Cc . , with works at Eagle Farm ,

on the Brisbane River, and at Ross Creek , Townsville, wasformed in 1890. Sir Thomas McIlwraith was a prime mover infloating the company with capital , and Mr . JohnCooke , who had newly come from New Zealand, assisted inits establishment . Of thi s nominal ca pital less thanwas subscribed . Messrs . W . Weddel and Co . were appointedagents in London , and a five years ’ freight contract was madewith B oulder Brothers and Co . for the conveyance of tonsof mea t per month at {3d . per lb . for mutton and id . per lb .

for beef . The Queensland Meat Export Cc . , which was formed


to give graziers a market in the Old World for their surpluscattle, has had a v aried caree r

, b ad luck attending theearly shipments of beef

,which suffered terribly from bone

taint .” The quality of the cattle handled was excellent,and

after the fault referred to had been overcome Queenslandbeef met a good demand at Smithfield . But shipments soonovertaxed the English market, and prices fell so low that theContinent of Europe was tried as a market as an ad dition tothe marts of Great Britain ; in some cases the Queenslandsquatters not only drew no cash for their consignments , buthad to pay a reclamation charge . Then came the drought ,with the consequent gradual reduction of shipments . Thecompany, supported in the first place by squatters ’ consignments , had to buy on its own account, and of late yearshas depended for its business on shipments of frozen andpreserved meats on its own accoun t to British and Easternmarkets . Mr . C . Ross is the manager of the Brisbane works ,and Mr . Robert Stewart is in charge of the Ross Creekworks . A controlling holding in the company was purchasedsome little time ago by Messrs . G . S . Yui ll and Co . (now

Yuills , whose London office is at 120, Fenchurch Street ,E C. The Queensland Meat Co.

’

s works form a good example ofsound engineering equipment

,and the refitting of the Town sville

works , recently undertaken , brings them into line with the mostup

-to-date freezing works in existence in either hemisphere . Theworks now have the most modern machinery and applian cesfor handling produce, etc . , that can possibly be procured ,the original freezing machinery and other plant beingdiscarded , and new freezing and electric plant being erectedin its place . The whole of the new steam engines, both forfreezing and electric service, are triple expansion with asuperheated steam supply at 220 lbs . pressure , supplied bymechanically fired boilers

,and the entire coal supply is worked

by the latest coal-handling machinery . The whole of thefreezing rooms , stores, etc . , have been piped with di rect expansion coils ,

in lieu of the air circulating batteries whi ch wereformerly in use . When these works were designed abouttwenty years ago,

the old dry air system was installed but



a few years later the machines were replaced by ammoniacompression plant , and the freezing rooms were operated byair circulating batteries . About two years ago it was decidedto fit half of the total freezing capacity with direct expansionpiping

,and this , after working for a season , gav e such

excellent results and so thoroughly satisfied the directors ofthe company that they decided to pipe the remainder of thefreezing block at large expenditure . In Townsville coal isexpensive

,the water supply limited , and drainage difficult ;

nevertheless,the improv ements now mad e render the works

second to none for economy and convenience in working .

Gla d stone Mea t W orks .—The Gladstone Meat Works of

Queensland had its inception in 1893, when a meeting wascalled by Messrs . J . H . Geddes and Co . to consider the questionof establishing freezing works at Gladstone . The companywas formed in 1894 , and shipments began in 1896 . Mr . W . B .

Shaw was the prime mover in the formation of this company .

The works can treat 150 bullocks and sheep a day . Thefreezing chambers are substantially built of cemented brickwork ,and the risk of fire is minimized by the use of pumice insulation .

The refrigerating power is supplied by one of Haslam ’s 80-toncompound ammonia machines and one 100-ton compoundLinde ammonia machine . The slaughterhouse is providedwith hydraulic plant for handling the carcasses during dressing .

The company has its own pier , at which ocean-going vesselsberth . Mr . N . W. Kingdon is the manager .Mea t Works at Bowen—The Merinda Meat Works , near

Bowen , were established in 1895, Bergl , Australia, Ltd .,being

the proprietors , and Mr . Frank H . B oulder and CaptainThomas Hutton (Australia) its directors . The original concern , taken over by the Bergl Cc . , was the Bowen Meat Exportand Agency Co . The works are a few miles up the railway, andthe meat is trucked to the Bowen jetty and put on board theBoulder liners . The Merinda works have been kept thoroughlyup

-to-date , and many ad ditions and improvements have beenmad e, including the establishment of a canning plant . Theworks can treat 150head of cattle for freezing and 50 head forcanning daily, with a storage capacity of tons .


Birt and Co.

’

s Works—The important interests held in

Australia in the way of freezing works by Messrs . Birt and Cc .,

Ltd . , Sydney—represented in London by Messrs . Birt , Potterand Hughes

,Ltd—may be set forth as follow . In 1895

Messrs . Birt and Co . leased the Government meat markets atSydney

,and later in the same year they also leased the

Musgrave Wharf, Brisbane, and built freezing works on theproperty adjoining . From that time onwards they became oneof the largest exporters of frozen meat from Australia . TheSydney works can deal with carcasses of mutton perday, and have a storage capacity of about carcasses .The Musgrave Wharf works can deal with about 120 head of

cattle per day,and hav e storage for about 700 to 800 tons .

In 1901 Messrs . Birt and Co . built their own killing and freezingworks at Mooraree , eight miles from Brisbane (now calledMurarrie ) , and at these works there is plant to kill and freeze150 head of cattle and 600 sheep per day

, with storage fortons . Mr . E . Owen Cox is managing director for Australia .

Red b a nk a nd the Burdekin Riv er M ea t Works .—Reference

has now been made to the Queensland beef freezing workspossessing hi storic interest . Turning to modern times , Messrs .

John Cooke and Co . erected the Redbank works on the upperBrisbane riv er, one of the largest in the State , in 1902 . Two

large Hercules machines are installed at the Redbank works,

which until lately were under the charge of Mr . J . H .

McConnell. The daily freezing capacity of the works issheep and 300 cattle ; storage capacity, carcasses .During the South African war Mr . Cooke supplied about90 per cent . of the Australian meat issued to the Britishtr00ps . As beef was largely called for in that connection ,Mr . Cooke erected the Redbank freezing works

,and with

the aid of the Burdekin Meat Works Cc . ,situated on the

Burdekin river, North Queensland, in which he had a largeshareholding interest, supplemented by the annual outputof the Gladstone freezing works, whi ch he regularly acquired ,

a large export trade to Africa,the Philippines

,Siberia

,Japan

,

Mediterranean ports , and the United K ingdom was builtup, the only drawback being the long

-continued scarcity of


supplies resulting from the severe drought which broke upin 1902 .

The importa nce of Queensland as a contributor of frozenbeef to Great Britain is noted in the number of freezingworks dotting the course of the Brisbane river . The worksof Thomas Borthwick and Sons , Ltd . , expected to startfreezing ea rly in 19 12, are situated on the south side ofthe river , six or seven miles from Brisbane , and between thecity and Moreton Bay . The buildings are within 200 feet ofthe river , and ocean steamers will load meat at the company

’swharf . The site which , it is stated , has been acquired by theAmerican Mea t Trust for freezing works is about half a milefrom Messrs . Borthwick’

s works .A recent estimate of the capacity of the freezing works inQueensland gives head of cattle treated during a sixmonths’ running season . This is on a basis of a dailyslaughte ring capacity of cattle for the ten works in theState . In addition , ov er sheep can be handled forfreezing whilst the works are going at their full capac ityfor cattle .

New South W ales.

New South Wa les Fresh Food a nd Ice 00 .—Turning now

to New South Wales , and considering the export of frozenmutton , it may be mentioned that these works at DarlingHarbour , Sydney, opened in 186 1 by Mr . Mort , are the oldestin Australas ia . Mr . Mort invested in the works ; itwas in 1874 that the company was formally incorporated underits present title . In 1898 were erected for the New SouthWales Fresh Food and Ice Cc . , Ltd . , in Liverpool Street,Sydney

,works designed to treat about sheep daily or an

equivalent in beef, etc . , and to store about carcasses ofmutton as well as large quantities of butte r, ice , fish , etc . , inaddition to which about 32 tons of ice were manufactured dailyin the same building . In arrangement these freezing rooms

and stores were v ery much after the style of those at Deniliquin ,mentioned hereafte r, but considerably larger and much moreheavily piped with ammonia coils , this being done to enable

a 2


the company to treat meat , when desired for shipment, in theshortest possible time , which is frequently v ery essential whencompleting the loading of a steamer with a special brand ofmeat . The company do not slaughter at their works, but onlyfreeze . The direct expansion system of refrigeration isemployed . The company have a very extensive local connection in the supply of refrigerated provisions . At these worksare frozen the sheep slaughtered at the Riv erstone establishment, thirty miles from Sydney , owned by Messrs . B . Richardsand Sons, who have shown regularity and courage in theirexport trade, having taken their chances year in year outin selling their mutton on the London market . Mr . A . E .

Pitt is the London agent . Some years ago the Riv erstoneMeat Co . had several stalls in the Smithfield market annexe .

Austra lia n Chilling a nd Free zing 00 .—The Australian

Chi lling and Freezing Co. , Ltd . , a London concern of whichSir Montague Nelson is chairman , first opened works at Aberdeen

,on the Hunter riv er, in 189 1, and in February, 1892, the

s .s . PortDougla s took the first shipment of carcasses ofmutton . Mr . W . A . Benn , of Sydn ey (prominently connectedof late years with the frozen rabbit business) , was for manyyears manager of the company . The Aberdeen works at thestart offered three forms of contract : first, to purchasedeliv ered , fat wethers weighing 47 lbs . and upwards , dressed ,with shanks off, and kidneys and kidney fat remov ed , at 1d .

per lb . cold weight , all offal , including fat , to belong to the company

,skin and .wool to seller second , partial sale, the company

to make an adv ance of %d . per lb . on sheep , and in the ev ent ofthe mutton selling on av erage above 3M. per lb . the companyreturning shippers 75 per cent . of surplus , the offal to belong

to the company, the skins and wool to owner ; the thirdform ,

to consign on owner’s account, the company treating themeat

,and bagging and shipping it , as well as paying all charges

for a consolidated rate of 2 '

20d . ,giving shippers an advance,

and keeping offal and by-products as before . These workshave had to contend with variable seasons and low Londonv alues for the excellent class of mutton and lamb exported ,and their operations have benefited New South Wales and



was offered by auction by Goldsb rough, Mort and Co . in1890, thi s handselling of the up-country scheme representing15d . to 3 d . per lh.

—a poor start The late Mr . J . H . Geddeswas enthusiastic in recommending thi s system . The lateAlexander Bruce, Chief Inspector of Stock , New South Wales ,also highly approved of up

-country chilling,which was

thoroughly discussed by Mr . Cuthbert Fetherstonhaugh in hi spamphlet The Meat Export Trade

, pub lished in 1894 . Theauthors acknowledge indebtedness for information to thispamphlet and to Mr . Bruce ’s The Meat Trade of Australia,

”

1895 . On thi s basis the Young Meat Chilling and Export Co .

was started in 1892 with a guarantee of sheep andcattle yearly . The mutton was killed and chilled at Young ,and was then sent down in a refrigerated car

,run on board

a specially constructed craft at Darling Harbour, and towedacross to Kirribilli Point, where the truck was unloaded at theworks right into the freezing rooms . A similar plant on arather larger scale was fitted up at Dubbo, and one also atGunnedah . But the risks and costliness of thi s method put itout of court ; a sheep cost 2M. per lb . to kill and send fromYoung to London . The sponsors for this up-country chillingtook their cue from North America , where it was, and is ,practised extensiv ely (but notforfreezing afterwards) .

R iv erina Frozen Mea t Co.—It may be mentioned that

in 1892—1893 there were about sheep in NewSouth Wales , and a surplus of about wethers offattening ages, and it was desirable that steps should be takento increase freezing facilities . In 1892 Mr . John Cooke , whohad gone to Melbourne from New Zealand in 1889, promotedthe R iverin a Frozen Meat Cc . , which built its works at Deniliquin , New South Wales , 200miles from Melbourne . This wasthe first concern to demonstrate the practicability of safelycarrying frozen carcasses long distances and in ordinary insulatedwagons in summer. The main idea was to supply countrykiHed . and frozen mutton and lamb , driven short distancesfrom their own pastures to the works and thus spared thedete rioration resulting from long railage of the live animalsto Melbourne . The first directors of the R iverina Co. were


Messrs . John Cooke , Albert Austin , R . O . Blackwood , S . Frazer,L . Kiddle

,J . Raleigh , and R . B . Ronald . Dalgety and Co. ,

Goldsb rough, Mort and Cc .,the Australian Mortgage Land and

Finance Cc . ,and the Australian Mortgage and Agency Co.

cc-operated with Mr . Cooke in securing the necessary capital .The first shipment of meat was despatched from Melbourne in1895 per Maori . The long seri es of droughty seasons inthe R iverina reduced surplus fat stock to such an extent thatthe works have never been kept going steadily , and, indeed ,have perforce remained idle for sev eral consecutive years .Mr . Frank Coxon , the well-known Australian consulting andrefrigerating engineer, says of the Deni liquin works that theywere at the time of their erection far and away the most com

plete in Australasia or elsewhere for the economical handlingand freezing of sheep

,and although certain after-provisions

were made for the treatment of a limited number of cattle ,that was of small moment, the R iverina not being a large beefproducing district . Everything , he adds , went exceedinglywell with the Deniliquin works until the great drought set in ,and it is a noteworthy fact that , notwithstanding that thoseworks are situated about 245 miles from Melbourne, the portof shipment, shipmasters and others who have handled themeat declare that it is as good as the best frozen and hardestmeat shipped from that port .( i ra ziers

’ Meat Export 00.—The other company formed in

1892 to build works inland was the Graziers ’ Meat ExportCo . of New South Wales , capital It was Mr .Fetherstonhaugh who, in spite of the apathy of the squatters , worked up this concern , and the names associated withits initiation , in addi tion to his , were W . A . Cottee , T . F .

Knox , George Maiden, W . F. Lawry, F . W . Bacon , W . H .

Armstrong , and George Mair . Works were put up at Sandown

(Parramatta Riv er) , Werris Creek, Carrathool , Nyngan ,and

Forbes . Sandown was a freezing establishment,the other four

being up-country chilling depots . The career of the Graziers’

Co. was disastrous, and about 1901 the whole of the works wereacquired by a syndicate of London capitalists called the AustralFreezing Works , Ltd . , the country works being dismantled


or sold,experience having proved that a central works at

Sydney, where the supplies of fat stock from nearly all partsof the State are marketed

,and where large and regular freezing

operations are possible,is essential from every point of view .

Sandown only is now worked—by Messrs . John Cooke andCc . , who took it over from

'

the Austral Co . in 1902 .

Sandown Freezing Works .—The Sandown undertaking hasbeen extended from time to time, and can now treatsheep and 150bullocks daily .

From the above short history regarding country-killedfrozen meat the conclusion may be drawn that , although theprinciple was apparently a sound one, it has since been demonstrated that such meat

,whilst admittedly a better article of

food, costs more and does not command an enhanced priceov er that railed alive to the seaboard and treated there .

In August,19 11 , the farmers of the Byron Bay (north

coas t) district formed the Byron Bay Cc -operative Canningand Freezing capital with excellent prospectsof founding an important concern .

Victoria .

Newport Freezing Works .—Victoria was early in the field

,

for this company , formed in Melbourne after the Stratklevenshipment, erected works at Newport , near Melbourne, thesecond freezing works erected in Australasia . The VictorianGovernment afterwards acquired Newport , which first assumedcommercial export shape when Mr . John Hotson secured alease of the works . In 1893 Nelson Brothers

,Ltd . ,

andMr. Hotson came to a working arrangement to freeze forexport regularly at Newport . In 1896 Mr . Hotson sold outhis interest to the Austral Cc . ,

and the firm of John Cooke andCo . has ever since used the works as its chief base for preparingand shipping its well-known Champion brand of muttonand lamb . Fuller details of the formation and operationsof these works appear in The Work of the Pioneers ,

”

Chapter II .

Portland Free zing Works .—These works were built in



Four other freezing works in Melbourne occasionally available for meat export are : The Melbourne Ice Skating andRefrigerating Co . Messrs . J . Bartram and Sons ’ works, FlindersLane ; Sennitt and Sons Proprietary, Ltd .

, Miller Street ; andthe Victorian Butter Factories Cc-operative Cc .

,Flinders

Street .

South Australia and Western Australia .

Freezing works in Adelaide, South Australia , were suggestedas early as 189 1 . The Gov ernment of the State started freezing by building State refrigeration works at Port Adelaide ,and has been much criticized for so doing . It is an axiomthat the Government of a country should not interfere withpriv ate enterprise . But where priv ate enterprise is lacking ina young coun try

,the State is justified in stepping in to

promote and conduct an industry required for the country’sdevelopment . About 1894

,Mr .D . J . Gordon , com

mercial edi tor of the Adelaide R egister, strongly advocated theestablishment of the frozen lamb export trade , and he calleda meeting for the dis cussion of the subject . Many SouthAustralian leading pastoralists who were present threw coldwater on the proposal, and said that South Australia wouldnever be a lamb-exporting country . Capital to float a privatecompany formed to build freezing works at Port Adelaidecould notbe obtained . Now was the occasion for the Gov ernment of the Colony to step in .

Port Ade la ide Works .—The influence of the late Hon .

Thomas Price , leader of the Labour Party in the SouthAustralian Parliament from 1901

,and afterwards Premier

,and

of Sir John Cockbum , Premier in 1889 —1890, was successful ingetting the Port Adelaide works erected ; this establishment,equal to handling sheep and lambs yearly, is one ofthe largest in Australasia. Mr . Gordon ’s spirited advocacy ofthe lamb export trade has been justified by the considerablenumber of lambs which have been and are now put throughthese works . Exporting was begun in 1895, and to June 30,19 11

,animals had been frozen for export, and for the


last seas on carcasses were shipped , of which numberwere lambs . In 1906 it was apparent that the works

need ed enlargement and reconstruction in order to deal effectively with the rush of lambs that had to be handled sma rtlyduring the short lamb-freezing season . An investigation ofthe late st methods adopte d by the New Zealand freezing com

panies was made by Mr . C . F . G . McCann on behalf of theGovernment of South Australia

,and as the result of the special

enquiries made by this gentleman (who is now Trades Commissioner for South Australia in London) the Port Adelaide workswere considerably enlarged and modernized , especially in thedirection of economical treatment of the by-products . Theonly other exporting freezing works in the State is the worksformerly owned by the Adelaide Ice and Cold Storage Co .

This was purchased by the South Australian Government in19 10 for So the State has the monopoly of freezingfor export in South Australia .

We stern Fresh Food a nd Ice Cc .—Thi s company completed

a small works at Fremantle , Western Australia (which also hasinland freezing establishments at Perth and Kalgoorlie) , in1906 but the only frozen meat export taking place thence hasbeen a tentative shipment or two of lambs sent to London . TheWestern Australian Gov ernment are going to erect worksat Wyndham and other ports on the north-west coast , and ifthe intentions

,as stated , of the Bovril Australian Estate s,

Ltd . , an important London company , are carried out, the cattleowners of North-Western Australia will have an outlet fortheir stock in the shape of a meat freezing works on thenorthern coast line of Western Australia .

CHAPTER IV

NEW ZEALAND FREEZING WORKS

THE frozen meat industry in New Zealand was started by thelarge sheep owners with the assistance of the various land,finance

,and mercantile companies , and it may be said that

but for the assistance of thes e companies there would not havebeen any chance of the industry being floated . The majorityof the sheep farmers in the colony were so involved

,and the

price of stock was so low , at the beginning of the eighties , thatthe pastoral industry was largely in the hands of these com

panies . The early shipments of frozen meat were on accountof the growers, and were consigned to the various financialcompanies in England doing business with the Colony . Thefreezing companies came to be termed farmers ’ companies ,

”

many of them simply freezing on behalf of the owners .The progress of the frozen meat trade in New Zealand can

probably be best reviewed by referring to the establishment ,one after another, of the freezing works in that country .

New Zeala nd Refrigera ting 00 .

—The first enterpri se of thekind was the New Zealand Refrigerating Cc . , whi ch was formedin 1881 with freezing works at Burnside

,near Dunedin , and a

few years afterwards at Oamaru . Thi s concern , though thepioneer company , never reached any great proportions . For

some time the directors endeav oured to carry on purely afreezing business in later years they dev eloped into a buyingcompany . The Dunedin works were the first in New Zealand.

The first directors were Messrs . John Roberts , C.M .G.

(Murray Roberts and W. I . M . Larnach, E . B . Cargill,

E . I . Spence (Dalgety and Robert Wilson , A . C . Begg

(Robert Campbell and Cc . , Ltd ) , and James Shand . Thecompany froze the meat cargo for the M arsa la

the third shipment carcasses ; thi s shipment , made


NEW ZEALAND FREEZING WORKS 61

in 1883 , being the first from New Zealand by ste amship .

The company also load ed , in 1883 , the steamers Sorrento,

Fensta nton , and I onic, with respectively , 7 840, andcarcasses , and also killed for the Dunedin s second

voyage sheep , these being railed to the Dunedin andfrozen on board . The BritishKing also sailed in the same year ,1883 , with some carcasses . In 1884 the New ZealandRe fri gerating Co . froze and shipped carcasses up toJuly , and up to July , 1885, it froze and shippedcarcas ses and 54 cattle . During 1885 , carcas ses ofsheep were frozen on board the s .s . Elderslie at Oamaru .

The freight paid on the mutton carri ed by this vessel was24d . per lb .

Mr. John Roberts remained a director of the New Ze alandRefrigerating Co . till 1905, when it was wound up andabsorbed by the Christchurch Meat Co . Mr . Thomas Brydonehad joined the board in 1884 , and these two gentlemen alwaystook a lead ing part in the development of the trade . TheOtago District thus started the frozen meat trade in NewZealand, but now lags far behind , being outstripped by Canterbury, and Southland , and the North Island.

Ca nterb ury Frozen M eat Cc .—The second company to be

formed was the Canterbury Frozen Meat and Dairy ProduceCo . with a capital of The names on the circularconvening the meeting on November 1 1, 1881 , whi ch led to theformation of the company , were —John Grigg , of Ashburton ,John Tinline , of Amuri , and John Macfarlane , of Coldstream ,

Rangiora . Mr . J ohn Cooke , then Canterbury manager of theNew Zealand Loan and Mercanti le Agency Co waslargely instrumental in the formation of the company ; he wroteto the gentlemen named , and obtained their permission tosummon the meeting in their names . Messrs . Frederick Banks ,William Chrystal] , John Cooke , John T . Ford , and John Grigg,

were the first d irectors , Mr . Frederick Waymouth beingappointed secretary , pro tem . The promote rs , naturally,knew very little about mechanical refri geration then , and hadto grope their way from the very start . There was theinev itable battle of the sites ,

” and Lyttelton itself being


impossible , they selected Belfast , an excellent location , as itprov ed . A Haslam refri gerating machine of cubic feetcooling capacity was ordered . The company was fortunate ingetting as its architect and engineer Mr. Frank Coxon , now of

Sydney .

The daily killing and freezing capacity was only 250 to 300carca sses of mutton , and it was predi cted by many businessmen that the export of carcasses weekly

,if maintained

,

would soon deplete the flocks of Canterbury and bring aboutsomething like a meat famine . As the freezing works of Canterbury hav e now a weekly killing and freezing capacity of fully

sheep and/or lambs , whi le the province must hav e exported nearer thirty than twenty million carcasses since 1883 ,such prophecies now seem very absurd . Slaughtering beganon February 16 , 1883 , and in Apri l the first shipment was madefrom Belfast on the s .s. British King . Curiously enough

,this

vessel was built at Belfast , Ireland, and she was commandedby Captain Kelly, of Belfast , while Mr . John Cooke was bornin Belfast , a somewhat remarkable chain of circumstances .

For about fiv e years the Canterbury Frozen Meat Cc .,which

was merely a freezing company not operating in stock or theexport of meat on its own account at all

, had the field toitself . Another company was promoted, and some capitalraised , but it did not ev en buy a site and eventually refundedto the applicants the money subscribed . One of the leadingfeatures of the Canterbury Company was strict adher

ence to a high standard of quality, including an absoluteembargo on the freezing of old ewes . Nothing but primewethers and maiden ewes and prime lambs were a ccepted bythe company for treatment , and the directors resisted allpressure to relax thi s rule but in 1890 ewe mutton was takenfor freezing , and some time after that second quality lambswere frozen and shipped . The company ’s leading brands areC F M Co ” and “ Diamond .

” It took Belfast six yearsto record sheep frozen . In 1887 the works wereenlarged and completely remodelled ; in 1889 by

-productswere taken in hand ; in 1893 a Hall ’s 002 machine was

installed ; in 1896 a Hercules machine was added ; and by



1908 the works had a capac ity of sheep and lamb s perday , and storage equal to carcasses . In 1899 thecompany established works at Fairfield , Ashburton . Worksat Pareora , South Canterbury , were Opened on April 7 , 1904 ;these have a capac ity of sheep and lambs per day , andstorage space equal to ov er carcasses .

The question of freight greatly embarrassed this company’searly operations . In May, 1887, the company, together withNelson Brothers and the Southland company, signed a contractwith theTyser Line , and with the advent of the Ba lmora lCastle ,the first Tyser steamer sent out , the difficulty about tonnage

gradually disappeared . The capital of the company is nowand during the twenty-five years of freezing the

company has paid in all 19 1 per cent . dividend on the ordinaryshares . The present directorate is : Messrs . John C . N .

Grigg , James Gough , Sir George Clifford (chai rman) , GeorgeHumphreys , and R . H . Rhodes .Gea r M ea t 00 .

—The next freezing concern to be registe redin New Zea land was the Gear Meat Preserving and FreezingCo . of New Zealand . This was formed in November

,

1882, for the purpose of acquiring the butchering and meatpreserving business of the late Mr . James Gear, at Wellington ,in the North Island . The slaughtering capacity at the startwas 500 sheep and 40 cattle per day at the present time it isov er and 100 respectively . The refrigerating systemorigina lly employed was cold air compression , afterwards te

placed by C03 compression machinery . The first directorswere Messrs . P . A . Buckley , J . Duthie , R . Greenfield , W . H .

Levin , J . R . Lysaght , J . McKelv ie , N . Reid, J . S . M . Thompson

,and James Gear, managing director . The present board

are Messrs . D . Anderson ,H . Beauchamp , H . D . Bell , J . R .

Blair, A . K . Newman , N . Reid , and W . H . Millward , chairman and managing director, and the secretary is Mr. W . H .

Tripe . Mr . Gear died in 19 1 1,at the age Of seventy-five ,

and was chai rman of directors up to the time Of his death .

With a consistent policy and under able management theGear Co . has had a very successful caree r . It possesses oneof the most complete freezing establishments in Australasia .


Nelson Brothers.—The operations of Nelson Brothers havebeen alluded to ; their works were first erected at Tomoana,and afterwards at Waipukurau and Woodville . The companynow has two establishments in the Hawke ’s Bay districtTomoana and Gisborne . Woodville has been sold to a baconcuring company

,and Waipukurau is dismantled . The daily

killing capacity and the sheep storage of these works are respectively and Messrs . Nelson Brothers a lso hav eworks at Hornby

,Canterbury district . The company built the

Ocean Beach works at the Bluff , now owned by Messrs . Birtand Co. , Ltd . , of London . It is generally considered that themost carefully conceived plan for carrying on the frozenmeat trade was that proposed by Mr . William Nelson . Manyof the New Zealand sheep growers had no faith in the permanency of the new industry, and some were actively in oppositiou , so Mr . Nelson , who formed clear ideas as to buyingarrangements in New Zea land and a selling organization inLondon , entered into contracts with farmers in various districts . In 1887-88 Nelson Brothers made forward contractswith sheep farmers , giving 2d . per 1h. for the carcass unfrozen ,sellers also getting the full value of the skin and fat .The Chris tchurch Mea t Cc .

-In 1888 it was madequite clear that many producers were dissatisfied with thesystem of consigning their meat to London for sale , andthat they wished to determine their risks by selling theirstock alive to a freezing company or a speculativ e exporter .Up to that time freezing had been carried on by the largergrowers and stock owners. The farmer , in contradistinction tothe sheep grower or squatter, realized that he was notobta ining for his stock a price equivalent to what was beingrealized by those who were freezing and shipping sheep . Hehimself had not the large supplies to draw from to enable himto contract forward for freezing space , or to make regularshipments to London . The late Mr . James Watt , and thelate Mr. Peter Cunningham , in conjunction with Mr . JohnCooke , were mainly instrumental in forming the ChristchurchMeat Cc . , Ltd . , a concern established to conduct thebusiness on new methods . The old Templeton preserving



works and property were acquired , the name being changedto Islington . Thus the Islington freezing fac tory came intoexistence . The first directors of the Christchurch Meat CoLtd . , were Messrs . J . M . Watt, John Cooke , David Morrow ,

Joseph Murgatroyd,Mcgregor Watt, Pete r Cunningham , and

S . K . Bassett . The present directors are Messrs . H . A . Knight

(chairman ) , Thomas Teschemaker, John Roberts ,and the Hon . H . F. Wigram . Mr . Wm . Murray is manager,and Mr . W. 0 . Campbell is secretary .

A word or two may here be said about the London reptescutation of the Christchurch Meat Co . In 1896 the companydecided to send Mr. John A . Randall to supervise its inte restsin London . Mr . Randall had a thorough knowledge of thetrad e from a farmer’s point of view ; he remained inLondon for about a year, until Mr . Robert Galloway, thecompany’s manager at Timaru

,was sent to London a s the

representative . On Mr . Galloway leaving to join the firm of

Gordon, Woodrofie and Co . in 1900

, Mr . Randall again tookcharge . On Mr . Randall’s early and regretted death in 1901 ,

Mr . A . W . Pottinger took the position , which he held till1905 . From 1905 to 19 10Mr . William Henderson representedthe Christchurch Meat Co. at West Smithfield , and on his termof agreement expiring he returned to New Zealand , when hewas succeeded by Mr . F . T . Boys , the company

’s secretary atChristchurch Mr. Boys is the London manager at the presenttime ; the office is at 6 4 , West Smithfield , E C.

At the company ’s start the slaughtering capacity was 500sheep per day, and now it is about and 100 cattle atthe Islington, Smithfield , Picton , Oamaru , and Burnside works .Cold air refri gerating machinery was originally used, but theammonia compression system is now employed . The successfulstarting of the company took place at the beginning ofthe era of the modern

,well equipped , freezing works . The

Christchurch Meat Co. was really founded in the interests ofthe small farmer who could not afford to consign his meatto London , or whose stock av ailable for freezing was not

considerable enough for him to undertake the export trade .

The company pooled these farmers’ lots .

a n .

66 A HISTORY oF THE FROZENMEAT TRADE

Mr . John Cooke sends the following remarks concerning thenew conditions then introduced The rivalry created betweenthe two freezing companies was very beneficial to producinginterests, as not only did it ensure full values, but it proved agreat stimulus to breeding and fattening ; indeed , the exampleshown to the rest of New Zealand is admitted to have beenone of the most important factors in the great progress of theColony during the last twenty years . Prior to 1883 there wereperiods of great depression in values of stock and landedproperty , but the frozen meat industry quickly provided ahuge outlet

,and gave a permanence to pastoral and agricultural

enterprise which cannot be disputed . I remember seeingshorn sheep sold by the score because the price was so lowthat they had hardly any value per head . The pelts after thewool was taken off were so valueless at one time that thecheapest method of di sposing of them was by burying them inpits immediately they left the puller ’s beam .

One of the initial ob stacles‘

to the speedy expansion of thetrade was the scarcity of refrigerated space , and the greatesttrouble was experienced by freezing companies ( 1) in gettingsufficient insulated tonnage, and (2) in obtaining a reasonablerate of freight . The rate of freight was originally zé d . per lb . ,

including freezing on board ship , but when steamers wereintroduced a reduction to lgd . per 1h. was secured , at which itstood for some time . The total charges for treatment , freight,insurance , and selling , were originally in the neighbourhood of3d . per lb . , a figure which was prohibitive if the trade was toassume any magnitude , and having regard to the undoubtedprejudi ce which frozen meat had originally to contend withat the hands of the British consumer .Generally speaking , the shipowners from the outset recog

nized the wi sdom of friendly and active cc-operation with thefreezing companies , but they made one serious blunder whichproducers and freezing companies deeply resented , but which,fortunately, was quickly remedied . They allied themselveswith certain manufacturers of refrigerating machinery under anagreement whereby the manufacturer was to supply theirsteamers alone with his plant, while the shipowner was to use



that special plant exclusively . By tha t attempted restraint itwas expected that outside refrigerated tonnage would beexcluded from New Zealand , and that further reduction onfreight would be prevented .

One of the great ambitions of the directors of theCanterbury Frozen Meat Cc . , actively led by the lateMr . John Grigg , was to get the rate of freight reduced to theround 1d . per and when this was accomplished , with theassistance of the late Mr . W. H . Tyser, there was greatrejoicing in pastoral circ les . This brought the consolidatedcharges down to under 2d . per lh. , and was the means of stimu

lating production all over the South Island in a remarkableway .

”

The first venture undertaken by the Christchurch Meat00 . was killing the stock at Islington , and freezing onboard the sailing ship Wellington . This shipment, whichrealized remarkably good prices , consisted mainly of lambs,and was handled by Messrs . W. Weddel and Cc . , who had j uststarted in business when the cargo was entrusted to them .

The cargo was sold splendidly . The prices realized wouldmake shippers’ mouths water tod ay ; from 6d . to 9d . per lb .

was fetched for lambs ! The Christchurch Meat Co . sawthat if it was to carry out the wishes of the farmer,it must be in a position to do the work thoroughly, and,therefore , special attention was paid to working up the byproducts . Up to this time the pelts and the largest portionof the viscera were simply buried , in many works even theblood was allowed to run to waste . The Christchurch MeatCo .

’s first concern was to utilize these by-products , andto work up a scheme which would result in the companymaking the grea ter proportion of its profits out of these andthe skin and fat, looking on the meat mainly as a by-productof the works .Within two years of the start of the company’s Operations

,that is , in 189 1

,Mr . Gilbert Anderson was asked

to take up the position of managing director, and it wasunder his management that the scheme just mentioned wascarried out, and that the general organization of the company

’

sr 2


business was brought up to an excellent standard . Specialattention was given to grading the sheep , not only for quality ,but for weight . This enabled the c .i .f . business to be put on aproper footing , and the standard and grades which wereesta blished at these works have been extensively adoptedthroughout the New Zealand freezing industry .

The Christchurch Meat Cc . , in 1893, took over the works

and business of the South Canterbury Freez ing Co.

at Timaru . In two years ’ time these works were enlarged, andnamed Smithfield . Another absorption took place in 1899

,

when the Wairau Freezing Co .

’s business was taken over,this necessitating the erection of new and modern worksat Picton . In 1905 the company absorbed the New ZealandRe frigerating Co. ,

with its works at Burnside, Dunedin ;and Oamaru . The Christchurch Meat Co . has alwaysbeen progressive, enterprising , and modern . In 1906 Mr .

Anderson retired from the company .

Wellington Mea t Export00 .—The Wellington Meat Export

Co . was incorporated in September,1881

, as a farmers’

freezing company. The late William Dilnot Sladden , whojoined the company as manager

,later added the c .i .f. principle

to the business ; Mr . F . D . Sladden ,his son , is the present

secreta ry. Thi s company has shown considerable enterprisein the utilization of new machinery, the di rectors being thefirst to introduce ammonia refrigerating machines into useat freezing works . The company ’s works have been recentlyrebuilt in brick , and raised to a killing capacity of sheepper day with a storage capacity of the freezingcapacity at the start being only 300 sheep per day. Theproducer gas system ha s been introduced for power, drivingnot only the refr igerating machines but also the by-products machinery . Hercules ammonia compression machinerycooling on the direct expansion system is now installed

,the

plant used at the beginning of operations being the Haslamair compression machine . The first directors were Messrs . W .

C . Buchanan , W . Booth , George Beetham , J . T . Dalrymple,H . H . Lang , J . R . Lysaght , J . E . Nathan , Chas . Phara zin , andD . Peat . The present directors are Messrs . W . G . Foster



(managing director) , W . C . Buchanan , MP W. H . Beetham,

Charles Elgar,E . Newman , M.P.

, J . W . Marshall,

and

J . Campion .

Longb urn Freezing 00 .—The Longburn Freezing Co .

was established in 1895 ; Longburn is 80 miles from Wellington

, on the main line of railway . The original directors wereMessrs . C . Bull (chairman) , J . McLennan , R . S . Abraham , J.

O . Batchelor, D . Buick , and Howard ; Mr . J . Beale wasmanager. The ori ginal slaughtering capacity was 800 sheepand 25 cattle per day . Now the works can slaughte rsheep and 80 cattle daily

,and the storage space is equal to

carcasses . Haslam machines were first installed , Lindeplant now being used . In 1896 the company was taken overby the National Mortgage and Agency Co . of New Zealand .

Mr . J . Anderson is the manager of the Longbum FreezingCompany .

Auckla nd Fa rmers ’ Freezing Cc .

—The Auckland Farmers’

Freezing Co . was established in 1903 , the works beingcompleted and killing sta rted in March , 1905 . The capital ofthe company is of which has been issued

,

and the directors are Messrs . J . Barugh (chairman) , J . E .

Makgill, H . E . Worsp, G . Goodwin , S . Wing, S . J . Ambury ,and L . J . Bagnall ; with Mr . H . G . Stringer as managerand secretary . The daily killing capacity is sheepand 100 cattle, and the storage space is equal tocarcasses . Haslam ammonia compression machines are employed . The Auckland Farmers’ Freezing Co . in 1906 boughtout the Auckland Free zing Cc . , which was established in1884 . The farmers of the province thereupon decided to

build works of their own , and, negotiations wi th the pro

prietors of the old company having failed, they erectedworks at Southdown , near Auckland . In 1906 , as stated,the Farmers’ Co . took over the Auckland works of the oldcompany . The stock and offal are frozen at Southdown andrailed to the ship ’s side , and the local freezing is done at theAuckland works .

Wa nganui M ea t Free zing Cc .—The Wanganui Meat Freez

ing Co. , Ltd . , was established in 1891 at the mouth


of the Wanganui river . The first directors were Messrs . E . A .

Campbell (chairman) , A . Burnett, H . Comfoot, J . B . Murray,A . J . Parsons , G . S . Robertson, William Ritchie , and JohnStevenson . Mr . C . M . Cresswell, the sec retary, states thatwhen operations were started, and for a few years afterwards ,the output of the works was nearly all sheep , with a few cattle .

Now more lambs than sheep are put through , and the qualityof the lamb is improving year by year

,owing mainly to the use

in the district of Southdown rams . Twenty years ago thesheep round Wanganui were nearly all Lincoln , since thenRomney and Leicester rams have been largely used forgeneral purposes and the Down ram for lamb raising . TheWanganui works have a killing capacity of sheep aday, with a storage capacity of carcasses .Gis b om e Sheepfa rmers

’

Frozen Meat Cc .-The Gisborne

Sheepfarmers’

Frozen Meat Cc . , Ltd . , started work in1902 . The first directors were Messrs . C . A . de Lautour ,

(chairma n) , F . B . Barker, W . R . Barker, John Clark , WilliamCooper, W. K . Chambers , F . Hall , E . M . Hutchinson , P . T .

Kenway, and W . D . Lysnar. The board at present is composed ofMessrs . C . A . de Lautour (chairman) , F . B . Barker, W .

R . Barker, W . K . Chambers , Charles Gray, E . M . Hutchinson ,F . Hall, John Clark , F . Holden , and C . J . Parker . Mr . W . F .

Cederwell has been manager from the beginning . Theslaughte ring capacity at date of establishment was 800

sheep per day ; now it is and 150 cattle . A Herculesrefrigerating machine cooling on the direct expansion systemis installed . The company was formed on cc-Operative linesin 1908 was paid in wages .Wa ita ra Freezing W orks—The Waitara Freezing Works

were purchas ed in 1902 by Messrs . Thomas Borthwick andSons , Ltd . The directors of the old company when taken overwere Messrs . G . Riddell , E . H . Gods al, J . Hine , A . A . Fantham ,

H . Goode , and G . Bailey . The works were destroyed by firein 1904, and were rebuilt on an enlarged plan in the followingyear . The daily capacity is now 150 cattle and 750 sheep,and the storage capacity is equal to carcasses .

Ha stings Freezing Works .-The Hastings Freezing Works,



Paki-Paki , Hawke’s Bay, were erected by Messrs . Borthwick

in 1905. The daily capacity is 30 cattle and sheep ,with a storage capacity of carcasses of mutton .

The We llington Fa rmers ’ Mea t Cc .-This company was

formed in 1909 . The Board consists of the following gentlemen z—Messrs . J . C . Cooper (chairman) , R . Clephane , F . B .

Lowes , J . R . Franklin , R . D . McKenzie , T . Hodgins , andGeorge Pain . The works are situated near Mas te rton ,Wairarapa , and the daily slaughte ring capacity is equal to thehandling of over sheep .

The Ne lson Freezing Cc .-This company began shipping in

1908. The directors are —Messrs . George MacMahon (chairman) , A . Drummond , F . W . Fairey , Frank Hamilton , D . T . J .

Rouse, and J . S . Wratt. The works are at Stoke , and thecapacity is given as sheep per day, with storage equalto ca rcasses .The Ocean Beach Works , Bluff (owned by Birt and Co

Ltd ) , were erected in 189 1 ; the North British and Hawke’s

Bay Freez ing Co . (Napier Works) were built in 1888 ; the

Patea Farmers’

Cc-operative Freezing Cc . , began exportingmeat in 1904 ; the Southland Frozen Meat and ProduceExport Cc . , formed in 1884

,has works at Mata ura and the

Bluff ; and the Tokomaru Sheepfarmers’

Freezing Co . beganshipping in 19 11 .

Such are the particulars of the establishment and progressof New Zealand’s meat freezing works . A full list of theseworks in the Dominion will be found in Appendix VII . Reference may now be made in a general way to the process ofdevelopment under which the meat works of tod ay haveattained their fine equipment and completeness .

Refrigera ting lns ta lla tions .—Oi course, the meat works in

the early eighties were primitive affairs . Freezing for exportwas quite a speculation , and there were many

“ doubtingThomases in New Zealand, either actively or passivelyantagonistic to the new industry . The scale of shipments wassmall , both on account of the limited capac ity of vessels andlimited trade in England . So, everything was elementary , andthe design and equipment of the freezing establishments were


crude . As time went on and the market value in England offrozen meat fell , it was naturally found necessary to effecteconomy in the general organization of the works . About1890 it was plain that the actual freezing wa s costing toomuch . The cold air machine had been used successfully,but it was expensive in the matter of fuel consumed . Britishengineers were not alert in meeting the felt want, and NewZealanders had to go to America to gain information . TheBritish refrigerating machinery manufacturers , as soon as theysaw their business being threatened, set themselves tosupply an economical freezing machine , with the result thatthe Haslam and the Linde ammonia machines , and Hall

’s 002machine , are the types of refrigerating plant used in NewZealand to-day . The American Hercules ammonia machineis found at some works . A Linde Disc machine installedin the new works of the Wellington Meat Export Co . was thefirst departure from the cold air principle . This was followedby ammonia machines cooling on the direct expansion systembeing fitted at Islington , and by Hall

’s carbonic acid machinescooling on the brine system at Belfast .

In 189 1 there were sev enteen freezing works in New Zealand,with a total freezing capacity of sheep a year, and in19 11 the number of works had increased to 3 1, with a capacityfor dealing with sheep per day.

The Opera tions at a New Zea la nd Mea t Works .

- In NewZealand the inv ariable practice is to have the whole works

complete in a series of buildings . The stock are brought by rail

or road to the drafting yards . All stock suitable for freenare carefully drafted, and animals notsuitable for freezing areeither sent back to the farms or killed for tinning . The stockafte r leaving the yards are driven into careq y constructedabattoirs , where they are readily handled by the slaughte rmen under the v ery best approved sanitary conditions . Thestock are then killed and dressed, and the offal is at once re

mov ed to the bui ldings for treating the by-products . The

carcasses are careful ly cleaned , dressed , graded , weighed, andpassed into the cooling room . In most of the New Zealandslaughterhouses the cooling room is constructed in such a


CHAPTER V

THE scum AMERICAN ra leoam cos

THE story of the rise and development of the Argentine

frigorifico, or freezing works , could be made romantic , so

abounding with stirring events has it been . The tale of thebeginnings of the freezing industry in South America hasbeen told in the chapter of this book in which the authorshave endeavoured to immortalize some of refrigeration ’spioneers . From these beginn ings , founded partly with Britishcapital

,great successes have arisen , though the movements of

the Argentine meat exporting companies have not beenuniformly forward nor financially successful year by year .

But the results achieved , both in the dividends to shareholdersand the establishment of a splendid industry, helpful to boththe estanciero and the meat exporter, form a record of whichall persons engaged in the business may well be proud . Thedescent upon Argentina of the North American Trust houseshas been the most startling event in the later stages of theArgentine meat export industry, and it is a subject of frequent

di scussion how far-reaching that important happening is destined to be in future developments .Before describing the various meat freezing enterprises in

Argentina and their development , it may be well briefly toreview the growth of the industry in that country . The firstperiod of the freezing industry in Argentina may be said tohave closed in 1899, up to the end of which yearkilos . of mutton and kilos . of beef were exported bythe three great concerns (Sansinena

’

s, Riv er Plate Fresh Meat

Cc . ,and Las Palmas !J Nelson and Sons] which held the field

without competition . The shipments of mutton year by yearshowed wonderful expansion . Frozen beef was shippedirregularly up to 1895, in which year this section of the Argentine meat trade was begun in earnest . It is worth giving the

THE SOUTH AMERICAN FR IGORIFIOOS 75

figures to show the rate of increase : 1895, kilos . ;

1896 , 1897 , 1898, 1899 ,

Increases were shown in the shipment of thisarticle right away from 1895 to 1906 . During this period lambswere of no account in 1897 were shipped to England ,but afte r that the shipments were reduced , and thus did notcompete with the increasing Australasian trade in this article .

The Liv e Cattle Trade and its Stoppage .

The closing of the English ports to Argentine cattle in 1900,

owing to the outbreak in the Republic of foot-and-mouthdisease , was a great stimulus to the frigorificos . The seriousdisturbance caused by the crisis is seen in the fact that therespective values of live stock and frozen meat exported in1899 were and gold . The import ofArgentine live stock into Great Britain was prohibited by anOrder under the Contagious Diseases (Animals ) Act afte rApril 30 of that year . For the four years 1896 to 1899

Argentine fat cattle imported into English markets hadaveraged head sheep

,and the sudden cessa

tion of these considerable imports had of course, a dislocatingefiect for the time upon the various industries at the exportend

,also causing much embarrassment to the cattle salesmen

and “ carcass butchers in Great Britain . The shippers inthe United States in the following year increased theirdespatches of live cattle and sheep heavily . In 1903, fromMarch 1 to June 13 , British ports were again opened to Argentine live stock , and animals were shipped in thatperiod . Great pressure had been brought to bear upon theGovernment to take this step , which , however, in the opinionof practical persons, was unwise . Upon the discovery of footand-mouth di sease in cattle sent to South Africa and Grea tBritain , the ports were again closed, and , taking all things intoconsideration

,it is doubtful if they will ever be again opened

to Argentine live stock .

The high-water mark of the importation of live stock fromall countries for slaughter in British markets was , for ca ttle,


head,in 1890, and for sheep , in 1895 .

The dead meat trade , preferab le in every way , has forgedahead steadi ly, and imports of North American live stock willprobably soon be a thing of the past .Although the abov e remarks are somewhat of a digression

,

it is well to place on record the circumstances which led to thestoppage of the Argentine live stock exports to Great Britain .

This undoubtedly placed the frigorifico men in a strongerposition—itgave them cheaper stock to buy at home and anexpanded market in Great Britain . Frozen meat productionincreased by leaps and bounds the export in 1900 to GreatBritain was tons, and in 1903 this had grown totons . The triennial period, 1901 to 1903, Dr. Berges (of thenationa l bacteriological institute of Buenos Aires , thechronicler of the records of Argentina’s meat export industry )te rms Argentina’s golden age of the freezing industry .

” Itwas so

,indeed, to the shareholders of the three companies pre

viously mentioned , which still held undi sputed possession in1902 . Not alone was the cessation of Argentine live stockshipments to Great Britain in their favour ; drought in Australia crippled meat exporters there, the war in South Africaattracted meat imports, and labour troubles in New York andChi cago reduced North American live and dead meat exports .Never was so favourable a group of factors present in one year,and it was these circumstances which led to the establishmentof other freezing concerns in the Argentine .

Riv er Plate Fresh Meat Cc., Ltd .

To revert to the earliest days, the commercial beginning of

the great Argentine meat industry was the shipment by thes .s . M eath of frozen sheep from the Campana works of theRiver Plate Fresh Meat Cc . , Ltd . ,

in 1883 , an enterprisewhich owed its inception to the late Mr . G . W . Drabble . !Thedate of the earliest attempt (experimental) to export Argentinefrozen meat was about the year 1877, when the salting factorySan Luis

,in San Nicolas, shipped trial lots in the holds of

the s .s . Le Frigorifique and Pa ragua y, repeating the experimentby the a .s . Tem

'

otda le in


THE SOUTH AMERICAN FRIGORIFICOS 77

Originally the River Plate Fresh Meat Co . was promoted forthe freezing

,shipping to England , and sale there of Argentine

sheep,but gradually , as the business advanced , the freezing of

beef was commenced , and from the year 1896 onwards theexport of both rapidly developed . The weight of the beefshipped by the R iver Plate Fresh Mea t Co . soon exceeded thatof mutton . The company’s shipments of mutton and bee ffrom the commencement of the business ( 1883 ) to 19 10, twentyeight years

,totalled carcasses of mutton and lamb ,

quarters of chilled and quarte rs of frozenbeef. The first shipment of mutton was despatched to Londonon November 23, 1883 , the carcasses averaging 38 lbs .The Campana works are fitted with very complete plant and

machinery for dealing with the various by-products arising outof the business , and improvements and addi tions are beingmade constantly . The chilling and freezing plant is capableof dealing with 800 cattle and sheep per day . This is agreat contrast to the early equipment of the works , as originallythe plant consisted of a small engine room , cold storage chambers , two digestors , and a slaughter pen . All the work was thenmanual . The offal was given away or destroyed . It was nottill 1884 that beef freezing was sta rted in Argentina : frozenbeef and pork were shipped that year

,and in 1886 the first

lamb s were despatched . The River Plate Fresh Mea t Co . alsoesta blished a plant at Colonia

,Uruguay

,with the idea of ship

ping from the two works,but the enterprise did not pay, and

the machinery was removed in 1888 .

The company’s first engineer and manager in the Plate wasMr . John Angus, and a large portion of the present completeand splendid works at Campana grew up under his management . In 1893 he went to Buenos Aires to act as manager ofthe company, and held the position till 1905, when he retired .

In 1899 Mr . G . W . Drabble died , and Mr . (now Sir) HenryBell became chairman , a position he held for three years , hissuccessor being Mr . Charles Drabble , who was in turn followedby Mr . John A . Wood as chairman

,Mr . Drabble remaining a

director . Mr . Wood had been manager and secretary in

London ever since the company began operations , Mr . Sidney


Young , who has been with the company since 1884, succeeding him in that capacity. The London offices of the companyare at Cecil House

,Holborn Viaduct , EC .

The following notes concerning the establishment anddevelopment of the works at Campana of the River PlateFresh Meat Co . are furnished by Mr . WoodThe River Plate Fresh Meat Co .

’s freezing works in theArgentine were at Campana, on the riv er Parana, about sixtymiles above Buenos Aires . The ini tiation and development ofan entirely new trade was naturally surrounded with difficulties, and if it had not been for the ability and resource of thethen chairman of the company, Mr . George W . Drabble, whoinitiated and brought out the company

,and also for the support

he received from the leading shareholders,the company would

undoubtedly have succumbed in the early years of its existence .

In spite of difficulties, the company gradually developed , andis now one of the largest exporters of meat and relative byproducts from the Argentine . According to the figures givenat the annual general meeting in March , 19 10, the importsover the twelve months ending December 3 1, 1909 , were just

tons, and a further increase was mentioned as probablefor 19 10. The hand ling , shipping, and distributing, eitherretail or wholesale, of these quantities of meat and by-productsinvolve necessarily a large organi zation , which organization hasbeen specially bui lt up to meet the requirements of thecompany ’s trade .

Chilled beef was,as the result of long experiments carried

out by the River Plate Fresh Meat Cc . ,actually shipped by the

company on a large scale in the year 1901 . The development of thi s chilled beef business

,which was first successfully

carried out by the company,has been a great factor in the

development of the Argentine trade,and was rendered possible

by the improvement in cattle stocks in the Argentine, whichenterprising estancieros had been carrying out for some years .This improvement in cattle and sheep stocks has been continued ,and the supplies of good-class cattle and sheep available forexport are greater now than at any time .

The system on which the River Plate Fresh Meat 00 . has



occupied an area Of upwards of 4 hectares . The depth of theriver was sufficient to allow Of the loading of the frozen meatinto a liner straight from the refrigerating chambers . In 1890

,

he adds , this frozen meat warehouse had three large coldchambers , able to conta in each frozen sheep . In 1898it had preserved sheep , and tod ay it is to be sold for

Thus far Dr. Berges ; but b arking back to 1895, when theworks had been shut up for some time and were under mortgage ,three English houses became interested in the property

,

Messrs . W . and R . Fletcher, Ltd . , the Liv erpool Cold Storageand Ice Cc . ,

Ltd . ,and Mr . Hudson , the Newcastle shipowner,

taking over the works . About 1898 the works were let to thethree Argentine frozen meat companies, the Riv er Plate Cc . ,

Sansinena’

s , and James Nelson and Sons, for a minimum periodof five years

,at a rental equivalent to 15 per cent . on the paid

up capital Of viz .,per annum . These com

panics promptly shut up the frigorifico, which was notOperatedafte r that date . Since 1903, when the agreement expired ,

the land, plant , and machinery have belonged to Messrs .W . and R . Fletcher, Ltd .

In 1884 La Congeladora Argentina was founded by theArgentine Rural Society to export frozen meat . The capitalwas paper . In 1885 the first shipment Ofcattle and sheep was made from Zarate . Dr. PierreBerges says that the society did not prosper, and it lost all itspaid-up capital .

James Nelson and Sons, Ltd.

In 1886 Mr . HughNelson ,a partner in James Nelson and Sons

(a firm of cattle salesmen in Liv erpool,Dublin , Manchester, and

London,founded in the early Victorian era, the partners being

the late Mr . James Nelson and Messrs . William !the presentbaronet] , Hugh , and Edward Nelson ) , went outto Argentinaand built La s Palmas freezing works at Zarate . A companywas formed called Nelson ’s River Plate Meat Co. , and in 1889

this as changed toNelson ’s (New)Riv er Plate Meat Co . ,with an


extension of capita l . In 1892 the company of James Nelson andSons , Ltd . , was registered in England to amalgamate the businesses of Nelson ’s (New ) River Plate Meat Co . and James Nelsonand Sons . In 1893 the Las Palmas Produce Cc . , Ltd . was regista red in Argentina . This is the South American section ofJames Nelson and Sons , Ltd who hold all the shares . Thesevarious concerns were based on the Zarate frigorifico and thebusiness proceeding therefrom . Sir William Nelson in 1904

retimd from the joint managing directorship , held withMr . Edward Nelson , of James Nelson and Sons, Ltd . ,

thisposition now being held jointly by Messrs . Edward Nelsonand T. C . Nelson . The Zarate works cover 16 8 acres , and thepasturages and lairages nearly acres . The slaughteryards are capable Of dealing with cattle

,sheep

,and

250pigs a day, and the refrigerating chambers , which altogethernumber 70, have a total capacity equal to cattle

,

sheep , and pigs . Principally , Linde refrigeratingmachinery is installed , and the plant which was provided in1907 to deal with pork products alone cost Mr . PhilipHolmes has been secretary to James Nelson and Sons

,Ltd . ,

and the earlier company since 1889 . The London Office of thecompany is at 57, Charterhouse Street , E .C.

Compania Sansinena de Carnes Congeladas.

The well-known and popular brand of frozen meat in Englishmarkets marked 8 represents the outturn of the CompaniaSansinena de Carnes Congeladas , popularly styled in Englandthe Sansinena CO. Messrs . S . G . Sansinena andCO. had a boilingdown works at Barracas al Sud in the early eighties

,and in

1885 they erected a freezing plant on the site of the presentLa Negra works , and began to export mutton to Great Britain .

The business continued , at first on a small scale, until 1890, bywhich time Messrs . Sansinena were shipping sheep andlambs a month . In 189 1 the business was turned into a company under Argentine law , headquarters in Buenos Ai res , witha capital of shares of 8100 (gold) . The original boardwas Ernesto Tomquist (president) , Robert M . Ramsay ,

m a. 0


Samuel H . Pearson , Santiago Luro , and Francisco Sansinena

(managing director) . The first shipments to England weremade to Messrs . James Nelson and Sons

,and in January

,1887 ,

Messrs . Sansinena established themselves in Liv erpool , theirLondon Office being opened in 1888 . The success of the Sansinena Co . is a high tribute to the sagacity of the di rectors andthe excellent management of the Buenos Aires and Europeanmanagers . Mr . Miles Pasman, who has lately retired from theBoard of Directors , contributed v ery largely to the success ofthe company by his capable and vigorous administration in theposition Of managing director . The late Mr . William Cook heldthe position of general manager for Europe from 1887 to 1904 ,and the late general manager for Europe, Mr . John J . Wardwho retired in 19 10—was in the New Zealand frozen meatbusiness in 1884 and joined the Sansinena CO. in 1887 . Mr . W .

Dyson Barnitt is now the European general manager, and Mr .A . G . Rose is secretary of the London office, Nos . 13—16 , LongLane , West Smithfield , EC .

The Sansinena Co . has always had far-reaching aims duringthe period from 189 1 to 1899 it did a considerable exportbusiness in frozen meat with France

,where it had depcts at

Havre, Dunkirk , and Paris . The prohibitive duty and regulations imposed in 1899 , howev er, brought this to a conclusion .

Brazil was also selected for trial,and shipments were made

there,but without startling success . In 1902, following the

splendid financial trading results , the company built new worksat Cuatreros (Bahia Blanca) . In 1905 Belgium was attacked

,

but the campaign was no more successful than in France . Inthis connection the following extract from the Review of theR iver Pla te of January 1, 1909 , is of interestIn the matter of destination of frozen meat exports, Great

Britain continues to be practically our only client . SouthAfrican trade has dwindled down to quarters Of beef and

carcasses OfmuttonIn 1906 the Sansinena Distributing Syndicate, Ltd . ,

wasformed with a capital of Of which was paidup , the Sansinena Co . contributing Thi s concern ranshops in the chief centres of South Africa, but the depression



which hung over those Colonies must hav e set the distributing company a heavy task . The Sansinena Co . has a veryextensive establishment in the United Kingdom it haswarehouses

,stores , or offices in London , Dublin , Glasgow,

Cardiff, Liverpool, Birmingham , Manchester, Newcastle, Bristol ,Leeds , Hull, Sheffield , Leiceste r, Burton , Wolverhampton ,and Derby .

A recent enterprise on the part of the Sansinena CO. isthe outbidding of Messrs . Swift early in 19 11 for the purchase Oi the Frigorifica Uruguaya . The Sansinena Co . paid

or more than the price offered by Swift’s , for

this undertaking , which is described later on in this chapte r.The capital of the Sansinena CO. was in 19 11 increased from

gold to gold,this being for the purpose

Of the Uruguaya purchase .

Twentieth Century Companies .

Reference has been made to Argentina’s golden year,1902 . It was then that the estancieros , aghast at the spectacleof the frigorificos making their 50 to 100per cent . profit, naturally came to the conclusion that they would take a hand at thegame themselves . La Société Anonyme de Viandes CongeléesLa Blanca was founded by Argentine capitalists in 1902 atBuenos Aires , almost all the proprietors being leading estancieros . The capital was fixed at the works aresituated on the river Riachuelo , and Operations were begun in1903 . In 1908 the works were taken over by the AmericanTrust companies for In the same year the Cuatrerosfactory , erected by the Sansinena CO. as a second string atBahia Blanca , was set going . The next freezing works to bestarted was that constructed at the port of La Plata by the LaPlata Cold Storage CO. The establishment of the La Plataworksat Puerto La Plata , excellently situated on deep water, wasbrought about in this way . There was some difficulty in gettingfull supplies of frozen meat about 1902—1903 for South Africanrequirements . Australia was out of the trade at that timeowing to the drought, and the Sansinena and other Argentine

G 2


companies would not undertake to sell at all freely,fearing

to interfere with their connection in England . The ImperialCold Storage Co. had a concession placed before it of the site atLa Plata by Messrs . Zavala and Cc . , of Buenos Aires , Mr . DanielKingsland , Mr . Joseph Moore , etc . , just at this time, and thecompany closed with the offer . Works and plan t were erected

,

and the system of business established largely on lines suggestedby Mr . John Cooke , Of Melbourne, and Messrs . W . Weddel and

Cc . , of London . But when the La Plata works got into workingorder the imported meat trade in South Africa was dying, andso the exports were di rected to England . The system ofselling c .i .f . to London was practised and developed, but theImperial Cold Storage Cc . , having no longer any interest in thistrad e, wished to sell , and so it came about that these workspassed in 1907 into the hands of Swift’s

,of Chi cago,

forthus marking the beginning Of a great revolution

in the frozen meat trade . As the head office of the companywas always at Cape Town , it is permissible to call La Plataa British company .

The Smithfield and Argentine Meat CO. was formed in 1903

with a capital Of the shares being di stributed amongstEnglish and Argentine capitalists , some leading SmithfieldMarket men subscribing to the enterprise . The freezingestablishment is near Zarate , and work was started onFebruary 24, 1905 . Thi s company, which main ly exportschilled beef, includes amongst its directors, Messrs . AsshetonLeaver (W. and J . Biggerstaff) , chairman, and P . J . Poels .

The London Office is at 58, West Smithfield ,E .C.

Next we come to a purely Argentine company, the FrigorificoArgentino

,the capital Of whi ch , was put up entirely

by local people . Operations were begun in June, 1905, theworks being on the riv er Riachuelo . The success of thiscompany in the chilled beef trade has been most marked ,the uniformly good condi tion in which its consignments arelanded giv ing it a strong hold on the retail trade . Mr . S .

McC. Rough is manager for the United Kingdom Of thiscompany

,which has its London Offices at 40—44, Holborn

Viaduct, E .C.



Evolution of Argentine Mutton .

A word is not out of place here as to the evolution of theclass of mutton exported from Argentina’s frigorificos .

At the time when meat freezing in Argentina was sta rted ,

the sheep Offering were very unpromising for the industry . Themerino was the national sheep , though a few South Downanimals had been introduced in 1825, and the Lincoln Longwool was imported with great success several decades later .But merino mutton was shipped by the freezing companies foryears after the beginning of the exporting business , and thepioneers were much handicapped in selling such an inferiorarticle against the well-grown , meaty , New Zealand carcass .

On referring to some Of the old London price lists , onenotes that in 1884 New Zealand mutton was quoted at 38 . to38 . 4d . per stone

,whilst Riv er Plate was priced at 23 . to 28 . 8d .

From the same source of information it appears that in 1886

(June) a considerable improvement both in breed and conditionwas Observed by London salesmen in the latter class of mutton .

The necessity to improve upon the lean,light-carcassed ,

merino sheep in order to put up a serious competition withNew Zealand cross-bred mutton in Smithfield was no doubta considerable factor in the bette ring of the estancieros’ flocksin Argentina by a beginning being made in the great importtrade in high-class rams from British pedigree flocks .

Other South American Contributors .

Argentina, though the principal , is by no means the onlyfrozen mea t exporting State of South America. Britishte rritory in the South Atlantic—the Falkland Islands—d ida considerable business for some years Uruguay contributesfrozen mutton , lamb , and beef, to the needs of Great Britain ;and down at the southern tip of South America there are acouple Of freezing works on the Straits of Magellan , both inChi lian te rritory . Venezuela is the latest South Americanprincipality to enter the trade .

To detail first the connection of the Falkland Islands withthe industry , it may be said that the Falkland Islands CO.


entered the field in 1886 with a shipment Of sheep in thesteamer Selembria . The vessel arrived at London on July 15 ,

1886 , and she deliv ered two other lots , carcasses, in 1887 .

The sheep were about 64 lbs . , rather lean .

” When firstOffered, the mutton made 4gd . to 5M. per lb . , or about id .

under the price of New Zealand mutton . Later, the FalklandIslands mutton made a lower average market price

,34d . to

5%d . per lb . It was understood that these shipments weredisastrous in every way . It is said that 78 . 6d . in theOf the capital embarked was lost.

After these three shipments the Falkland Islands CO. droppedout, and Messrs . Spearing and Waldron took up the running .

The Waldrons had been connected with sheep breeding inthe Falklands from the earliest times . The firm chartered theHengist, a sailing ship of about tons, which had beenengaged in the New Zealand frozen meat trade . This vesselmade her first trip in 1890, and continued to bring a shipmentyearly till 1895 in her six voyages the vessel conveyed about

carcasses . The Hengistloaded and froze sheep at twoports , San Carlos on the east and Port Howard on the west .

Two lifeboats were lashed together and a platform was put onthem both . The mutton was placed on this and transferredthence to the ’tween decks of the ship and frozen on board ;then it was stowed below and shipped at intervals. SomeOf the shipments sold fairly well, but the sheep were toobig and coarse for Smithfield buyers , and the lack of gradingtold against them—the mutton could not compete with thatfrom New Zealand . The net return to the farmers was about1d . to 15d . per lb . , 58 . to 73 . per head . If sheep couldhave been gotat one port , the enterprise , it is said, would havepaid . Messrs . Spearing and Waldron shipped on their ownaccount , and also as agents for some of the farmers who preferredto consign and take their own risk . On the last two trips of the

Hengistsome of the meat was transhipped to the s .s. HornbyGrange. The end Of the Falkland Islands frozen meat tradewas the wreck of the Hengistin the Straits of Magellan . Thetrade

, as above described, lasted from 1886 to 1895, and in allsheep were frozen and shipped to London . The



Menendez, Pablo Van Peborgh, Luis Bonvalot, and Mr . FrankH . Townsend, the works manager being Mr . David Anderson .

The paid-up capital Of the company is The

average output for the season is about carcasses . The

shipping season Of these Straits Of Magellan works is extremelyshort , February to May, as stock cannot be mov ed in winter .It does not require much imagination to picture the whole

of the Atlantic seaboard from Monte Video—possibly from theVenezuelan coast—to Magellan Straits dotted with freezingworks for the provision of meat for the Old World . Atpresent there is a wide gap between Bahia Blanca

,where

the southernmost freezing works (Sansinena’

s) in Argentinais placed , and the two works on the northern shoreof Magellan Stra its (Chili) . But this gap Of a thousandmi les will doubtless be bridged b y-and-by . Port Madryn isa rising settlement on the Patagonian coast

,and at Puerto

Gallegos (lat . 51° just opposite the Falkland Islands , there

are canning works , founded in 1898, owned by the PatagonianMeat Preserving Co. ,

of London . A freezing plant was added,and the Puerto Gallegos frigorifico,

under the name of the NewPatagonia Meat and Cold Storage Co. , Ltd is expected tobegin operations shortly . A fair number of sheep are available between thi s point and the mouth of the Santa Cruzriver

,about 100miles farther north . With the development

of the railway system over the Pata gonian portion Of

the Argentine Republic,and the movement Of the sheep

farmers north from the districts of Pun ta Arenas (theregion talked of as being full of millionaires) , and south fromArgentina proper ov er the river Negro

,conv ersation with men

who know the country leads one to believe that sooner or laterthere will be works right up the coast . The difficulty lies inthe dryness of the climate Of Patagoni a—the rainfall is small .Including three canning works—one in Tierra del Fuegothere are in all five companies in Patagonia preparing muttonfor export .La Frigorifica Uruguaya, which was formed in 1902

,had

an original capital of gold, later increased to

The promoter and first chairman was



be shipped mainly to Liverpool , for distribution in theManchester , Liv erpool , and Glasgow districts . Probably thesecattle—which hav e so far been killed for hides and fat , in theabsence of demand— are bought cheaply, and the beef will , nodoubt , prove useful as a secondary quality article . It isexpected that a great improv ement in the available fat stockwill result from using for grazing purposes the vast cattleplains of the Orinoco . The hides and offal wil l be broughtover to Liverpool to be worked up ; tons Of beef canbe shipped about every ten weeks . The works are now infull working order, and chilled beef from them occasionallycomes to Smithfield market aid Southampton .

Three Distinguished Argentine Statesmen .

In the dev elopment Of Argentina’s rural economy, agricul

ture,and pastoral progress

,there are three names that stand

out pre-eminently,and seeing that without the great pastoral

resources Of Argentina the meat freezing industry of the

country could never have reached its present stage , someaccount Of the efforts of these three men is not out of plac ehere . These are the late Don Edua rdo Oliv era, and —stillhappily with us—Don ExequielR amos Mexia, and Dr. EmilioFrers .

Don Eduardo Olivera, who passed away in September, 19 10,was born Of a family Of estancieros eighty-four years ago .

Having completed his university career,he travelled, as a

young man , through Europe , studying in various countries thescience and practice Of rural economy . Returning to hiscountry more than half a century ago, he speedily made hismark both in the Press and in political circles by his intelligent and stimulating campaign for the improvement of agricultural and pastoral methods . This was at a time when themajority Of landowners heard with indifference any propositions for the improvement of their liv e stock and better cultiv ation Of their land . Production was limited to wool , jerkedbeef

,hides , and tallow . Wheat was then , and for many years

subsequently, imported into the country .

In 186 6 Olivera achieved the work with which for all time


his name wi ll be most associated , by founding the ArgentineRural Society , which may now claim to be the most importantinstitution Of its class in the world . At first secretary , andafte rward s president, of this society , Olivera was for manyyears its most active member, and had the honour of beingelected its honorary president for life . Amongst many otherpublic ofi ces held by him, he was Postmaster-General , Deputy ,Senator , and interim Governor of the State of Buenos Aires ,

and during all his life held a prominent position in the affairsof his country . As a pastoralist , Oliv era was a well-knownbreeder of merino sheep

,and formed by selection a type called

the Argentine merino .

” Outstanding from all his work forthe nation ’s welfare

,the offices he so honourably filled , and his

contributions to rural legislation and progress, there rises theman himself, whose virtuous life and sixty years of disinte restedservice to his country will remain a tradi tion and an examplefor future generations . Genial in manner and simple in his life ,he was beloved of all

,and no surname was necessary to

individualize the man who was known throughout his countryas Don Eduardo .

”

Seiior Exequiel Ramos Mexia , the member of a patricianBuenos Aires family, is at the present time the national Ministe rOf Public Works, and in that office , which he has held throughtwo Presidencies , he is displaying the same intelligence andstatecraft that have marked him in the various Offices he hasheld related to the country ’s rural economy . For many yearspresident of the Argentine Rural Society, twice Minister ofAgriculture

,president and presiding genius of the drainage

works of the Province of Buenos Ai res (the drainage , at a costOf three-and-a-half mi llions sterling , Of sixteen million acresof rich land subject more or less to inundation , and probablythe greate st undertaking of its nature in the world ) it is not

possible in a brief space to enumerate the many services toArgentina’s rural industry for which the country is indebtedto Senor Ramos Mexia .

The Sani tary Law regarding conta gious diseases in animalswas initiated and carried through by him ,

and many improvements in the handling of live stock in transit and inspection of


meat for export are associated with his name . On his own fineestate Of Miraflores he is a breeder Of Shire horses, pedigreeShorthorn cattle

,and Lincoln sheep ; the organization there

and inte lligent cultiv ation Of the land are a reflection of theability and thoroughness he di splays in public affairs . Sefior

Ramos Mexia is an admirer of the British and their commercialmethods

,and includes among hi s personal friends more than

one distinguished statesman of that nationali ty . Like manyOf his countrymen

,he has put aside the personal convenience

afforded by his private fortune and condi tion , to give hisservices to his country .

Dr. Emilio Frers is the son Of one of the first presidents ofthe Argentine Rural Society

,and has himself held that Office

twi ce . Perhaps the best illustration Of the esteem in which heis held is the incident that occurred when the portfolio ofAgriculture was first added to the Cabinet . General Roca wasat that time President of the Republic

,and Dr. Frers belonged

to the opposite political party . General Roca drove to hishouse to tell him that the country’s interests were above partypolitics, and that he had come to the man recognized by all asthe right citizen to organi ze the new Ministry and be the firstSecretary Of State for Agriculture . Dr. Frers accepted , andfully justified the choice that had been made .

Dr. Frers is an able economist,a gifted writer

,and a citizen

whose integrity has won for him universal esteem . His lastoffice was that of president of the Centennial InternationalExhibition Of Agriculture held in Buenos Aires . He hasgiv en much of his time to the welfare of the small agricul

turist, the labourer, and the immigrant . He would not inaptlybe described as the Cobden of Argentina . Essentially a citizenwith an austere though kindly view of the duties Of life, hedoes not court publicity

,and

,as he once remarked, his con

nection with each office he held began by his first refusing it .On his estancia La Estrella ,

” where he breeds Hereford cattleand merino sheep

,he is beloved by his men ; and it is there,

surrounded by his family and his books , taking his share in themodest county council Of the di strict, that he is happiest .



their crosses , are still to be found in all parts . On backcountry stations there is a more extended use of the Corriedale .

The Corriedale was established in the first instance by crossingthe merino with the Lincoln or Leicester ram . The producewere carefully culled

,and these in-bred half-bred sheep

were bred from until the breed became well fixed . TheCorriedale is now a well established breed in New Zealand .

The merino was only suitable for hilly or very dry country,and the wool from the English breed was found coarse .

The Downs hav e not made much headway,though the

Shropshire maintains its position in front Of the Southdown . InCanterbury the popular breed of sheep is the English Leicester .The Lincoln has almost disappeared, and the Romney has stillonly a few supporters . The Corriedale has considerablyincreased in numbers on the front hills in the northern district .Persons interested in this subject are referred to a pamphletissued in 1899 by the ChristchurchPress on Sheep Breeding in

In New Zealand crossbreeding is largely a question of lambproduction . In Australia no great revolution from theoriginal merino type of sheep has taken place, such as hasoccurred in New Zealand and Argentina . The frozen muttonfrom Australia is still largely from merino stock ; Australianmutton is sold as merino and/or crossbred ,

” to quote froma form Of contract . All New Zealand mutton and lambshipped to Great Britain are from crossbred sheep , and so arepractically all Argentine .

Systematic tests hav e been conducted in Australia to di scover the best cross for fat lamb raising . The general resultsof these experiments seem to point to the Shropshire-Leicestermerino cross as producing the best results , though crosses withthe Dorset-Leicester merino worked out almost as well . Attwelv e weeks Old lambs from the first-named cross weighed6 2 lbs and from the other cross 60 lbs .M r. Grigg

’s Commun ication—To elucidate thi s subject theauthors asked Mr . J . C . N . Grigg , Of Longbeach , New Zealand ,to place on record his views concerning the ev olution Of themutton sheep in New Zealand .

OI"

LUNGBEAC II , AND THE STATUE EREC'

I’

ED TO HIS MEMORY .\ l'

To fa re p. 94.



From 1890 the Shropshire was used very extensively,not so

much in the North Island as in Canterbury . My father wasone of the first Shropshire breeders in Canterbury, and I use thebreed now as well as Southdown on three-quarter-bredLeicester and Romney ewes .

The English Leicester ram on Romney Marsh ewes producesa very useful sheep . If any lambs from this cross are notfrozenand are carried over for a year

,the females make good mothers

and the wethers are shapely and fatten readily as two-toothsafter having cut a useful fleece the meat from the carcasses isfairly bright . Where wool is thought more of than quality Ofmeat, the Lincoln ram is used on Romney ewes . The RomneyMarsh breed is the foundation stone Of successful sheep farmingin most parts Of the North Island Of New Zealand .

The Southdown is the most symmetrical sheep in theworld , and full Of short , good quality meat . Now tha t the SouthIsland draws on the North Island for a large number of itsbreeding ewes , mostly Romney Marsh cross, the Southdown isrightly becoming more popular in Canterbury . The two

earliest breeders of Southdowns were Mr . John Deans , ofR iccarton ,

and Mr . Samuel Garforth , Of Speydon . The breeding ewes of Canterbury are neater and smaller-boned sheep , asa rule

,and carry finer fleeces, than North Island ewes . The

merino foundation is still in ev idence in a large proportion Of

the Canterbury flocks lambs from these ewes , fattenedon the short sweet pastures in a clear and rather dryclimate

,make a model lamb in meat and weight for the

London market .Practically the whole sheep breed Of the North Island flocks

are Romney Marsh cross ; the bulk of the ewes there are of thiscross . The Romney of tod ay in New Zealand is not the fiddleheaded sheep of thi rty years ago, and it is undoubtedly aprofitable and popular breed . Full credit must be giv en to theRomney Marsh breed for the large percentage Of lambs rearedin the North Island under a heavy rainfall .A v ery fine good quality ram

,either Southdown , English

Leicester, or Shropshire , is more necessary tod ay in Canterbury

than ev er it was , to give shape and finish to the freezing lamb ,



Where farmers on heavy land mix grain growing with lambfattening , the Southdown or Shropshire is used, and all thelambs are sent away fat . There is no doubt that from aRomney, Lincoln , or Leicester cross ewe the Southdown halfbred lamb is of the best freezing quality . Finally, no countryin the world has a finer record of natural increase in sheep perannum with a tota l number Of sheep

,New Zealand

in 19 10 exported sheep and lambs (withoutreducing her total v ery much ) , and fed her inhab i

tants at the same time . The total number Of ewes bred fromwere about I believ e the av erage percentage Oflambs reared is about 90 per cent , this shows clearly NewZealand’s splendid advantages as a pastoral country .

”

Argentine Imports of Ped ig ree S tock .-The impr ovement

of the flocks and herds in Argentina, rendered necessary forthe successful establishment and prosecution Of an export tradein meat, began at an early stage by the importation of pedigreestock from Great Britain . Argentine buyers for many yearshav e been the great supporters of Great Britain ’s most flourishing landed industry, pedigree stock breeding their determination in securing the best animals practically regardless of costand the extensiv e scale Of their Operations have resulted in avast improvement in the marketing stock slaughtered for thefrozen and chilled meat trades . In the thirty-one years,1880—19 10, Argentina imported from all countries for breedingpurposes cattle and sheep . m 1885 to 1908

an analysis Of the imports from Great Britain givesDurham cattle and Lincoln sheep . It is not easy toestimate the monetary value Of these imports Of pedigree stock,but the figures , £70 per head for cattle, and £15 per head forsheep

,may be taken to represent the value realized very

approximate ly by British breeders for their exports . Applyingthis v aluation to the cattle

,and sheep exported from a ll countries

to the Argentine Republic for breeding purposes for theperiod named abov e, the following totals—representing , roughly,the f.O.b . v alues—are arrived at :

“ mar DERBY CHAMPION,LINCOLN am ( REG ISTERED NO. 9722, VOLUME 16 )

d bitSir. Henry Duchllng, Rlby Grove . ( lrimsby , on July 1" 1906 , to Mr. I

"

Miller, whom»

p nrtmit nppenn here. I

tor anuel Jose Coho of Esmncla La Be len. Argentina . The price pa id . guineas , was the hlgho-st vw r pa id forRam shipped to SouthAmerica .

To fa re p. 98


CHAPTER VII

THE STOCKRAISERS’

MARKET

THIS is a v ery important and practical department of thesubject . It would not be difficult to outline the system whichregulates the handling Of the frozen carcass through the variousstages , from discharge at the London or Liv erpool wharf to thefinal destination at the retailer’s shop

,but something more

than generaliza tion is wanted here .

The Argentine W ay .

Before following the meat from ship to shop , it is well totake a step backwards and refer to the methods by which theshipment Of frozen meat is worked . TO take the simplest wayfirst—the South American . Meat shipped from Argentina isthe property of the freezing works, which , in all but a fewinstances , hav e their own Offices in London , and depOts , and acomplete system for the sale of the meat at v arious ports andimportant marketing centres throughout England . Messrs .James Nelson and Sons have about retail shops, andtwo of the other Argentine companies own shops . In thecase Of all the South American frozen meat shipped to GreatBn

'

ta in ,the Officials in England, or the regular agents of

those companies which have not English offices , take chargeof and realize the goods in their own shops, on the : market,or ex store . There is much less forward selling in the SouthAmerican than in the Australasian trad e . Much of theUruguayan, Patagonian , and Venezuelan meat is sold forward ,and Argentine has been , and is occasionally thus sold now.

One important difference has marked the Argentine sellingsystem as compared with the Australasian . In the formertrade the meat is, as a rule, turned over quickly the holdershav e averaged the market values and sold steadily right

THE STOCKRAISERS' MARKET 101

along,and have used the cold stores merely as receiving

depots for their meat . Continuous supplies hav e enabled

the Argentine companies to develop distribution pretty wellon retail lines , and owing to regular and continuous importsinto Grea t Britain the Argentine houses have been able toavoid

,to a great extent, the embarrassing ac cumulations

and temporary scarcities which have so frequently causeddisaster to those engaged in the necessa rily more speculativeAustralasian trade

, in which , unfortunately, there has alwaysbeen a lack Of continuity in supplies . The advantage of anextended season enables Argentine shippers to export practically uniform monthly quantities . (Australasian works allhav e a more or less lengthy closed down period . ) Mentionmay be made of the freight contracts for defin ite quantities ,to cover long periods , made in the Argentine trade, say , one to

three years,and shippers are under penalty to ship these

specified quantities at regular intervals, be the British marketgood or bad

,or pay dead freight.

Australasian Methods.

The Australian and New Zealand meat export business isworked in two ways . First, there is the old-fashioned con

signment or commission system , by which the grower or themerchant ships on owner’s account . All the trade in the earlydays was conducted on this basis . It was then very commonlythe practice for exporters of small lots to send the meat throughthe banks or wool houses such consignees , knowing nothingOf the frozen meat trade , sent the documents to Smithfieldsalesmen . Nowadays in New Zea land the owner Of the stocktakes the risk of the London market to a limi ted extent ; inAustralia the grower does not do this, preferring to sell hisstock to the freezing companies, which , in order to keep theirfactories going , have to buy from the graziers and pastoralistsextensiv ely . The Australian producer nowadays is notanxiousto become a direct shipper to the British market on consignment

,

but in the early days of the Queensland export a very largeproportion of the beef was sent forward at the growers

’ risk .


We may take it that the Australian meat producer,as a rule

,

sells to the shipper, who either consigns or sells forward, according to circumstances . The London Offices of the Australasianbanks receiv e a small amount Of business, but the great bulkOf consignments is sent direct to the houses which lay themselves Outspecially for this trade . The advances to the shipperare calculated in much the same way as in any other trade

,

and generally bear a fixed relation to the London value Of themeat at the time of sailing . The charges on account sales aregenerally on one of two bases, either a consolidated rate (amethod very little used now) , which covers all expenses fromthe ship ’s rail in London up to rendering account sales

,or

charging all actual out-Of-pocket expenses , such as lighterage ,storage , fire insurance , cartage, pitching and market tolls ,railage , interest , port dues, etc . , plus brokerage . The Smithfieldsalesman ’s commission is 2 per cent . , and the bank or agentusually charges 1 per cent . for his work .

Buying and Selling Forward on C.I .F. Terms.

With the introduction of the grading process , about 1890,purchasing frozen meat forward became possible . Largeretailers in London and the Provinces who have regular outlets

for meat of a certain quality and weight at once saw that theycould partly cover their requirements for many months inadvance by means of contracting to buy on a cost, freight, andinsurance basis . This system has had to be adopted with theleading lines of perishable food produce handled by the largestores and multiple shop compani es . It has been appliedquite scientifically to the frozen meat trade , and represents oneOf the most important and interesting dev elopments . Thevolume Of business passing during the last ten or fifteen yearson this basis has been very considerable , but is apt to fluctuatewidely

,according to the requirements of the multiple shop

companies , and shippers’ costs . In the disas trous 1909 season ,

when frozen lamb fell 50 per cent . in price on the rates of theprevious year, forward buyers dropped money heavily, and itmust be noted that a proportion (though quite a small one) of

”h



buyer in England bears all costs Of la nding , storing , and markettolls , also loss of weight up to an agreed percentage .

Ex ship sales are practically a department Of the forwardsystem of doing business the term may be applied to contractsmade after the carrying v essel has sailed , but is principallyused for sales made after the ship has arriv ed at London . Theagent , having documents in his hands representing consignments sent to his care, may make a contract when he takesdelivery from the vessel .

Allowances Ofl‘

Actual Weights.

An interesting question which may be referred to at thispoint is that of allowances Off actual weights mad e in thefrozen meat trade . The c .i .f . or ex ship buyer pays on colonialbill Of lading weights , which represent a deduction Of from 5

to 6 per cent . Off the hot or “ green ” weight . Occa

sionally meat is weighed cold, while some Of the Argentinecompanies weigh the carcasses in a frozen state , in lots of20

,in order to arrive at the bill of lading weight . Sellers

guarantee that the loss on weight when the carcasses areweighed in store at the time Of delivery shall not exceed anagreed percentage, usually 2 per cent . , from the bill of ladingweight.At Smithfield when selling off the hooks the weights are

taken as a ru le without the wrappers , and buyers claimallowances from these weights to cover the loss in cutting upand the turn of the scale. These allowances vary slightly inaccordance with the terms of sale . Until recently abatementshad been accorded only in the London trade, but theyhave now been introduced at Liverpool and elsewhere , as faras Australasian meat is concerned . The allowances in questionfrom the gross weight are 2 lbs . on each New Zealand sheep ,8 lbs . on ev ery five Australian and South American sheep ,1 1b . on each lamb , and 2 to 3 lbs . on each quarter of beef,according to the nature of the wrapper

“The allowance on

Australian beef was reduced from 2 lbs . to 1 lb . per quarter byconcerted action of the agents at a time when supplies were in

THE STOCKRAISERS’ MARKET 105

one or two hands , and that reduction was accepted for manyyears . Latterly the old scale has been reverted to owing tothe keen competition amongst sellers . This London bateformed the ground for strife between the North AmericanBeef Trust houses and Smithfield a long time ago . Whenthese firms first opened their business in Great Britain

,they

allowed the usual bate Of 1 lb . 06 their chilled beef quarters,

but when they got firmly settled down,and were sufficiently

strong to dictate to their customers , they withdrew this allowance . The battle was sharp , but as the American refrigeratedbeef had become by that time absolutely necessary to theSmithfield salesman , the position of the Americans was impregnable . Their victory, however, left a bitter feeling , traces

Of which are observable to this day . The origin Of the marketallowances on mutton is obscure . Some people trace it to thetime when Scotch mutton was sent to Smithfield with thekidneys left in the carcasses as kidneys had no value

,appa

rently , the salesmen removed them or allowed the buyer 1 lb .

off the consignors ’ weight . But frozen sheep,as a rule

,contain

no kidneys ! The allowance is made partly to cover thebutcher’s loss by wastage in cutting the meat into smalljoints . As far back as one can di scover from research

,the

Smithfield custom was to allow 1 lb . draft on every quarterof beef and 3 lbs . per side , besides tare .

The Great Grading Question.

As grading Of the carcass is the foundation of the c .i .f . trade ,some remarks on the system may be made . The earliest references appear in the year 1890. At that time grading andclassification On more exact lines were suggested to facilitatemercantile handling of New Zealand mutton and lamb .

“

Forward sales on of . and i . basis had increased , and thissystem of carrying on the trad e necessitated the employmentof more precise standards of quality and weight . In thenineties the multiple shop principle Of trading began tobe developed in the large cities of England

,and the proprietors

Of these businesses found it as convenient to contract for


forward delivery Of their frozen meat—ln the case of meatretailing concerns—as the New Zealand farmers found itconv enient to secure a market on the spot by selling outrightto the freezing companies . As the multiple shop companiesgrew, the necessity to cover requirements some monthsahead and to guard against sudden variations in valuesbecame more pressing , with the result that the c .i .f . systembecame incorporated as a fundamental part of the New Zealandfrozen meat trade . It has had many critics

,and had it

remained as it began—only a speculative affair (on the partOf buyers) - the “ forward ” trade, and possibly the trade asa whole

,would not have assumed the volume and regularity

it now possesses . As the introduction of grading is one Of thegreat historic events of the frozen meat trade, the followingextract from a market review of 1890 is of interestIn view Of the v ast extent of the trade and its established

character,some serious efforts should be made to grade and

classify the experts from New Zealand in a more thoroughmanner than has hitherto been done .

”

It was found by importers that the brand was not such aguarantee of uniformity and quality as forward buyers required .

As a record,there may be inserted here the grades in force at

the New Zealand Refrigerating Co .

’s works at Dunedin inAugust, 1890

A . Sheep 55 to 70 lbs .B . 50 to 54 Crossbred wethersC . each weighing from 7 1 lbs . upwards andD ranging from 40 to 50 lbs . maiden ewes .MER . Merinos 45 lbs . and upwards

This company was the first concern to sell c .i .f . and the firstto grade for weight . It always failed to grade satisfactorily

At the beginning of the trade the only thing necessary inthis connection was that the meat should be graded to quality ,the demand in the first instance being largely for heavyweights in mutton . As the trade developed it was found thatthe requirements Of Smithfield were turning to lighter weight


THE STOCKRAISERS' MARKET 107

sheep buyers paid a higher price for light mutton , say ,under 6 4 lbs . , than for the heavy carcasses which had beenordinarily shipped . The tendency for the favourite weight Ofsheep to grow steadily less and less is largely due to theinsistent demand of the lower classes for variety on their table .

The small joint sells first because the wife of the English artisanand labourer is not skilled in making tasty dishes out of coldmeat . In 1887 the most favoured weight was 6 4 lbs . , tod ayit is from 48 to 52 lbs . The first grading suggestions fromLondon favoured the somewhat arbitrary system of classifyingthe mutton carcasses into 5-lb . grades . After considerationit was found more commercially convenient to adopt the stonegrade of 8 lbs . this brought the New Zealand mutton gradinginto correspondence with the weight measure regulatingsales of live and dead meat in the London trade . The gradeson this basis Of the Christchurch Meat Cc .

—practically, also,of the Canterbury Frozen Meat 00 .

—are as follow . The NewZealand (North Island) ,Australian , and South American systemsare different . But as these Canterbury grades have muchcurrency at Smithfield , it is convenient to give them .

Under 48 lbs . Weight brand 148 to 56 lbs .56 to 6 4 lbs .6 4 to 72 lbs .Over 72 lbs .

Lambs Under 36 lbs .36 to 42 lbs.42 to 50 lbs.

Tegs Over 50 lbs .

These weight grades are mainly for the South Island of

New Zealand ; the North Island favours to some degree thisgradation under 501b s . , 50

—55, 55—60, 60—65 , 6 5—70, andover 70. The Wellington Meat Export CO.

’

s grades formutton run : under 55 lbs . , 55—6 5, and 6 5—70. Otherexporters adopt slight variations on these classifica tions . Itwould certainly be convenient if one standard could beadopted for the whole Of the freezing works Of the Dominion .

g

p

mwmwwq


It may be stated that the 8-lb . butcher’s stone Of the Londontrade is notaccepted at Liv erpool or any other large centres ofthe United Kingdom , where meat transactions go by the pound .

The sheep and lamb carcasses are first graded for quality,and then for weight . Beef is also weight-graded , but on

broader lines,the favourite range Of weights being from 160 to

220 lbs . per quarter under 160lbs . , 160—180,180—200, 200

220, and ov er 220.

Probably the first c .i .f . transaction on record, the authorslearn on inqui ry

,was a sale in 1888 Of Dunedin sheep

to Messrs . W . and R . Fletcher, Ltd .,by Messrs . A . S . Paterson

and Co. , Of Dun edin , through their London agents , Messrs . W .

Weddel and CO .

Argentine Gra d ing .—With regard to the grading of Argen

tine frozen meat , each company grad es its own meat in itsown way—there is no general classification , as there is withAustralasian mutton and lamb . The shipments Of mutton andlamb from Argentina mainly represent first quality ; sec ondary,or relativ ely inferior, meat is shipped separately under certainmarks , but the classifications used in the Australian trade

eta—are not recognized in the Argentinetrade . The weight grades Of the Compafiia Sansinena deCarnes Congeladas for mutton are : 40 to 46 lbs . , 47 to 56 ,57 to 6 4

, 65 to 72 , and over 72 . The River Plate Fresh MeatCompany ’s classifications are as follows . Mutton ; 40to 48 1b s . ,

49 to 54, 55 to 60, 6 1 to 6 8,

“

6 9 to 75 . Lamb under 30 lbs . ,3 1 to 36 , 37 to 40

,41 to

‘

44,45 to 50. Beef is graded as

systematically as mutton,but both chilled and frozen are

graded more for quality than for weight . The two Patagoniancompani es grade for weight and quality, and grading is alsopractised at the Uruguayan and Venezuelan works .

Rates and Freights.

In one way or another the grower cashes his meat partiallyor

,in cases of outright sales , entirely at the time of shipment .

His banker or agent at the port of shipment makes no difficultyunder ordinary circumstances about advancing 75 per cent . of



Wellington

Masterton

Wa ita raStoke

Picton

Belfa stFa irfield

Name of Freezing Works. Brands.

Auckland Sheep Farmers’ CO. Name in full and Glas.

Gisbom e Sheep Farmers’ 00 . Name in full.Nelson Brothers Circle.

Nelson BrothersNorth British and Hawke’8BayFrecz N. B. H. B. F. CO.

ing CO.

T. Borthwick and Sons Paki Paki ,” “Hastings.

Wellington Mea t Export CO. W .M .E . G.A.,

and name in full.Longburn Mea t Freezing CO. Longburn, N and

sub -marks .

Gear Mea t Preserv ing and Freezing “ G. C.

”

CO. ofNew Zealand .

Wellington Farmers’ Mea t CO.

Pa tea FreezingWorksWanganui Mea t Freezing CO.

T. Borthwick and Sons MountNelson Freezing CO.

Christchurch Mea t Co. Wa irau,and Three

Canterbury Frozen Mea t and Da iryProduce Export CO. C. F . M. Co., Dia

mond, and Sta r.Christchurch Mea t Company

Eclipse,” “ C. M . C. ,

Sun,OneCrown,ThreeCrowns.

7 19

Nelson Brothers 0. M . C. and

CO.

”777 (the brandsd enot e the various

C a n t e r bu r y workswhere the stock were

Southla nd Frozen Mea t Co. 8. F M. C “ M.,

l l Z.,and Crosskeys.

Birt and CO. Princeps,” O. B. vas e

Tokomaru Fa rmers’ Freezing Co. Tokomaru, “Wand Tawhi ti .

them sell their live stock on the farm,or at so much per lb .

at the works . Their market,at high prices

,frequently too

high (compared with London ) , has been assured . The disastrous 1909 season would probably hav e had the effect of

W . F .

“ Taratahi,

a nd Masterton.

”

Pa tea FreezingWorks.

Wanganui (red and

black) , Thistle.

“Wa i ta ra ,Egmont.N. F. C.,

Anchor,

THE STOCKRAISERS’ MARKET l l l

lowering the value of sheep and lambs in New Zealand forfreezing had not the following year been one of high prices

on the English market . Some of the New Zealand freezingcompanies Operate on their own account, while others arefarmers ’ companies , freezing only . The Cante rbury

Frozen Meat Cc . , formed in 188 1, is an example of the latte rsystem . Some companies combine the two methods .

Australian Grades.

Much of the Australian mutton and lamb—and it must bestated that grading in Australia is slowly improv ing—is soldon two quality standards (fair av erage quality ) ,and (good av erage quality ) . Sydney meat mostlycomes under the former, and Melbourne under the latter .

allows but little recourse on account of quality,and buyers want a considerable concession in price for thatreason . In the cases of well-known accepted brands,with a reputation , the meat is sold on f .a .q . or g.a .q . ofthe brand, and the trouble arising from the interpretation of

is lessened . The difficulty in the Australian tradehas been the uncertainty as to a standard of quality . In theNew Zealand trad e there is a recognized bas is of quality.

Every weight grade carries with it a certain standard , and fora deliv ery against sale a carcass must carry proportionately asmuch weight as a sheep in good condi tion would carry . Without such a standard ,

how can allowances be assessed ? Inthe New Zealand business only two grades denoting qualityare used in the genera l trade Prime Quality and SecondQuality .

” With the latter, except in extreme cases , there isno recourse for the dissatisfied purchaser

,who can call for

surveys in the case of Prime Quality .

” With the NorthIsland companies ’ meat there is a grade good av eragequality

,

” carrying with it recourse . The London c .i .f . buyerhas to cover himself to the extent of {3d . per lb . in acceptingcolonial weights that allows for shrinkage in freezing and

the London bate .

Allusion has been made above to the c .i .f . form of contract


commonly employed in the forward trade (New Zealand) .Although buyers and sellers , assisted by the efforts of theFrozen Meat Trade Association

, for years hammered awayat a uniform contract

,

” the di fficulty of harmonizingthe many divergent views expressed was found insurmountable . Itis to be hoped that a form that commends itself tothe trade will be generally adopted throughout tradingcentres in the United Kingdom .

TO conclude these remarks regarding the forward systemof handling New Zealand and Australian meat, it may bestated that

,notwithstanding the results Of the terrible 1909

season , there can be no doubt that this method Of selling themeat, based as it is upon the modern commercial ways Ofworking large meat and provision shop businesses

,has become

firmly established and will extend . There are, it is true,certain drawbacks to it, but these, no doubt, in time will bepartly or wholly removed . For instance

,there is a consider

able difference Of opinion, with consequent friction , as to whatconstitutes the Australian grades referred to abov e,and and some weakness in the working Of the generalsystem is shown in the arbitrations as to quality which arefrequently called . It is alleged , perhaps without very goodgrounds , that the calls for these arbitrations vary in directratio to the tone of the market . The c .i .f . trade fluctuates asregards the business done, depending upon the views that areheld regarding the immediate future prospects Of the market .

Discharging the Meat at the London Docks.

The stockowner, although often he may be less concernedthan others financially in frozen meat cargoes on their arrivalat the port of destination , evinces a keen interest in thesystems under which the shipments are handled on di scharge ,and the following information will, therefore , be of interestto him as well as to others concerned in the trade .

The vessels conv eying frozen meat from Australasia toLondon berth at Tilbury, Victoria, and Royal Albert Docks ,and those from South America in the Victoria, Royal


THE STOCKRAISERS’ MARKET 118

Albert , and West India Docks . The two Australian mail lines ,which do not carry a great quantity of meat in each vessel ,and the White Star ste amers , use the Tilbury Docks . Thesteamers usually break bulk within twenty-four hours of

docking,and as a rule the discharging goes forward during

working hours without any stoppage till completion . The discharging is done by dock labourers , who are sometimes theemployees of the shipowners and sometimes of firms of stev edores discharging under contract . Carcasses of mutton andlamb and quarters of beef are commonly discharged in

slings , but the New Zealand Shipping Cc ., the Shaw, Savill

and Albion Co. ,the Shire Line , and other companies , use

pate nt elevators and shoots for the rapid handling of mutton

and lamb .

Noakes’ telescopic elevator was the first appliance of thekind . This was invented by Captain G . H . Noakes , superintendent of discharge to the New Zealand Shipping CO. inLondon

,and was patented about the year 1900. It consists

of a telescopic frame carrying two endless chains, and on thechains are fitted at equal inte rvals shelv es or projections toconvey the goods . It is driven Off the ordinary ships’ winchesby means of a rope slung round from the winch end . Thismachine is portable and very handy, it being possible to pick itup from the quay and place it in the hold ready for workin about twenty minutes , and it is capable of dischargingsheep, cases of butter, crates of bananas , or any packages of

uniform size , at the rate of over per hour .

Captain Noakes has recently designed an improved form ofconveyor for the discharge of frozen meat from vessels , whichconsists of a system of mechanical chutes and endless beltcarriers driven by small electric motors fitted inside themechanical chute , leading from the ship

’s deck to the quayside .

This apparatus,which has lately been installed and set to work

at the London docks , is illustrated herewith . Although thedriving is in the upper part of the chute the control is at thebottom , and a man by pressing a button can stop it immediate ly ii necessary. By this system,

in conjunction with theelev ators for raising the meat from the holds , the carcas ses

rm. 1


are carried from the hold to the end Of the quay for delivery ,without the aid Ofmeat slings or hand trucks . The mechanicalchute does away entirely with the system of sliding sheep downchutes

,as they rest against a projection, and are carried down

by the electrically-driven appliances . This prevents exposure

(the carcasses are protected by canvas coverings) , bruises andabrasions .The method of discharge at the docks in London depends

upon the destination Of the meat . There are three generalcourses open warehousing at the dock stores

,despatch by

rail to the country,and barging along the riv er to the up

town stores . Taking the Tilbury Docks first, farthest downthe riv er, if meat is to go into the dock stores at Victoria Docksit is barged up . If intended for the country it is forwarded byrailway

,or if for the up

-town , riverside stores , barging isresorted to. If the meat is for the dock stores at West Smithfield

,the railway and also insulated vans are employed . At

the Victoria and Royal Albert Docks the same procedure isfollowed, except that meat intended for the dock stores atthese two docks is transferred there direct

,either by railway

or hand truck,according to the distance from the ship ’s berth

,

and that intended for the dock stores at West Smithfield isforwarded in insulated v ans . The handling ofmeat at the WestIndia Dock is practically the same

,meat for the dock stores

at Victoria Dock being conveyed thither by insulated v ans .The railing , vanning , and trucking involv e the landing of themeat on the quay alongside which the vessel lies, and meat forbarges is usually deliv ered from the other

,or water

,side of

the vessel, alongside which the barges lie . The railway wagonsrun alongside the quay , and the dock stores hav e connectionwith the Great Eastern, Midland , London and North Western ,and Great Northern lines . Meat by steamers in the TilburyDock intended for forwarding by railway to London is dispatched at frequent intervals

,and trucks for the country

(insulated and iced in the summer) , having received the fullconsignments , or such portions as are available, are sentaway to their destinations . Transit is fairly rapid a line of



to save the second month ’s management rate charge . TheObject Of the merchant is to deliver to the market only suchquantity as he may expect to di spose of every day

,but if meat is

left over unsold at the close of business at Smithfield it isseldom taken back to store

,as it will remain in sufficiently

good condi tion on the hooks for the next day ’s business .

Occasionally,however

,meat unsold is taken back to store

,

especially in the case Of the cold stores handy to the market .In hot weather, naturally, this course is adopted more freely.

Those tenants who rent storage space under their stalls fromthe London Central Markets Stores

,which space communicates

with the premises above , generally pop their left-over stuffdown into their cold rooms .In putting forward these details concerning an exceedingly

technical section of this subject, the authors desire to mentionthat the business systems of the v arious firms Of merchants ,importers

,and salesmen

,are not all framed on the same lines .

All that must be expected of this chapter is a more or lessrough and, it is feared, incomplete outline of the methodsunder which the Australasian and South American producers

get their stock to the market .

CHAPTER VII I

ra n FUNCTIONS or m MEAT msrscroa

IN this chapter is given information concerning the generalprinciples and methods which govern the Ofiicial examinationof frozen and chilled meat in the exporting countries , anddetails are added referring to the practice of British MedicalOfficers of Health in dealing with this meat on its arrival atthe ports of Great Britain . Reference is also mad e to thetota lly inadequate measures taken to protect the Britishpublic from the consumption of diseased meat, bred andslaughte red in the United Kingdom . The more one regardsthe meat inspection systems in vogue in diflerent countries ,so widely diflering in principle and detail, the more necessarydoes it appear to work for an international standard of meatinspection , respecting which proposal it is still hoped there willbe a conference in Paris in 19 12, or at some early date .

New Zealand.

New Zealand has an excellent Official system of inspection, which is rigidly applied to exported frozen meat . TheDominion spends a very considerable sum annually in paying thesalaries of a sta ff of specially qualified inspectors, twenty-fourOfwhom write after their names . Oflicial inspectionin New Zealand is carried on under the General Mea t InspectionAct of 1900. The inspectors have by this Act full control overthe sanitary and general conditions of the freezing works of theDominion of New Zea land . The Government of New Zealandhas , from early days in the industry, applied itself consistentlyto the question of having vete rinary examination made of

mea t intended for the export trade . Concerning this,


Sir Joseph Ward, as Prime Minister, made himself responsible

for the following statement

All mea t as exported from New Zealand is absolutely gua ranteed by the

Government to be healthy, wholesome, and thoroughly fi t for human food.

Australia.

As to Australia, the inspection and supervision of mea t forexport is undertaken by the Federal Government . Prior toFebruary 1 , 19 11, the various States were working on individual lines

,and though the regulations in force in the States

were most thorough , the want of uniformity led to someconfusion . But at the date mentioned, the Federal Govemment assumed control Of Australian meat inspection, and nowall meat exported from the Commonwealth is inspected on auniform basis under the Commerce (Trade Descriptions) Act,1905, and the Customs Act, 19 10, prior to export, and meatfound to be in ev ery way satisfactory is marked approv edfor export .” Second grade meat is marked as passedfor export ,

” while emaciated and di seased meat is, of course ,refused any permi t for export . Here attention may be drawnto the fine distinction between “ approved ” and “ passed ”

in the Commonwealth inspection regulations . Whi lst NewZealand and Argentina, in common with usual practice,each have one standard of fitness , Australia has two . A largestaff Of veterinary surgeons is stationed at the abattoirs andmeat works throughout the Commonwealth, and the regulationsunder which they work are drastic . The examination is anteand post-mortem . The central point of the Commonwealthregulations is that the exportation Of any meat is prohibitedunless it has been certified by an inspector under theCommerce Act to be fit for export . Under the Commerce Actthere is prohibition of the export of carcass meat in adiseased state , and disease includes any defect

,inferiority,

or abnormal condition in the meat which renders it unsightlyor unfit for human food .

Australia can afford to go still farther than Europeancountries in the raising Of her standard . Her proportion of


THE FUNCTIONS OF THE MEAT INSPECTOR 119

stock diseases is wonderfuuy small , and as boiling down isavailable for rejects , the Australian freezing works hav e in thecase of animals not up to freezing mark a second string to theirbow which the British farmer and butcher lack . No meat canbe exported from Australia unless it has passed the vetc

rinary’

s

health tests .

Argentina.

The measures taken by the Government of Argentina toensure that frozen and chilled meat exported shall be in a ll

respects sound, free from disease , and of first class quality, aremost thorough . Before stock can be moved in the Republic ,official permission has to be obtained . Attached to every

frigorifico is a Government inspector who has an Office in theworks . He has to look into all the processes, inspects the stockbefore killing , and the meat before export , and has the right toreject anything Of inferior quality. The following statementby the manager of one Of the Argentine works shows howthorough is the inspection Two or more Governmentinspectors are billeted at each works ; they are there all theirtime, scrutinize everything, examine live stock , slaughterings,the meat, walking about the whole time, condemning anythingand everything they are not absolutely satisfied with , andnothing leaves the works without the Government inspectors’

certification .

” The vessels carrying the frozen meat fromArgentine ports are under Gov ernment supervision as tocleanliness, disinfection, and hygiene . Of late , as a complement to this careful system Of inspection , the Government Ofthe Republic have enacted that a brand in aniline dye, whichhas the force Of a Government certificate Of soundness, shall beplaced upon all frozen meat exported to Great Bri tain . TheAct under which the Officia l supervision is undertaken is theAnimals Sanitary Law

, NO. 4155 .

The certificawd labels that are attached to meat exportedfrom the three countries whose Oflicial inspection systems areabov e explained are reproduced herewith . They are veryuseful and necessary documents ; but, after all, speaking


of Great Britain ’s importation of frozen and chilled meat,the

Local Gov ernment Board’s inspector is the real tribunal .

Inspection of MeatKilled in the United Kingdom.

Several references have been made in this book to theinefii cient methods of inspecting home-killed meat in theUnited Kingdom . Under regulations Officially Observed , thereis a competent veterinary staff employed at British portsto see to it that no diseased or unsound meat from overseasis landed for consumption . One would think that anequally satisfactory examination of stock slaughtered throughout the United Kingdom would b e made . But what dowe find Dr. Collingridge, Medical Offi cer of Health forthe City of London, in his report dated April 25, 19 11, madethe following Observation when referring to the AustralianOfficial inspection clauses It is unfortun ate that whilesuch regulations are made and enforced abroad, there a re no

provisions for the compulsory inspection of meatatthe time ofsla ughter in this country.

”

A flood Of light is thrown upon this subject by Mr. W . G .

Barnes,Chief Veterinary Inspector and Superintendent Of

Abattoirs , Islington Cattle Market, in his paper read before theRoyal Sanitary Institute Congress at Belfast on July 28, 19 11,Meat Branding and Uniformity Of Inspection .

” In many ofthe rural districts

,meat inspection

,Mr . Barnes stated,

“ is atheory instead of a practice .

” The following quotations fromthe paper are startling indeedThe Britisher is daily eating the flesh of diseased animals ,

and is unaware Of it . He takes it for granted that the law of

the country provides for the inspection of all butcher meatin tended for his food , and consequently he does notdeem itnecessary to make further investigation into the matter, butis content to remain in ignorance Of the fact that more thanhalf of the meat consumed in thi s country is never seen by aninspector

, and that in many parts of the country the system of

meat inspection is scandalous . As illustrative of this , it isknown that carcass butchers from towns some di stance from



killed under Government veterinary inspection . Inspectionto be thorough and complete has to be ante and post-mortem ,

and can only be done at the time of slaughter . Refrigeratedmeat has to be stripped of all internal organs before freezingand shipping . It therefore follows that the inspection, however rigid, can only be guaranteed by an assurance and certificate that the animals were healthy and the meat wholesome .

A certificate and guarantee to be valid must be giv en by aGovernment authority

,and must represent conditions well and

clearly understood . A complete harmony exists among allthe training institutions for v eterinary science of all countriesas to principle and methods . Veterinary inspection is on astrictly scientific basis

,and there are an international standard

and regulations common to all lands where the inspectionof meat is considered of vital importance .

To free refrigerated meat from present trade di sabilities inEuropean States

,all that is required is that the standard

which already exists should be recogni zed as international .Further, that an agreement be arrived at by the various countries that

,provided an exporting country will guarantee that

all the condi tions of inspection are being complied with , theveterinary certificate of such country shall be recognized ascomplete . Refrigerated meat would then be available for all

countries , and would only be subject to local inspection as torefrigerated condi tion and soundness . It would then take itsplace along with other articles of commerce—fresh marketswould be opened up

,and its price would be regulated by the

world-wide demand .

Public Health Regulations.

A de v elopment which had bearing on some minor sectionof the frozen meat trade

,and made necessary certifi

cates of examination from the Governments of exportingcountries , was the passing in England of the Public Health

(Regulations as to Food ) Act, on August 28,1907 . On

September 12,1908, the Local Gov ernment Board issued two

sets of Regulations

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE MEAT INSPECTOR 123

( l ) The Public Health (First Series Unsound Food ) Regulutions, and

(2) The Public Health (Foreign Meat) Regulations ,1908 .

The first became operative on October 1, 1908, and the secondon January 1, 1909 . The Regulations are now in full workingorder, and have strengthened the hands of the sanitaryauthorities at the various ports . These Regulations have hada very considerable influence upon the department of the frozenmeat trade discussed in Appendix II for they were putin force mainly to check irregularities in American meatoddments and to enable the sanitary authorities in GreatBritain to have an effective weapon wherewith to fighttuberculosis in pig carcas ses and boxed pork .

Before the issue of the Regulations inspection of meatimporte d into Great Britain had been casual and unmethodical .The port sanita ry authorities and the medical officers of health ,as well as the Board of Trade expert ofi cers, found difficulty indealing with certain classes of imported frozen meat, and it wasconsidered desirable to give the inspectors further powers . For

instance , boneless beef, arriving in boxes with the pieces ofmeat frozen into a solid mass , was impossible of identificationand examination by the inspectors as to the separate pieces .This boned beef trade from New Zealand had grown to considerable proportions it was a profitable means of disposingof old cows

,and the form in which the meat arrived and its

cheapness allowed it to be used for mincing and other purposes .

As the conditions under which this boneless beef was preparedand shipped were inconsistent with the requirements of Britishinspectors, acting under the Public Health Regulations of1907, viz . , that frozen meat must arrive in separate pieces, thetrade was suspended for several years . But of late theinspectors have modified the severity of their views, and bonedbeef, frozen in separate pieces , is imported to a small extent,ma inly at the port of Glasgow . It is held in many quarte rsthat had the export of boneless beef been stopped altogether itwould not have been a matte r for much regret, for, even allowingthat this low-grade mea t was a valuable adjunct to New


Zealand’s carcass and quarter trade,it adds no lustre to the

Dominion’s export of produce .

The Regulations referred to,in full working order, no doubt,

render more precise and (in some instances) equita ble themethods of the sanitary authorities with regard to any meatseized for unsoundness . Merchants and importers of frozenmeats , at the time when the Regulations were being framed,took the opportunity to press upon the Local GovernmentBoard their view that identical instructions should be sent toinspectors throughout the country

,regarding the general

question of inspection of imported meats, and that the owners ofmeat seized by the inspectors should be supplied with data,such as the name of the vessel, the brand, etc . But thisreasonable suggestion has not been adopted . The officialsat different ports in England have v arying methods of seizingmeat and of treating meat so seized ; it is a confusing andunfair state of things to traders that di fferent standardsand diflerentpractices should exist in the ports and wholesalemarkets of Great Britain as regards meat inspection .

The Regulations make three classifications, the first of

which applies to scrap meat,and the other two to

pigs and parts of pigs . An important reference is to theofficial certificate which the Regulations required . This isdefined as a certificate, label, mark , stamp , or other voucher,declaring that the cattle or pig from which the meat is derivedhas been certified by a competent authority in the place of

origin to be free from disease at the time of slaughter, and thatthe meat has been certified by the like authority to have beendressed or prepared, and packed, with the needful observanceof all requirements for the prevention of danger arising to publichealth from the meat as an article of food . On the authors ’

application in September, 19 11, for information about thesecertificates, which are obviously requi red in the interests ofshippers from various countries, Dr. G . S . Buchanan, MedicalInspector to the Local Government Board

,supplied copies of

accepted official certificates, as follow —Denmark, the Netherlands , Canada, New Zealand, Belgium , and the Commonwealthof Australia ; Dr. Buchanan wrote that the list of accepted


CHAPTER IX

THE smrcwnns s’ BURDEN

THE importance of the part that the shipowner plays in thefrozen meat trade of to-day is universally recognized

,and most

of the pages of this book bear evidence of the great stake hehas in the industry . It was the shipowner who was alwaysready in the pioneering and experimenta l days of the eightiesto risk his capital in meeting shippers’ and merchants ’ wishes

,

and to-day he is constan tly called upon to extend the facilitieshe offers for refrigerated overseas traflEic . The freezing worksand the “ refrigerated fleet ” are the two great agencies engagedin the preparation and transporta tion of the farmers’ meatto the markets of the Old World, and skill , capital, andorganizing power, both in freezing and transport, have allalong been required to ensure that the Australasian and SouthAmerican sheep , driven to the freezing works and landed onthe London Docks as frozen meat, have suffered the minimumof depreciation in quality and condi tion .

Given the necessary information from behind the scenes,what a book could be written on the beginnings and development of the refrigerated produce trade, from the shipowners

’

point of view ! If the walls of board rooms had ears, andshipping clubs’ discussions were recorded for the benefit of thetrade historian , it would be possible to wri te a useful andente rtaining narrative . The personalities of the owners andmanagers of the great shipping lines that

Give the Pole the Produce of the Sun,And knit th’

unsocial clima tes into one.

are in many cases distinctlyIstriking ; many of us remember thegraphic, good-natured articles that Mr . Hope Robinson usedto write on them in the pages of Fa irpla y . What a tale couldbe told

,for instance, of the men who built up the Austral



The carrying capacities in those years were,respectively

,

and carcasses .It would have been interesting to discov er that there were

one or two master minds applying themselves with a prophet’sforesight to the task of adapting their ships to the new trademen who, with the genius of perspicacity, fully grasped thesituation with all its possibilities . One cannot discover anysuch figures, and the progress of the refrigerated carryingtrade seems to have been a natural evolution . Improvementsin refri gerating machinery, insulating materials , and appliancesor stowage and handling, have come along as the need suggested .

The shipowners’ attitude in the early eighties was thisThey said we are the servants of the public

,and if there is

meat to carry we must carry it . In this way they hav eadapted themselves to the di fferent departments of therefrigerated business, science revealing the particular conditions requisite for the safe carriage of each separate kind of

refrigerated produce . A great deal of capital is invested inthe refrigerated fleet roughly, it takes merely tofit a New Zealand liner wi th refrigerating machinery andinsulate her holds

,and to this has to be added the cost of

upkeep , and the loss from the permanent reduction in deadweight and cubic carrying capacities . Regarding the weight ofcargo carried

,a vessel which, without refrigerating machinery,

could carry, say, tons , could with it only take tonsof ordinary cargo .

The Australian Lines.

The Australian shipping lines were not backward in takingup refrigerated produce

,and the companies running regular

service s perceived quite early the possibilities of the new tradeand what it meant to the shipowner . The prospectus of theOrient Steam Nav igation Company, Limi ted, dated 21 May,1880, contained this paragraph : The export of fresh frozenmeat is likely to yield an important addition to the company

’

searnings . A number of applications for space have alreadybeen received

,and the necessary refrigeration machines are

about to be fitted in the steamers.”The first steamers fitted

THE surrowns ss'

BURDEN 129

were the s.e. Cuzco, Orient, and Ga renne in 1881. On p . 34

mention is mad e of the pioneering part taken by the Orientline vessels in fitting up their steamers for the carriage offrozen meat , and note should be taken of the fact that thisconipany , in installing Haslam machinery on its ships in 1880,was the first shipping line in the world to go into the

re fri gerated meat trade on a regular basis. The Peninsularand Oriental Company entered the trade in 1887 , and theirfirst vessel to carry mea t was the s .s. Victoria . The a.s . HornbyGrange was Messrs . Houlder

’

s first refrigerated vessel to ente r,in 1890, the Australian trade . The Aberdeen Line took upfrozen mea t freight in 1892, and the s .s . Austra lasia n was thefirst steamer to be fitted . The first Federal Line steamerto carry meat was the s .s. M aori King in 1893. The WhiteStar vessels ente red the Australian trade in 1899 , the s .s. M edic

being the first steamer to bring meat for the company fromAustralian ports .The late Mr . William Hav iside Tyser, the founder of the

Tyser Line, ente red the refrigerated shipping trade in 1886

1887 (see p . The first ship which he fitted up and load edwa s the Ba lmora l Castle, next coming the Ashleigh Brook, andothers following . The Ba lmoralCastle, by the way, was the firstvessel to sail to Australia in ballas t, a practice subsequentlyextensively followed .

The New Zealand Services.

In 1881 the Government of New Zealand oflered a subsidyof a year for the establishment of a service of refrigerated fifty

-day boats, but the inducement was too slight toattract shipowners . The honour of opening the frozen meattrade , which has been of such enormous value to the Dominion ,

belongs to the Shaw , Savill and Albion Co . Full particularsappear at pp . 40 to 44 of the enterprise of the New Zea landand Australian LandCc . , and the successful cc-operation of theshipping company as regards the voyage of the sailer Dunedin .

The New Zealand Shipping Co . (which had been founded byNew Zealand merchants at Christc hurch in 1873) despatched

h


the second vessel with frozen meat to London , this shipmentbeing the company’s own venture . In 1882 the companyfitted the sai ling ship M ata ura with Haslam’s cold air refrigerating machinery ata cost of several thousand pounds . On thefirst voyage outwards quantities of fish , poultry , and game werecarried from London . These goods were delivered in NewZealand in excellent order and a return cargo of frozen beefand mutton , at a freight of 2%d . per lb . , was landed in Londonin perfect condition . This cargo had to be frozen on board .

Captain Greenstreet,now the skipper of the s .s . Remuera , was in

charge . The first steamer fitted up for refrigerated cargoesby the New Zealand Shipping Co . was the Fensta nton , belongingto Watts, Milburn and it was a tramp steamer takenup on time charter . In January, 1883 , the company despatchedthe first steamer of its regular service from London, the BritishKing, tons , fitted with Haslam’s machinery sufficientto carry carcasses of sheep . The British Queen , a sistership , followed in March , 1883, and the White Star steamersI onic and Doric, v essels of tons, were also charteredso as to keep up the monthly service until the company couldput on steamers of their own . A fifth steamer being needed ,the Cunard liner Cata lonia was taken up in 1883 for one

v oyage, and even for that one voyage it was fitted up withcomplete refrigerating machinery .

In the same year the company inaugurated a directsteamer service, building fiv e 15-knot steamers of abouttons register each , viz .

, the Tonga riro (August, Aorangi

(October, Rua pehu (November, Ka ikoura (September, and R imuta lca (October, all fitted withHaslam

’

s refrigerating machines . Three of the company’ssailing ships were also fitted with refrigerating machinery for

the carriage of frozen meat,etc . After the New Zealand

Shipping Co . had received deliv ery of the above-named fivesteamers , the Shaw , Savill and Albion Co. continued to employthe I onic and Doric in the trade

,and also chartered the Coptic,

besides building the Arawa and Ta inui, so that the two lines ,each with fiv e mail and passenger steamers , commenced aregular fortnightly steam service between London and New


THE SHIPOWNERS ’ BURDEN 131

Zealand,which has been maintained without a break ever

since . At the present time all the foregoing steamers of the

New Zealand Shipping Co . have been replaced by new vessels ,bearing the same names but of about double the size .

Whilst the Shaw ,Savill Co .

’s own steam fleet was in prepara

tion in 1883—1884, the chartered steamers Triumph, Bombay,

Victory and Florida were fitted . But these vessels were soonreplaced by the mail steamers Arawa ,

Ta inui , Coptic, I onic

and Doric, and these were supplemented in 1889—1890 by the

cargo vessels the M ama ri , M aori , M ata tua,Rangatira and

Pakeha . The original Arawa ,Ta inui , M ama ri , M ata tua ,

Rangatira and Pa keha have gone, but bigger successors , of thesame names

,do similar work tod ay . The old Arawa was

fitted for carcasses , the modern Wa ima na , built in 19 11 ,is insulated forThe s .s . Elderslie, launched in 1884

, was the first of afine fleet of steamers owned by the Shire Line and Messrs .Turnbull, Martin and Co . To Mr. John Reid, of Elderslie, nearOamaru , the credit of this enterprise must be accorded , and hecertainly must take rank as a pioneer of the trade . He persuadedMessrs . Turnbull, Martin and Co . to build this and othersteamers , and was always in the front supplying sheep freelyfrom his fine estate . The other Shire liners followed quickly

,

and competed with the steamers of the New Zealand ShippingCo. and Shaw, Savill and Albion Co . Freight on the meat for theElderslie was reduced to by the Fifeshire to 2d . ,

and bythe next Shire Line steamer to laid . Competition and theincreased tonnage available caused further reductions in therates steadi ly onwards .

Sa iling Ships as Mea t Ca rriers .—Itis noteworthy that the

early work done by the fleet of sa ilors in carrying frozen meatwas excellent, and these craft prov ed quite suited to the tradein the early days . Certa inly the 90 to 110 days ’ passage

,

instead of the mail steamers ’ 40, from New Zealand,was

against them , but, then , the c .i .f . business and catching themarket were rudimentary points in the eighties . Thesailors did their refrigerating remarkably well , and the ea rlyfleet was considerable . Messrs . Shaw, Sav ill and Co. (which

it 2


combined with the Albion Cc . , to form the Shaw,Savi ll and

Albion Cc .

,incorporated in 1882) had theDunedin ,Lady Jocelyn ,

Lyttelton , I nverca rgill, Oama ru , Northumberla nd , Wellington ,

Tima ru, M a rlborough, and Hinemoa . These ships carriedanything from to carcasses, and were fittedwith either Bell-Coleman or Haslam machines freezing on thecold air blast system . Meat cargoes were brought home in theseboats with commendable success , but their being supersededby steamers was in the natural course of evolution which hassettled the fate of the older class of vessel in modern trade .

The Shaw, Savill Co . fitted up the sailer Edwin Fox asa freezing bulk, and sent her out to New Zealand in 1885 .

Subsequently the vessel was transferred to the ChristchurchMeat Co. , and is still used as a hulk at Picton (see illustrationp . The Tima ru , after her a ctive career as a frozenmea t carrier was over, was used as a freezing store on theSouth African coast, and was wrecked in 1907 . The Ma rl

borough and Duned in were lost in 1890. Another old sailingship , formerly employed to convey frozen meat from NewZealand, is now the property of the Roya l Mail Steam PacketCo. , and is stationed in the River Plate as a bulk, and iscalled the Rotha y. Before the company purchased her theves sel was called the Duleep Singh, and was sent as a freezinghulk to Gibraltar in 1890 by Messrs . Wills and Co .

The Evolution of the Frozen MeatCarrier.

The evolution of the frozen meat carrier is a most interesting point to refer to. From the carcasses sai ling ship“ad apted ”for the trad e

,through special sailers, like theHinemoa

there is the development to ad apted steamers like the British

Princess, Selemb ria , the early Shi re boats, etc . , to the half-and

half (refrigerated, and/or general cargo) steamers largely used bythe New Zealand Shipping Cc . ,

and the Shaw, Savill and Albion

Cc . , to the very highly specialized steamers that have beenbuilt recently for the South American frozen and chilled meat

trad e.Early refrigerating installations on board ship were , no doubt

somewhat crude,and

,with engineers untrained in the new



carcasses) , are still carrying meat cargoes efficiently frozen bythe old Haslam cold air machine .

Contrasting the early days ’ difficulties with the smoothnesswhich characterizes the conditions of to-day, Mr . J . A . Potter

,

general manager of the Shaw, Savill and Albion Cc . , sends the

following remarksIn the absence of freezing works ashore, and the consequent

initial freezing and preparation of the carcasses on board , greatdelay in loading was caused, and even steamers for a time hadto perform thi s work . But soon freezing works ashorebegan to be erected, and gradually all cargoes were preparedprior to shipment, and sent in a frozen state to the carryingvessel . In the early days of the industry complete or partialfailure at times took pla ce due to some breakdown ofmachineryimperfect preparation of the carcasses, faulty insulation , etc . ,

but with the growth of the trade experience and science broughtknowledge, and to-day it is marvellous with what certainty sucha delicate article of commerce can be conveyed in perfectcondition from one end of the world to the other . Mutton

,

lamb , beef, butter, cheese, and delicate fruits, are shipped atthe far An tipodes with a practical certainty that they will beput on the English market in the same state of preservation asthey would be if offered for sa le at the place

’

of production .

”

The evolution of the modern frozen or chi lled meat carrierhas been a gradual process, in which details have one by one

been revised in accordance with the march of modern inventionand the discovery of the more up-to-date appliances employedin mechanical refrigeration . In the early eighties mailsteamers were fitted with limi ted refrigerated accommodation

,

e.g. ,in 1884 the Arawa and the Ta inui , which hav e been already

referred to ; and it was then thought that about carcassesrefri gerated capacity was sufficient . Ideas grew, and followingthe equipment of the early mai l steamers came the pressinginto refrigerated servi ce of cargo steamers , later coming theboats built especially for cold storage transport , of which thelatest examples carry huge cargoes considerably in advance of

carcasses .It will enable the reader to gain some idea of the great



competing with his clients is very strong , and no circumstances but the most unusual and compelling could justifysuch a departure from mercantile ethics . There are otherinstances of shipowners in the Australasian trade acting inthis dual capacity . One of these relates to the shipmentsof frozen bee f from Queensland to Vladivostock,

in regard towhich

,perhaps

, one may say that as this was a new departure,as well as speculative

,and probably temporary in character,

the element of competition with the merchant did not arise,

at least in a marked degree .

In 1894, owing to exceptionally heavy imports of meatfrom Australia

,the London cold stores became choked with

meat,and the vessels as they arrived in the Thames were

un able to discharge their cargo. This state of affairs markedone of the most serious crises the frozen meat trade has passedthrough . The same position was, as a matter of fact, withinan ace of occurring in 1909 , but by that time the capacity of thestores had greatly increased . On the earlier occasion referredto abov e, v essels had to be used as stores , and lay for weeks ondemurrage . This might suit the shipowner in some instances

,

but not those having to work a regular service on timetables . Such owners could not get their ships discharged

,

and their arrangements were completely upset, while, to makematters still more awkward for them , some clients who hadsold their meat insisted on deliv ery . This could not be effected

,

because the meat was under that of other consignees who wereunable to authorize landing , having no store room obta inable .The shipowner in such circumstances stood to be shot at by theconsignees who were losing their market, for he could not throwthe meat of the others out on the quay .

Freights.

Freights fell , of course, as frozen meat cargo became regularand bulky . On the first shipment from New Zealand, that ofthe Dunedin ,

the freight was 21d . steamers of the same lineare carrying meat to-day at 5d . The freight on the first meatv essel from the Plate , the s .e. M ea th, was 2M. In 189 1 NewZealand mutton freight was reduced to 1d . , by 1894 to id ,

THE SHIPOWNERS ' BURDEN 187

and by 1897 toM. The present rate of freight on frozen mea tfrom Australia to United Kingdom ports , say 2d . per lh. ,

and

{3d . to Mediterranean ports , shippers consider too high . It isonly the great quantities of meat carried , and the constructionof specially designed steamers , that allow of more moderaterate s being fixed . Shipowners , when asked , say that frozenmeat is not a good paying freight .

” An occurrence whichwould seem to fortify this assertion was the taking out of therefrigerating machinery from the sailer Hinemoa some yearsago , the owner, Mr . Les lie, declaring that ordinary cargo wouldpay bette r. Still , for the splendid and well-equipped vesselsof the lines bringing food products from South America andAustralasia there can be no doubt that the frozen meat trad ehas been a very profitable occupation indeed , and responsible tono small extent for the development of the refrigerated fleet .”

Multiplicity of Marks .

One of the greatest burdens the shipowners have to bear,

with what philosophy they may—in the New Zealand andAustralian trade—is the excessive sub-division of the muttonand lamb consignments into marks . The system has comeabout through the personal part which the farmers (mainlyin New Zealand ) take in the business . Where the growerssell their stock to the freezing works, as is the case invariably

in Argentina, and usually in Australia, the grouping of thecarcasses into separate parcels and the placing of distin

guishing marks on them is only governed in the main bythe consignees to whom they go . But the way in which theNew Zealand trad e is done involves the division , to a considerable degree

,of the frozen meat shipments from a works . There

may be scores of c .i .f . buyers interested in the meat shipped ina liner by one of the freezing establishments , and such lots haveto be delivered to marks .” This is bad enough, but where theshipowner—and the subsequent handlers , too—find this splitting upmaddening is when the New Zealand farmer sends in hisfew sheep—frequently less than a hundred—to the works, andinsists upon those carcasses being specially marked , and each


grade ofweight and qualitykept separate . It is natural , perhaps ,that he should desire that an account sales should reach him

,

giv ing the sale price of each class of carcass in his particularlot; but his action places an almost unbearable burden upon thevarious agents he employs to put his meat on the Englishmarket

,namely

,the shipowner, the storekeeper, and the con

signee . In the course of the discussion of a paper on TheInspection and Distribution of Meat Foods,

” read by Mr . F .

Knowles before the Cold Storage and Ice Association in April ,19 10

,a speaker said that on one occasion , owing to the multi

plicity of marks occurring in a frozen meat cargo arriving atLiverpool

,it had taken him a whole week to get lambs

from a ship,and all that time he had been constantly travelling

between Liverpool and Manchester . Carters sometimes abandoued altogether contracts for carrying such meat to storebecause of the delay in discharging from the vessel owing tothe marks difficulty .

To take an actual shipment of mutton from New Zealand in1909 from one of the North Island Works

, for carcassesthere were no less than 460different marks . Again

,in the case

of one bill of lading for 211 sheep,altering the marks and

numbers , this is how the division was made

Sheep .

H F C 4

278

3 H F C

I

3

2

H F C

211 O/s

Now,in all the processes through which these carcasses pass

from works to market, H F C (one sheep ) has got


THE SHIPOVVNERS'

BURDEN 139

to be kept separate . That is the theory , but at times it isabsolute ly impossible to do so , and it is to be feared that“ H F C gets mixed up with other goods . It isobvious that such a system of business is faulty it would beso with any description of merchandise , more or less, but withperishable produce like frozen meat it is often fatal . The greatthing with refrigerated meat is to save handling , and multi

plicity of marks makes for handling . An enormous amountof sorting over of meat cargoes takes place at the point ofdischarge before H F C and its fellows can be gotat, and in this sorting over the meat gets damaged . This matte ris mentioned here not only to record an existing feature of thetrad e , but to urge strongly upon all parties in the New Zealandtrade to see if the farmers cannot preserve their own individualinterests by other means . There is no doubt that New Zealandmeat suffers greatly from the way in which it has to be handledin separate lots exposure to the atmosphere causes much lessof bloom . The bright ruddy appearance of a newly arriv edcrossbred sheep is a wonderful market asset . Canterbury

,

New Zealand , has been the centre of this sub-division system .

In 1907 the shipowners began to take action , and since then thequestion has been constantly discussed , and conferences withmerchants have been held . In the Australian trade, where theshipowners were unhampered by contracts, they took actionby stamping bills of lading to . the effect that they would notbe responsible for sub-marks . A sorting store at the Dockstores in London was mooted in 1892 and later, in order to dealwith this difficulty

,but clashings of interests and the small

extra expense per carcass involved prevented reform beingcarried out . In 1899 the marks trouble became very pronounced and shipowners threatened pooling the cargoes .A scheme to adopt special stripes varying in design and

colour for use on the meat wraps , so as to provide one distin

guishing and easily visible brand for each works was suggestedin 1909—19 10, and met with the approval of shipowners inprinciple

,but in working out the details many triv ial ob jec

tions were raised which still remain to be dealt with beforethe shippers will willingly adopt the recommendation . It has

140 A HISTORY OF THE FROZEN ME AT TRADE

much to commend it as a means of lessening the handlingat this end .

Many of the criticisms made of London methods ofdischarge would have no existence but for the continued useof so many di stinctiv e marks in each cargo—especially fromNew Zealand . The endless sub-divisions employed are ananachronism—relics of the youthful days of the trad e whenthe farmer was the freezing company . Argentina

,Uruguay

,

Patagoni a, all ship in big lines of 500 to or evencarcasses of one mark . Until Australia and New Zealand canact similarly , they will be handicapped in their efforts to securethe trade of the big retailers .

The Shipowner and the South American MeatTrade.

In 1883, when the first shipments of frozen meat were readyto be despatched from the Campanaw orks , Buenos Aires , therewere no shipowners with sufficient knowledge of the possibilitiesof the new industry to induce them to instal refrigeratingmachinery and insulation in their steamers at their own expense

,

so the shippers- the River Plate Fresh Meat Cc .

-had to putin the machines, etc . , themselv es . Their ini tial shipment , in1883, was brought by the s .s . M eath

,as stated earlier in this

book . The v essel arrived in London in January , 1884 , viaAntwerp

,where she had di scharged some meat . The s .s . M eath

and the s .s . Wexford—the next vessel—both owned by Mr . R .

M . Hudson , of Sunderland, and runnin g under Messrs . Houlders’

contract, continued in the regular Plate trade until 1886 , andfor many years afte rwards as independent units available forchartering to any part of the world . In addition to thesevessels were the s .s. Zenobia and Zephyrus , whi ch were fittedwith Haslam cold air machinery . The Z boats , owned byMessrs . Turner, Brightman and Cc . ,

were , and are still, taken bythe River Plate Fresh Meat Co. on long time charters excepting the s .s . Zephyrus and Zenobia ,

which ran under the B ouldercontract until 1893, the v arious Z boats have practicallybeen built for the company . The s .e. Zephyrus , by the way, isstill bringing frozen meat from Argentina—though not now on



Don Francisco de Sansinena for the conv eyance of frozen meatto this country . The first live cattle ev er shipped from theRiv er Plate to Europe were carried by a Houston Line steamerand landed at Dunkirk in the year 1884 .

The first steamer of the Lamport and Holt line to carry mea tfrom South America was the Tha les , in 1887 . The Europeanports to which the refrigerated vessels of thi s service now run areSouthampton and Liverpool . With the delivery of the two newtwin screw steamers, Vauba n and Vestris, the service will bea four-weekly one, calling at Lisbon , Vigo, and Cherbourg withpassengers, and Southampton and Liverpool with passengersand frozen and chilled produce .

Messrs . H . and W . Nelson , Ltd . , as managers of two important refrigerated steamship services from the River Plate toEngland, have played a prominent part in the Argentinecarrying trade . Formed in the early nineties

,for the purpose

of carrying frozen meat from Argentina forMessrs . James Nelsonand Sons , Ltd . , Messrs . H . and W . Nelson later contractedwith other meat companies , and fortnightly and weekly servicesare run respectively by the two lines they manage

,the Nelson

Line (Liv erpool ) , Ltd . , and the Nelson Steam Navigation Co. ,

Ltd . , of London . The latter company was formed in 19 10 toacquire from the Nelson Line (London ) , Ltd . , a company registered in the same year, nine new steamers , each of a refrigeratedcapacity of cubic feet, and fitted with ammonia compression refrigerating machinery by the Liverpool RefrigerationCo. ,

Ltd . ,and also a tenth steamer to complete a weekly

service to London . With these boats , which are a most modernand well-equipped type of the chi lled meat carrier, were acquiredfreight contracts with the Swi ft Beef Co. , the La Blanca Cc . ,

the Smithfield and Argentine Meat Cc . , and the FrigorificoArgentine . The first boat run by Messrs . H . and W . Nelsonwas the Highla nd Scot, in which cold air refrigerating machinerywas installed by Messrs . J . and E . Hall.The Royal Mail Steam Packet Co . first entered the refrige

rated trad e in 1883, and the first vessel fitted was the s .s. Tagus .

The mail steamers of the line, which carry meat to Southamptononly

,take twenty-one days from the River Plate ; the cargo



Holt line, was the vessel that brought the initial shipment,

which was on account of Nelson ’s River Plate Meat Co .

The other Argentine freezing works, formed in comparativelymodern times, those of the La Plata, La Blanca, Smithfieldand Argentine, and Frigorifico Argentino companies , despatchtheir frozen and chilled meat to British ports by the variouslines above mentioned . Their shipments to Continental portsare carried by specially chartered British steamers and by theItalian or Austrian-owned liners .The two freezing works in the Straits of Magellan, . at Rio

Seco and San Gregorio, despatch their frozen meat to Liverpoolby the B oulder steamers

,and by other steamers specially

chartered from time to time .

The Venezuelan Meat and Products Syndicate ships its meatfrom the works at Puerto Cabello to Southampton by theRoyal Mail liners

,and to Liverpool and the Continent by the

new s .s. Imata ka ,belonging to Messrs . Brooker Brothers, and

McConnell, Ltd .

Rates of Freight—The usual plan in shipping frozen meaton the steamers in the Argentine trade is for the shippers to

engage a certain spa ce for a definite period . This space hasto be filled on each voyage, or dead freight has to be paid .

The present rate of freight on frozen meat may be sta ted as53d . per lb . for mutton and beef . Chilled beef pays fi at” or

53d . per lb . on the basis of 105 cubic feet to the ten . Frozenmeat stows in about 105 cubic feet to the ton , whereaschilled beef occupies from 170 to 200 cubic feet to the ton .

Long contracts are customary in the Argentine trade, usuallyfor five years . It may be mentioned that there is little shipdamage to meat from South America thi s may be accountedfor by the fact that the whole shipload of meat frequentlyrepresents the loading of one works, or, at most, of threeworks . The average length of voyage of a cargo vessel bringingmeat from Argentina is twenty-six to twenty-eight days to the

first English port .



abattoirs for weighing and grading mea t that the Governmentshould not allow emaciated or poor-conditioned carcasses tobe ticketed with the Government label for export ; that thevans carrying lamb carcasses from abattoirs to freezing worksshould not be overloaded that the existing methods of cartingand lightering meat from the freezing chambers to exportvessels in open wagons and lighters was unsatisfactory ; and soon . Such weak points had existed in the light of day, yetit was only the tireless wielding of such trenchant pens asthat of Captain A . W . Pearse that secured due notice of themisdeeds wrought in the name of refrigerated expert.

The issues with which this chapter is concerned are at timesso involved that the Courts of Law have to be visited in orderto get judicial ruling . From 1880 onwards the insurance offrozen meat has presented peculiar difficulties

,and the under

writer has been slow to adapt himself to the situation satisfactorily to all interests in this new section of his business . Thefrozen meat trade is ev en yet a new one, and before it settlesdown quite permanently into its groove in the commercialworld all the mercantile methods by which it is handled mustbecome more defined and scientifically sound.

Early I nsurance Cov ers.

The pioneer shipment by the Dunedin from New Zealandwas insured at £5 58 . per cent . ,

as stated in Chapter II . , andthe first shipment of the M ata ura in 1883 from New Zealandwas insured for by seven offices at £7 73 . per cent . ,w .p .a . Insurance was effected then by local insurance com

panies . A little later the premium , for all risks policies,reverte d to £5 53 . per cent . By 1886 the export of meat fromNew Zealand had , according to the Otago Marine Underwriters

’

Association, become so well understood that many of the risksincidental to the introduction of the business had entirelydisappeared . Commenting on thi s, the Austra la sia n I nsuranceand Banking Record in 1897 observed that consignees hadnot at that time educated themselves up to their present high

standard in the science of claim making . Generally speaking ,

THE UNDERWRITERS' RISK 147

for the first ten years there was not much to complain about

in the carrying of the New Zealand cargoes ; from 1882 to

1887 , out of 172 shipments only nine were returned as inunsatisfactory condition ,

” that is to say , thoroughly unsatisfactory condition . But the Australian records do not read so

well ; from 1880 to 1887 , out of 127 shipments there werenineteen cargoes on the black list.Steadily in the nineties this unsatisfactory condi tion of

the meat on arrival increased , as will be seen from the followingquotation from the Australian and New Zealand Underwriters’

Association report for 1895 Frozen Meat—It would beimpossible to omit from this report reference to the subjectof frozen meat

,the most absorbing , interesting , and perplexing ,

of the year. Notwithstanding the constant, anxious, andvaried attention given to it, the experience of the past twelvemonths has shown how baffled have been all the attempts madeto bring the treatment of this interest into a satisfactory condition . Vast as is the trade , paramount in its importance tothe colonies, and of momentous consequence to the carryingcompanies

,it must yet be reported that , with all these interests

in combination to make their efforts a success, disappointmentand failure has been the result .Insurance matters continued unsatisfactory till 1895, when

the underwriters drew up and adopted a new clause , whichcleverly met the difficulty of how to exclude certain cold store sin which damage to frozen meat had occurred . Appended tothe clause was a list of approved stores . In the clause theperiod of insurance on the meat after landing was cut down tosixty days as a maximum bone taint was excluded . Butthe passing of this clause did not improve matters , and claimsbecame heavier and heavier . The underwriters thought theywere being victimized by market practices in assessing damage

,

which in those days was done on the market on the basis ofsound values .

” The underwriters considered that highsound values were engineered so as to throw into strongrelief the goods to be surveyed . So they amended the frozenmeat clause once again and fixed thirty days fromship’s arrival as the outside peri od of cover at the same time

L 2


they insisted that the meat should be surveyed,and any

damage assessed in store and not on the market .A market annual for 1897 stated that on the frozen meat

imported from Australia from February to March and fromJune to November a depreciation equal tofid . per lb . oncarcasses had taken place through faulty condition ; out of

forty-six cargoes,twenty-one contained meat which was con

demmed . In the following year 20 per cent . of the meatcargoes arrived in a damaged state .

In referring further to insurance premiums , it may be statedthat in December, 1895, the sailing v essel Hinemoa carriedfrozen mutton and lamb from Melbourne to London

,and then

the rate was 903 . per cent . , with 108 . per cent . extra for theproportion frozen on board . Fifteen months later the samevesse l lifted another cargo, when the rates were 6 53 . net formutton and lamb , and 85s. net for beef.In 1897 the Hinemoa took another loading insured at 908 .

per cent . ,and in March following , the Opawa , also a sailer,

carried meat to Durban insured at £5 58 . per cent . Steamersin the meantime began to cater more for the trade, and withthe growth of competition amongst underwriters rates weregrad ually reduced . In March , 1898, the first frozen meattari ff came into force . The all risks rate on mutton to theUnited Kingdom was then fixed at 478 . Get. for works

,voyage ,

and thirty days’ storage by P. and O . steamers, 708 . by othersteamers and regular liners .

Claims, Surveys, and Allowances.

The adjustment of claims has always been a very sore point .When the surveys and allowances were made on the market ,the importers’ theory was that only when loss was actuallymade in retailing the meat would allowances be claimed if themeat was accepted by retail buyers as sound nothing could beclaimed . But when it was decided by underwriters , in faceof opposition from trad ers , that surveys must be held in store ,the consignees , to protect themselves against possible loss,



Allusion may be made to the proposal put forward byimporters about the middle of the nineties to form in Londonthe “ Australasian Frozen Meat Insurance Co .

”with a capital

of The idea was that cc-operation introduced intounderwriting would provide the panacea required . Many wellknown firms discussed preliminaries, but the affair did not takedefinite shape .

With the opening of the new century improvement tookplace in the general conditions of handling frozen meat throughout the various stages of the industry . A better class of vesselwas brought into service

,fitted in a more modern style some

of the older ships conveying meat were under-powered for the

refrigerating work they had to do . New well-equipped coldstores were built, and transport arrangements at the ports ofdebarkation were also improved . Barges and vans were moreefficiently insulated, and lightermen were instructed to proceedto their respectiv e stores (when the tide permitted) after workat ship

’

s side had finished for the day ; that is, they did not

remain in dock all night waiting for a complete load on thefollowing day . Also on arrival at the store the barges wereunloaded immediately . With these reforms the unsatisfactorycargoes, heard of so much from 1885 to 1899 , were seldomrecorded . The two great Lloyd institutions—Lloyd’s ,the underwriters at the Royal Exchange , and Lloyd

’s Registerof British and Foreign Shipping—played a prominent anduseful part in improving matters . Lloyd’s underwriters at thattime really took little or no interest in the improvementsreferred to—in fact, many of them permitted meat to be warehoused in unapproved stores . Any action that was takenwas at the initiative of the Institute of London Underwriters ,which organi zation is the mouthpiece of Lloyd ’s underwriters .The Institute of London Underwriters required the bargesand cold stores to be surveyed and reports submitted to

them before admittance on the approved list could begranted . Arrangements were made between the shipownersand Lloyd ’s Register for Lloyd ’s surveyors at different world’sports to undertake an inspection of the refrigerating andinsulating fittings of steamers . This examination being

THE UNDERWRITERS’ RISK

concluded sa tisfactorily, the ship was from the point of viewof freezing machinery and insulation seaworthy .

”

In 1908 there were several serious accidents to Australasiansteamers and consequent heavy claims on underwriters . As aconsequence , insurance rate s were put up from 378 . 6d . per cent .to 458 . per cent . from New Zealand and from 508 . per cent . to6os . per cent . from Australia . The insurance position and thefeeling in the trade one sees in the following extract from theannual review issued by Messrs . W. Weddel and Co. for 1908

Until underwriters will differentiate between good and badrisks at the various works

,on the various ships , and in the

various stores engaged in the trade,instead of treating all their

risks as equal,very little inducement is offered to any individual

to lay out money in order to increase his precautions againstdamage . Underwriters have recently taken steps to bringhome to individual shipowners their responsibility for damagedone in transit . Were some similar course adopted to fixresponsibility for specific damage done in any freezing works orstores and adjust rates accordingly, much good would resultto underwriters and to the trade as a whole . With the experience of refrigeration now acquired , there ought to be no seriousdamage to frozen meats , and but little to chilled , except incases where an unforeseen accident happens .”

Underwriters were restless about this time , and in 1909 theyput in force their new clause , which introduced some drasticchanges pressing hard on the trade . They stated that theinsurance of mea t did not pay them , and tha t the new regulationswere brought into the policy to make the business profitable .Negotiations took place between the importers , under theauspices of the Frozen Meat Trade Association, and the Instituteof London Underwriters , but the insurance interests wereobdurate , and the new clause gradually worked into theAustralas ian frozen mea t industry . Some of the changes werewelcomed by all , such as the one insisting that in loading anddischarge only trucks , vans, and barges which were provided

with efficient insulation we re to be used .


The A 1 Clause.

Cnauss s son UNITED KINGDOM SHI PMENTS.

FROZEN Mur '

rON, LAMB , BEEF, VEAL AND Ponx.

Clause A 1—(Freezing Works, Voyage and 60Days) .1 . The risk commences from the time the interest is passed into the Cooling

and/or Freezing Chambers of the Works at and , unless prev iously termina ted,continues on boa rd the vessel and/or in Refrigera ting Stores in the United K ingdom( subject to the conditions hereinafter mentioned) for a period not exceeding60 days (wa rranted notmore than 30 days on board the vessel) from arrival ofvessel atdestina tion as per policy, prov ided always2. Tha t i t is warranted by the Assured tha t the mea t is in good condi tion andproperly dressed, cooled, and frozen at the Freezing Works, and tha t the periodbetween the time the risk commences and shipment on ocean-going vessel shall not

exceed 60days.3 . Tha t where the interest ha s to b e conveyed by ra il and/or street vans and/or

lighters prior to shipment by oversea vessel, such ra ilway trucks and/or street vansand/or lighters must b e insula ted, otherwise an additional premium of 101 per cent.to b e pa id ; and after discha rge from the vessel the interest shall b e carried ini nsulated street vans and/or insula ted lighters, otherwise an additional premium of

10/ per cent . to be pa id.

4. Tha t the cold stores in the United K ingdom shall b e approved by the Instituteof London Underwriters .

5. That any disposal of the interest atdestination other than by storage as above( except with the consent of the Underwriters) or any removal of the interest fromthe cold stores atdestination previous to the expiry of the 60days above mentionedterminates the insurance on such mea t, and no cla im for damage shall a ttach,unless, immedia tely on the first discovery of any damage to or deteriora tion of anypart of the interest hereby insured

,notice shallhave been given to the Underwriters,

and the amount of deprecia tion agreed to by them prior to the termination of theinsurance.

6 . During the period ( if any) between assessment of depreciation and termina tionof the insurance the risks covered hereunder are those of fire and breakdown ofmachinery only .

7 . Tha t in the event of interest being transhipped , or forwarded on to destinationin the United K ingdom by ra il, no risk to a ttach hereunder unless notice of such

transhipment or ra il ca rriage b e given to the London Representa tive of the

Company prior to commencement of such risk, the transhipment or forwa rding tobe only by steamer fitted with refrigera ting machinery or by ra il in properlyinsula ted vans. An extra premium at the rate of 20] per cent. to be pa id forsuch risk.

8. Tha t the value to b e made good in the case of mea t condemned on or a fterarriva l shall in no case exceed the sound ma rket value, less usual charges.

9 . Tha t no adjustment charges shall be incurred unless with the writtenconsent of Underwriters who shall not be liable for survey fees other than thoseof their own surveyors.9A. Tha t in the event of any cla im for loss before shipment, or for damage in

consequence of which the mea t is not shipped, the same shall be adjusted on thebasis of the a ctua l va lues atthe time and place of such loss or damage (plus any



or, alternativ ely, traders will more and more adopt f.p .a .

insurance against the ordinary marine risks) plus breakdown of machinery, which is a. much less expensive methodof insuring .

Renunciation of the Passive Attitude.

For the twenty-five years during which the question ofinsurance has been a, burning one the underwriters hav eapparently considered that claims were out of proportion tothe damage . Until 1909 they made little effort to enforcepractical reforms in the working of the trade

,preferring to

cover themselves by raising rates when the balance was on thewrong side . But in the new clause of 1909 thi s passive policywas departed from . They devoted themselv es , with a view toalteration

,particularly to the consideration of the system

under which consignees in London made claims, and whilst, ofcourse, recogni zing their right to call for surveys on goods

(this is done now practically in all cases, as the thirty days’

cover often runs off before goods are taken out of store,and

the meat owners must protect themselves) , the underwritersdesired to cut down expenses of survey, which were often veryheavy . Their new scale of survey fees charged fromJune ,1909 , was 108 . 6d . per 500 carcasses, 218 . per and 108 . 6d .

for each succeeding beef quarters double the above .

Some of the new rules introduced in this clause of 1909appear somewhat one-sided, but underwriters evidentlythought the position required a.firm hand . The view has oftenbeen expressed that underwriters might have departed , withgreat adv antage to insurers and insured , from their la isserfa irsattitude ten or fifteen years earlier by endeavouring to checkby their policy clauses any faults in the system of handlingfrozen meat which affected their interests . By doing so theywould have taken their part in the building up of a. correctsystem and helped to place the trade generally on a soundfooting . Now,

with the new rules , they hav e brought up thebusiness with a. round turn . The underwriters’ answer tothis is that it is the duty of the merchants to endeavour to

THE UNDERWRITERS’

R ISK 155

discover means whereby their goods can be carried efficiently ,and that the underwriter has no control over the handling ofgoods , and can only gauge his risk by losses and arrange hispremium accord ingly . But the warranties in the A 1 Cla useshow that underwriters can exercise, and have exercised , asalutary and even arbitrary control over the handling of thegoods .”

The incidence of damage to frozen meat, where occurring ,divides itself roughly into three classes first, that which takesplace in the freezing works or during transit to the ship ;secondly, that which occurs afloat owing to faulty refrigerationor defective insulation of the ship ’s holds ; and, third ly, thatoccurring ashore , whether it be during discharge, in transitfrom ship , in the cold stores, or in the general process of transport , handling , and marketing . Under the first head , losses oflate years have been greatly reduced , and in this connectionthere may be mentioned a point which the shipowners make,viz .

, that very frequently in commercial and official statements,etc the damage occurring to parcels of meat subsequent todischarge is attributed to the ship which carried them . Thereason why this is done is because the shipowner is an easier

party to locate than one or other of the various inte restssubsequently handling the meat ; but it is hard on the shipowner as a rule , though there are some defective ships now,

just as there were ten years ago , and also easy-going captainswho take defective meat on board .

Three Different Views of Meat Insurance.

The Shipowner’s View .

—To quote the shipowner ’s ownwords , he says his duty is to carry meat, and that whateverhappens en route is an insurance risk , assuming that he has donehis utmost in appointing skilled officers and engineers, and inhaving his refrigerating plant and insulation tested and passedby Lloyd ’s surveyors representing the underwriters . He onlycharges a carrying rate , not one to include insurance . Theshipper pays the insurance premium to the underwriter tocov er the risks outside actual carriage of meat . In practice ,the latter pays the insurer the loss , in case of damage , and then


attacks the shipowner to recov er the money, although thelatter nev er received any premium for insurance . Thenegligence of the shipowner’s servants is the human fallibleelement which cannot be guarded against entirely . The shipowner inserts a negligence clause in his bill of lading , and he saysthat such a prov iso is in force in all other trades . Under sucha clause

,he maintains

,the ship should not be liable for damage

to frozen meat,subject to the conditions mentioned abov e

a s to care to be taken by the owner . He maintains that thetime has now come for a rearrangement—the shipownercannot stand the strain . He says it is unfair that the underwriter who takes the premium should put thi s risk on him .

The shipowner is willing to do everything reasonably possibleto ensure good carriage, but he says that there is some point atwhi ch his responsibility should cease . He would like to hav ea final certificate that the underwriter accepts the steamer asa good insurance risk , assuming its seaworthiness, before themeat is put on board . Thus he wishes to define the point atwhich the risk of the insurer begins, he and the shipownertaking the meat at carrying rates, and the underwriter takingthe insurance risks . The shipowner suggests that the underwriter should pay more attention to the circumstances of thetrade and to claims relating to damage after the goods leav ethe ship . He maintains that with the present insulation andduplicate system of refrigeration there is notmuch chance ofdamage to meat whilst on board . He proposes that twopolicies should be issued, the one operating from the momentthe meat is receiv ed from the works till delivered ex ship , theother (if necessary ) for the risk of transit and store . Theoreti

cally , this suggestion is admirable , but it is not workable, as itinvolves the survey of all meat as landed, i .s .

, before passingunder the second cover—a practical impossibility .

The Underwrite r’s View.—No shipowner, says he , has been

made liable for any meat which has been damaged en route,

unless it has been shown that the refrigerating machineryhas not been in a fit condition to perform its work before thecargo was put on board . Small claims which he has had tomeet for carcasses being dirty through his men or stevedores



the bills of lading . It is not in the ordinary business of anunderwriter of goods to bear the shipowner’s obligations as

regards seaworthiness . Such risks can be insured,and

,if

the shipowner feels that these obligations are more than hecan stand by, it is for him to take steps to insure against hisown liability and not try to force the shipper into doing so.

The Appeal to the Courts .

This radical difference in point of view as between thecarrier and the insurer of frozen meat is as sharp to-day asfifteen years ago. The shipowner, hav ing done his best toprovide a seaworthy and meatworthy vessel

,proceeds

,

where possible,to contract himself outof liability for damage

that may occur on board by special clauses in his bill of lading .

He cannot do this now with regard to Australia, because inDecember, 1904, the Commonwealth Sea Carriage of Goods Actwas assented to . Under this Act all clauses in bills of ladingwhereby the ship or owners are relieved of liability for loss ordamage to goods occurring on the ship arising from faulty conditions or negligence of employees are rendered null and void .

This sweeping measure settled the question for Australianexporters

,as the Act applies to ships carrying goods from

Australia to places outside Australia . The measure had itsorigin probably in the celebratedNa irnshire case, in which theshipowner contended that his bill of lading covered him againstloss arising from any defects that may hav e existed in the vesselprevious to the loading of the meat . This case was carriedto the House of Lords and went against the shipowner.

Frozen Meat Insurance Details .

In the early days when insuring meat was a new and nu

popular risk (itwas from the first, and is now, unpopular onaccount of the numerous losses made) the premiums chargedwere very high 80a ,

85a ,and 908 . per cent . were not unknown

in the New Zealand trade . Then premiums were lowered to

808 .and 703 . per cent . ,

at which figure they stood for a longtime

.About ten years ago rates were lowered to 65s. and 608 .

THE UNDERWRITERS' RISK 159

Up to that period the business had been done by companies ,both in London and New Zealand ; when Lloyd

’

s took upinsuring frozen meat at the end of the nineties , premiums fell .

From then onwards rates have gradually fallen , with 408 .

as a minimum for mutton . Premium rates have stiffenedfor some time pas t owing to underwrite rs having sufferedloss through the secondary risk , the loss of vessels . There isnow little elasticity in rates , and but slight di fferentiatingbetween firms

,ships , freezing works, etc . A great deal of meat

insurance is done in New Zealand by the local insurancecompanies

,but Lloyd ’s have the greater part of the Australian

business as well as most of the South Ameri can connection .

The large works in Argentina have floating policies both withLloyd’s and the companies . The Thames and Mersey, Com

mercial Union, Indemnity Marine, Ocean Marine, and otherBritish and foreign offices handle a great amount of frozen

Consignees of meat often elect to insure i .p.a but themore general plan—a lmost invariably so in the c .i .f . trade

is to have the ordinary all risks policy . This policy hasthe special frozen meat clause (alread y set forth in this chapter)attached to it ; this does not cover bone-taint . Usually, however

,insurance starts at the freezing works, including freezing

risks, all sea risks , and continues until 30 or 60days after the

mea t is stored . In the last conference clause bone-taint and

improper dressing are specially excluded . Lloyd ’s A 1 Clause,Freezing works, voyage , and sixty days,

” gives a list ofstores at English ports where the meat can be discharged

90 per cent . of Australasian frozen meat is carried under thisclause . The premium for this risk has been lately about 458 .

per cent . on approved covers . F .p .s . cover, including breakdown oi machinery, is issued at about 258 . per cent . ; such apolicy would be for the voyage only, the shipper giving awarranty that the meat was in sound condition when putaboard . A risk adopted by one of the leading New Zealandfreezing companies is to cover 75 per cent . only of the goodsagainst all risks , for which they pay about 403 . per cent .They reinsure the 25 per cent . balance f.p.s including


breakdown ofmachinery,at 153 . per cent . An increasing vogue

in the New Zealand meat export trade is to cover total loss ofvessel only, which can be done for about 78 . 6d . per cent .The mutual clubs formed amongst shipowners for the pooling

of losses have included the frozen meat risk . These clubs have,

however,considered the suggestion that losses falling upon the

owners resulting from frozen meat carriage should be excluded,

because of the heavy drafts upon them in connection with lawcases—these cases were fought by the clubs .The suggestion has been put forward by merchants and

shippers in Australasia and England that underwriters shouldcharge di fferential rates for insuring frozen meat according tothe records of individual vessels in the refrigerated fleet forconveying meat well or imperfectly . But such a proposal isnot workable , some merchants argue, and any attempt , theysay

,to carry it outwould introduce all sorts of complexities

into the business . But it is already done every day inconnection with ordinary cargo insured f.p.a and doescome into operation to that extent in all risks cov er .As it is

,frozen meat rates vary on the di fferent shipping lines .

The Surveyor’

s Duties.

The needs of the frozen meat trade have called intoexistence the surveyor, who is required to possess specialexperience in the meat business and knowledge of refrigerationand cold storage . The surveyor makes his appearance on thescene when the consignee of a parcel of meat calls for a surveyon it . This surv ey takes place in the presence of two surveyors

,

acting respectively for the importer and the underwriter .

They go to the store and inspect a percentage of the meat ,usually 10per cent . ,

sometimes more . Occasionally small parcelsare found without blemi sh , but in a large consignment it isdi fficult to escape some ca ses of injury, and an allowance is made ,at so much per lb . on so much per cent . of the whole

,according

to the results of the inv estigation of the percentage examined .

The surveyors aim at doing no more than to compensate theowner for the difference between the selling value of his damaged



subject . From 15° to 17° F. is considered by them to be the

idea l temperature on land or sea for holding meat in a frozenstate . An exceedingly dry atmosphere accompanies temperatures at or approaching zero F . ,

at whi ch mea t has been carriedsometimes, and this , surveyors say, draws moisture from themeat, rendering it off colour and dull

,besides causing need

less loss in weight . Many importers believe that more damageof this kind is done by frequent and considerable va riations offreezing temperature than by a very low temperature keptfairly constant .A special risk attending the transit of chilled beef may be

glanced at . This is where the rods by which the beef quartersare suspended break

,through the straining of the vessel or

from some other cause . The meat is , of course, injured owingto its falling in a heap on the floor. It is a moot point, inconsidering underwriters’ liability, whether the said rods canbe considered part of the refrigerating machinery of a vessel ,and , therefore, what party has to bear the loss caused by suchaccidents . Thi s chapter may be concluded by drawing attention to the risk of damage occurring through barges conveyingfrozen meat to the up-town stores colliding with other craft .

C H A P T E R X I

cow sross os

ONE of the most important branches of the frozen producetrade is that connected with the cold store or refrigeratingwarehouse , which forms one of the main and strongest links inthe chain of industries uniting the pastures of the producingcountries with the consumer’s table , the ultimate destination ofthe food produce . The chilling or freezing store which formsan adjunct of the freezing works at the point of production isnot the subject of this chapter, but rather the storage depot atthe receiving and marketing end, wherein the frozen meat isdeposited for a longer or shorter time after the vessels havedischarged their burden at the ocean docks . The storekeeperowes his business entirely to the growth of this ov erseas transport, the beginning of which was seen in the memorable pioneervoyage of the Strathleven . The cold storekeeper is a productof the industry . As a rule, the shipowner gives up only partof his space to the carriage of frozen produce, but frozen meat,butter, fruit, etc . , are the storekeeper

’s all in all . Thebusiness he does in the preservation of hops, furs , etc . , though aconsiderable one if reckoned separately, shrinks to small proportions if compared with his legitimate trade, that of thestorage of food produce . The pioneers of the frozen meattrad e and their representativ es in London and Liverpool hadno conception of the gigantic and highly organized institutionwhich the modern cold store was to become . In their tentativeway they shipped forward their meat for marketing in London ,holding very modest views as to the future , and having nofixed ideas as to the necessity of an inte rmediate stage betweenship and mart . The pioneers who survive and can carry theirminds back clearly to 1880must marvel when they contemplatepresent day figures of the cold storage industry in the United

in 2


Kingdom . In London alone the public cold stores have atotal capacity of 2§ million carcasses, or, roughly, about aquarter of the cubic space occupied by a whole year ’s importsof frozen meat into the metropolis .The first experiment in cold storage at the London Docks was

an installation made for the American trade (which began in187 It was a store in which there was a guttering round thetop to hold ice . The first mention of public cold stores inLondon occurred in a paragraph in the City Press of June 19 ,1880. Therein it was reported that at a Corporation meetingit was agreed to let to Mr . Stevenson Nos . 7 to 12, MarketBuildings, Charterhouse Street, for a refrigerated store fortwenty-one years from Midsummer, 1880, at a year .A condition of the tenancy was that the market toll on meatentering Smithfield was to be paid . A Mr . Judd is reported to

hav e opposed the lease , arguing that it was against publicmorals to do anything which would prev ent the getting rid of

perishable meat as quickly as possible . The Court should,therefore , be careful not to start or encourage a new industryfor preserving that in whi ch decay has taken place .

” Probablythis movement for a store—which came to naught , at leastfor the time—was engineered by the market salesmen who wereinterested in the success of the Strathleven venture and by theinterests in the City concerned in the enterprise .

The Dock Stores .

No archi tectural skill was lav ished on the first cold store inLondon , that at A Jetty, Victoria Dock , whi ch was then the property of the London and St . Katharine Docks Co . (later amal

gamated with the East and West IndiaDocks Co . as the Londonand IndiaDocks The company was pressed in 1881 by itsAustralian friends to receiv e and store frozen meat, and in thefollowing year the first cold store opened in London was work

Itwas considered that an underground vault was mostsu itable for holding the temperature ,and such an apartment wasfitted up . A small machine was supplied by Messrs . J . and E .



them atone end close to the roof, and being drawn ofi atthe other end , also close

to the roof, by return air trunks leading back to the refrigera ting machines. Fromthe quantity of snow made by the engines, the a ir trunks had to b e cleared outevery twenty-four hours, and the engine snow-boxes about every four hours.

"

Subsequent to the establishment of the stores mentioned,the East and West Indi a Docks Co . provided stores upon twofloating hulks

,the Seawitch and the RobertM orrison ; these

craft together stored sheep , and they were moved fromdock to dock as required

,one of them also making a trip with

a cargo of meat from London to a French port . These floatingstoreswerefollowed by stores situated on land in the South WestIndia Dock , wi th a capacity of sheep , and it is said thecompany then felt that a ll the requirements of the tradehad been met . Docks policy, howev er, has expanded with thetrade, and the dev elopment of the docks stores has kept pacewith its growth ; the 500carcasses capacity of 1882 have become

in 19 1 1 , including the store at Smithfield . The dockcompanies and their clients always emphasized the advantageof storing frozen meat at the point of discharge , and for a longtime after the start of the trade held a large part of the storingbusiness . The dev elopment of cold storage as a public servicewas largely due to the companies, and their schedules of

charges and regulations form the basis of business to this dayto a great extent . The dock stores were taken over by the Portof London Authority in 1909 .

The Smithfield Market Store .

About 1883 a London cold storage company was promotedand duly registered , the names of Messrs . James Anning ,E . Montague Nelson , Alfred Seals Haslam , Ebenezer Gayford ,and Alfred Towers being associated with the venture . It wasstyled the Dead Meat Storage Cc . , Ltd . , and had a capital of

Messrs . Cayford and Towers had been granted alease of the v aults under the Poultry Market, and these it wasproposed to turn into a cold store equipped with Haslam ’s coldair machinery . The Dead Meat Storage Co. , howev er, did notproceed to operations, and was dissolved by notice in the

London Ga zette in 1890.

COLD STORAGE 167

The concession , however, was taken up by the Centra lMarkets Cold Air Stores , Ltd ., a company formed in 1884

with a nominal capital of Among the subscriberswere Messrs . E . S . Houlder, E . Cayford , Thomas L . Devitt ,Joseph Moore , C . E . Green , John Be ll , and Alfred Towers

(managing director) . Mr . E . Penman was also associated withMr . Towers in the management of the store . The secreta rywas Mr . H . E . Kaye , who retired in 1890 and is now themanager of the Blackfriars Cold Storage Cc . , Ltd . The appear~

ance of the names of so many important shipowners on thesubscribers ’ list of this cold storage company is inte resting asmarking early recognition by the Australian shipowninginterest of the commercial importance of the coming trad e .

The company was wound up in 1901 . This store , that is , inthe vaults under the poultry section of Smithfield , was nota success

,its failure , however, being by no means due to

the Has lam refrigerating machinery installed , which workedwell , but to defective insulation . Adapting the peculiarconditions of these underground spaces to refrigerating work wasprobably too grave a problem for the refrigerating engineeringknowledge available twenty years ago .

In 1898 a prominent group of market tenants subscribed thenecessary capital , and the Smithfield Market Cold Storage Co .

was formed to take over this property . The title of thiscompany was in the following year altered to the LondonCentral Markets Cold Storage Co. , Ltd . , and its premises at thattime comprised the original section under the Poultry Marketand the imposing building erected in King Street, adjacent tothe market buildings . A few years later this company acquireda portion of the Midland Railway Co .

’s depot at Poplar, andcompleted the building as a cold store with an entirely newrefrigerating installation , thus ad ding to the importance of thecompany in its relation to the service for the Central Marketsby having a dock and receiving depot upon the river entirelyat its command . From this depot at Poplar specially constructed insulated motor vans reach the market stores in onehour . The new building in Charte rhouse Stree t facing thepoultry section of the markets was acquired in 1905 . These


efficiently equipped stores together form an important partof the London cold storage system , more particularly in

relation to the business of the London Central Markets,as

they are actually a part of the market structure . The samecompany has recently acquired depots at Liverpool (two) ,Nottingham , and Chesterfield . Its stores have a capacity of

about carcasses . Mr . J . H . Geddes was the leadingspiri t in the organization of these stores, and he remainedmanaging director of the company till his death in 1908

,

Mr . William Hawkins succeeding him in that position .

Nelson Brothers’ Stores and Depot.Messrs . Nelson Brothers , who had been using the dock stores

in London for their importations of frozen meat up to 1885,in

that year opened what might be called the third of the threepioneer cold stores

,in the arches under Cannon Street Railway

Sta tion , and the effect of this was to lower charges for storageof meat . The Tyser Line from New Zealand to London startedits refrigerated traffic two years late r, and the competitionset up reduced freight charges . Little experience in coldstore construction was av ailable in those days , and the effortsof architects and builders in thi s connection were accordinglycrude . The following description of Nelson Brothers ’ earlycold store is interesting . Under Cannon Street Station therewas a central arch extending from Thames Street to the river

,

and from it other arches ran at right angles . From the centralarch as a corridor the other arches were closed in and insulated .

The door in the centre of each arch had a trapdoor throughwhi ch carcasses were passed into the chamber, and throughwhich they were delivered, the main door hardly ever being

opened . At the riv er end of the central arch was a landingplatform , alongside which barges from the docks were unloadedthe carcasses were passed up by hand into trucks and run alonga tram line to the chambers . At the Thames Street end werethe loading platform , scales, and offices . Trucks filled at thechambers were run up to the weighbridges and loaded intomarket and railway vans for the country . (This store was in

1898 sold to the UnionLCold Storage Co . and re-modelled . )



this care , combined with as little handling as possible , savesdamage and consequent insurance claims . These stores passedto the Colonia l Consignment and Distributing Company in1895 .

The store at Nelson ’s Wharf was designed to facilitate thecompany’s country business, and the spacious floors are usedfor assembling

,packing , and despatching the frozen meats

distributed throughout the Provinces . Various labour-savingappliances are used

,notably cutting machines (Nelson-Dicks

patents) , which separate the parts of a sheep swiftly and evenly,ready for packing

,where joints are required . With regard to

the Smithfield part of the company’s business, the meat isconveyed by van to the Central Markets during the night .When required for Smithfield the carcasses are repackedon the trucks , raised to the delivery floor, passed over a weighbridge , then on to a lift, and lowered to the loading platformand carried into the vans . Two De la Vergne ammonia compression refrigerating machines and one Haslam cold airmachine are installed

,the Haslam machine

,the older plant,

being used only occasionally . There are nineteen hydrauliclifts and hoists and ten miles of refrigerating pipes in thebuildings . There are five storage floors

,each divided into

three sections, in the arrangement of which the bay systemis used . An idea of the working facilities may be gatheredfrom the fact that a cargo of carcasses of meat has beenreceived and housed in less than four days . To concludereference to the features of the premises, it may be added thatrecently some disused cellars were turned into a miniature riflerange, which is v ery popular with the staff .

The Union Cold Storage Company’s Stores.

The group of cold stores owned by the Union Cold Storage

Co. ,Ltd . ,

is world-wide in its ramifications . There are storesat London , Liverpool , Manchester, Hull , Glasgow, as far as theUni ted Kingdom is concerned , and in connection with theRussian-Siberian butter export bus iness, the Union Co . has

opened large cold stores at St . Petersburg , Riga, Koslofl , and

COLD STORAGE 171

Kourgan. The combined capacities of the UnionCo.

’

s cold storesrun into millions of carcasses , and , according to the company

’sstatement, would comfortably hold at any time more than ayear’s total shipments of mutton from New Zealand . Indeedthe Union cold stores grapple with a storing business which isby far the largest of anything of this nature in the world—a

notable instance of the pre-eminence of British enterprise .

Some thousands of tons of ice per week are also manufacturedby this company .

There are now about shareholders in the Union ColdStorage Co.

, Ltd . , and the net earnings work out at the rateof per annum for every carcasses storagecapacity (say cubic feet ) of the undertaking , beforetaking into account management , head office expenses, anddepreciation . The Union cold stores do such a miscellaneousbusiness that all the well-known systems of refrigeration a re

employed and the machinery of most of the principal makersis used . The capacity of the refrigerating machineryinstalled at the company ’s various stores exceeds a totalrefrigerating power of tons per day of twenty-fourhours . The company began operations in 1893 in Liverpoolin 1896 their first London store was started

,at Blackfriars

,

and by rapid strides, as the result of the closest study ofall the problems connected with the new industry

,the

Union cold stores grew to their present far-reachingestablishment .Of late years extension of the Union Co .

’s enterprise has forthe most part been abroad , except in the direction of takingover existing cold stores in England , which had been erectedby public authorities and others . Amongst these were , about1898, the old cold stores of the Colonial Consignment andDistributing Cc . , under Cannon Street Station , London , E C ,

and later the cold stores of the North Eastern Railway Co. atHull and the cold stores of the Scottish Cold Storage and IceCo . ,

Ltd . , at Glasgow . During 19 10 the Union Co . acquiredthe large cold stores and ice factory on the Albert Dockbelonging to the Liv erpool Riverside Cold Storage Cc . , Ltd . ;

this had been run by a group of local merchants , who after


more than ten years had grown weary of contributing to itsrunn ing expenses without receiving dividends .

Other Cold Stores : London and Country .

To the above accoun t of the growth of public cold storagein London there should

, to make complete the reference toLondon cold stores , be added mention of the large storesowned by the sev eral meat importing companies, e.g. ,

Borthwick ’s

,Eastman ’s

,James Nelson and Sons

,the Riv er Plate Fresh

Meat Co. , and Sansinena’

s . But thi s chapter has in detailtreated alone of cold storage erected for the use of the public .

It is evident that competition in the public cold store businessis running fiercely nowadays, and that in the big centres of

population where thi s competition exists , only those coldstorage enterprises whi ch are erected, equipped , and managedon the most modern lines and in the most businesslike way canbe successful commercially .

The meat trade has been mainly respons ible for the growthof public cold storage in the v arious towns throughout theKingdom ,

though in most cases the public store owner is Opento receiv e other produce than meat . There are now ov era hundred towns provided with public cold storage

,and about

one hundred and sev enty public cold stores in these centres,establishments of a capacity from one or two thousand up to twomillion cubic feet, which is the total capacity of the stores atSouthampton of the International Cold Storage and Ice Co. ,

Ltd . , the biggest cold store in Europe . Although in themajority of cases the stores are controlled by proprietors orcompanies trading in this business alone, a considerable numberof the stores are owned by individual traders or tradingcompanies carrying on business as merchants and making theprovision of refrigerated accommodation for others an auxiliaryto their business . Thirte en towns hav e mun icipal cold storage .



following September in first-rate condition . Such procedure ,however, is risky, the ordinary experience being that sixmonths’ freezing makes frozen carcasses bleach . The generalquestion as to how long frozen meats may be kept in coldstore, with regard to loss of quality and appearance, and thestructural and other changes which take place

,is one for

scientific men and trade experts . Experiments,mainly in

poultry, hav e been made in England, Australasia, and America ;essays and articles without number have been penned, yetthere is still to seek a statement sufficiently clear for the nonscientific mind to grasp and explicit enough to use as a guidefor business men .

Reaching the Store.

Much , of course, depends upon the conditions attending theactual transit of meat to the cold stores . In the case of up

town stores, that is , the refrigerating warehouses other thanthose connected with the docks, transit is made by insulatedlighters to the stores situated on the riverside

,and by insulated

lighters and vans to those situated inland . The principaldock stores of London are situated in the Victoria and AlbertDocks, and have working capacities equivalent tosheep . So far as concerns the stores in the Victoria and AlbertDocks , some of the meat is conveyed thither by insulatedlighters from the Tilbury Docks

,but the bulk is received from

steamers di scharged in the docks . The principal railwaysrun alongside these stores

,and meat is delivered direct to

railway wagons for di stribution in the provinces . Deliveryis also made at night for the market

,but as these stores are

situated at a considerable distance from Smithfield ,orders

must be given some hours beforehand , so as to allow time forconveyance and delivery into the market . The inconv enienceexperienced in these arrangements led to the construction of theWest Smithfield stores be longing to the Port Authority , whichhave a capacity of carcasses (they are to be supplementedby another store in the vicinity of a capacity of carcasses) , and, being adjacent to the market, permit of delivery

THE STOREKEEPERS' DUTIES 175

being obtained at ca ll . Conveyance to the West Smithfieldstores is usually made direct from steamers by insulated vans .The owners of the meat decide on the arrival of the ste amersthe stores into which they require their shipments placed , and,of course , they are guided to some extent by the probable disposal of the meat . There are also stores in the West India andSurrey Commercial Docks .The large white insulated vans that convey the frozen meatto Smithfield ’

s portals hold about 120 sheep ; the ordinaryriver barges take from to sheep , but some will takeconsiderably more . Mea t is not usually weighed on deliv eryto the store

,but when it is sent out, and there is occas ionally

an inte rmediate weighing over for the convenience of thecustomer . On meat being received at the store , the first thingto do is to stow it according to marks , readily accessible for

delivery .

Marks .

About sixteen years ago the multiplicity of markstrouble became acute the storekeeper was asked to keepseparate the various small lots of carcasses represented by thesub-marks—50 sheep , five sheep , and so on . The separation ofthese lots involved an enormous waste of storage space , and , tomeet the difficulty, a line was drawn at 100 carcasses , or 400

pieces of mutton or lamb , such as haunches, legs, and shoulders ,as a minimum . Any parcel under 100 carcasses or 400 pieceswas , and is now, charged one-third additional . Say, for example ,the charges under the (old) management rate of 208 . 9d . a ton fortwenty-eight days for some rent on 50 sheep amount at theusual rates to £2 53 . The parcel would be charged one-third

extra , or £3 , and so on , and the same practice for the same reasonhas recently been extended to beef, the line being drawn at apile of 30 quarters .If several sub-marks belong to one consignee , he may havethem piled together, in order to av oid the one-third extracharge , but the marks would be mixed, and would be deliveredas they rose from the pile .

Frozen beef is piled in store similarly to mutton and lamb .

Chilled beef, which is hung on books , is sent to the cold stores


to a far less extent than frozen beef,but with the greatly

increased importa tion of chi lled beef from South Americathe need for chilled, as opposed to frozen , storage has increased .

The chi lled beef steamers are used as stores until thebalances of the shipments have to be cleared

,according to the

state of the market . There are chambers for chilled beef atthe Victoria Dock stores , which have recently been increasedfrom a capacity of to about quarters .

Cold Storage R ates .

Like all the other charges in the frozen meat cycle, the coldstore rates have fallen considerably from the original jd . per lb .

per 28 days in the very early days of cold storage . According to a schedule issued by the docks store in November

,1883

,

the charges were as follow

Receiving from ship, conveying to stores , rent for one week Rent per week or part ofand deli very was a week a fter one week.

Per 1b . Per lb .

When a reel consisted of less than 1 ,000carcassesFor t a first 400or lessOn a ll between 400and 1,000

When a parcel consiste d of carcasses ormoreFor the firstOn all b etween 1,000 and 2,000 .

On all in excess of

Several conditions as to minimum charges were set out. InJuly

,1884 , the docks store rate was fixed at 8d . per carcass for

storage for forty-eight hours from breaking bulk ; whenseveral marks are imported in the same ship ,

”9d . rent after

forty-eight hours , 11nd . per cwt . per day . Weighing , ifrequired

,was charged for at 5d . per carcass . In March, 189 1,

the management rate,

”

gd . per lb . (203 . 9d . per ton ) , cameinto force , and practically no change, except the application

of the one-third additional charge, as already explainedhas taken place in twenty years .l After twenty-eight daysstorage the rent is now §d . per cwt . per day, but with theproviso that the rent to be charged never exceeds 5d . per 1b .

1 This chapter was written before the labour troubles , and the rise in wageswhich followed in 19 11 caused an increa se in the 208 . 9d . management ra te . It is

possible tha t in 19 12 the question of cold storage charges atthe docks will be revised .



av erage ordin ary dividend for 1909 of twenty of the principalcold storage companies in the Uni ted Kingdom was slightlyover 5 per cent . , and would hav e been appreciably lower thanthis, did the calculation not include three particularly successfulconcerns whose ordinary dividend averaged 15 per cent . Thebusiness of ice manufacture was also included in most of thecompanies whose dividends formed the basis of this calculation . The largest stores of all, those of the Port Authority ofLondon , are not, however, included , because no separatereturns of this department of its undertaking are issued bythe Authority .

In 1888 the cold storage space available in London and Liverpool was only equal to the accommodation of carcasses ,and in 1894 London ’s cold stores could only holdFrom that date cold store construction went ahead rapidly .

In 1895 the capacity of the cold stores of London was equal tocarcasses

,in 1900 to carcasses , in 1905 to

carcasses , in 19 11 to carcasses . Readersconsulting Appendix V will observe that the available storagespace at the chief ports of Great Britain , other than London ,is equal to accommodating carca sses . For the lastten years or so storage space has been readi ly obtainable inLondon , with the exception of 1909 , a year of low values andheavy storage, when for some weeks the stores were congestedfor four or fiv e days in August they were absolute ly full .The chief problem which a cold store proprietor has to solve

is how to keep his store as full of produce as possible . (In theseremarks only the frozen meat department of the business is dealtwith , but, of course , there are many other kinds of perishablemerchandise, stored at varying temperatures . ) One reasonwhy the cold storage proprietor likes to hav e his chambersfull of frozen produce is because of the assistance rendered bythe goods in keeping down temperatures ; a half-fun storerequires more engine power than does a full one .

R esponsibilities and R isks .

One might hav e expected , with the advance of cold storage toa position of considerable importance among the mercantile

THE STOREKEEPERS ’ DUTIES 179

industries of the United Kingdom , especially in London ,that some legislation would have accompanied the movement . A good many nice questions must arise

,but

apparently all matters causing friction between cold storecustomer and warehouse keeper are settled in accordance withthe customs of the trade that have gradually encrusted roundthe industry . It is a ssumed that cold stores come in a generalway under the Warehouseman ’s Acts , and legal proceedingsconcerning the responsibilities of proprietors would be ente redunder common law . The custom of “ general lien , whereby, inthe event of non-payment of cold storage charges, a cold storeowner has legal claim on goods held all goods held by thesame customer, and not merely on the specific goods inrespect of which charges are due) , was formally established

in the cold storage industry in 1902 by the Cold Storage andI ce Association , this society taking the necessary steps bypublic resolution and adv ertisement .What are the responsibilities to his client of the cold store

proprietor ? They may possibly be summed up as follow .

His stores are inspected by the underwriter’s surveyors,

and , if passed , are certificated as approved . All theresources of modern science are drawn upon in the cons tructionof the buildings and the installations of plant and appliances

,

and a skilled and efficient staff is provided to work the business .The meat while in course of being put into store is externallyinspected , while here and there a shirt is cut for making aninte rnal inspection , and any imperfections seen are recordedand the owners informed of them in the “ landing account ,

”

or earlier if necessary . The cold store does not hold itselfresponsible for any loss of condition which may take place inmeat warehoused . The proprietor provides cold air—atabout18

°F . in the case of frozen meat—and he keeps temperature

logs day and night . If he deliv ers the goods for which he has

given a clean receipt , he says that by taking reasonable carehe has done all that can be expected of him . Any damageto meat in store is the merchant ’s or his underwriter

’

s, notthe warehouse keeper’s , concern . Of course , if too hightemperatures were proved to be due to neglect, that would

N 2


be a di fferent matter, but the ordinary gradual depreciationin the condi tion of meat accompanying storage cannot beinsured against after sixty days .Meat in store is covered by the marine policy current for

thi rty days , occasionally for sixty , and before this runs out theunderwriter’s surveyor has inspected the meat, and any allowances for damage have been agreed upon . The only otherstore risks against which the owner of the meat can then insureare fire and breakdown of machinery .

” The exactsituation is stated in the following paragraph from the dockscold store tariff The Port Authority will not hold themselvesresponsible for the condi tion of the meat stored with them

,

nor for any loss which may be sustained through failure ofmachinery or otherwise . But they will render all assistancein their power in the investigation of any question which maybe raised , provided that the meat is not removed from thestores , and the investigation takes place on the same day asthat on which the question is raised , or at the latest on thefollowing working day .

”

To continue this part of the subject in some detail, it maybe useful to giv e the clauses printed on the receipt form of oneof the London cold store companies

l .—The Company will use every endeavour to keep the goods in sound condition ,

b utwill notbe responsible for loss or damage to goods stored, through ma inta iningtoo high or too low a tempera ture in the stores, fa ilure of machinery or plant , fire,vermin , or any other cause wha tsoever other than theft. In case of fire, storage ispayable to da te.

2.—Goods a re only received subject to a general lien for all charges accrued and

accruing aga inst the storer , and if not removed a fter seven days’ notice has beengiven to the storer, or sent by post to his last known address,may be sold to defraythe lien and all expenses incurred.

3 .—Transfers are allowed subject to a general lien on the goods transferred for

all sums due from the original storer.4.—Where the Company do ca rta ge, it is understood they are notliable for any

loss or damage which can be covered by I nsurance, and those interested , in ta kingout Policy , must efiect same without recourse, as the Company do not acceptresponsibility for insurable risks.5.—The Company will not be answerable for any delay, loss or damage arising

from combina tions or strikes of any persons in their employ or in the service of

others, nor for any consequences arising therefrom.

6 .—The Company has the right to remove from the premises, if necessary with

out notice, any goods found to be of an offensive na ture, or such as will dama ge


CHAPTER XIII

THE GREAT SMITHFI ELD MARKET

THE London Central Markets , from that fateful day in February ,

1880,when the 40 tons of frozen meat ex Strathleven

were sold at 554 . per lb . to the present time , whentons of chilled and frozen meat are handled annually at thesa lesmen

’

s stalls , have played an all-important part in the riseof the frozen meat industry . Smithfield has been the arbiterwhose verdict the farmers , graziers , and estancieros of thelands in the South hav e awaited wi th expectant and anxiousfeelings . But the response of the great London market wasnev er in doubt . Whi lst the producers of frozen meat havebeen ab le to build up an immense trade with the co-operationof Smithfield ,

the salesmen were quick to perceive what boundless possibilities were opened up to them wi th the coming of therefrigerator and the transport of the sheep and cattle in frozenform from the Australian runs . So they welcomed the Strath

leven’

s cargo and the meat from New Zealand and Argentinaas it came along in 1882 and 1883 .

For the last thirty years Smithfield has taken the frozenmeat trade under its wing , and, the greatest of markets in thegreatest of cities

,has impressed the imagin ation of the Austra

lian and New Zealand meat exporters to a remarkable extent .No institution connected with the realization of merchandisehas been so much discussed and keenly criticized by its supporters as has Smithfield . Smithfield scandals ,

”Smithfield

rings ,”

Smithfield practices —these and other topics of likenature have furnished interesting material for the newspapersand public speakers miles away full many a time andoft . The relations of the great market and its customers haveprovided frequently cause for friction , and Smithfield itselfoften comments, in no gentle tones, upon the methods of her



the frozen meat trade . The more legitimate frequente rs ofSmithfield are buyers (wholesale dealers , butchers , retailers ,restaurant and hotel proprietors), and, of course , the importersand agents .To some degree Smithfield has lost its importance of late

years . In the hope of bettering distribution , the Americans , andsome of the distributing firms handling frozen meat

,established

depots at Croydon , Kingston , Richmond, Reading, Brighton,Bournemouth , etc . , and at these depots meat is sold thatwould have been formerly handled at Smithfield . In the process of decentralization which is being applied to the frozenmeat trade the London Central Markets suffer severely, and ,instead of accompanying thi s great industry in its rise

,Smi th

field ,as far as the proportion of its pitchings to the total frozen

meat trade of the Kingdom is concerned, is not advancing .

Importers sell ex store or ex ship considerable quantities offrozen meat which formerly would have been brought into themarket, and the purlieus of Smithfield are dotted with theoffices of importers’ firms whose interests to a great extent areinterdependent with that of the Central Markets . Changedmethods of business, the dev elopment of c .i .f . and ex storebuying by the large meat retailers , direct shipping to outports,and sundry other influences, hav e checked the volume ofimported chilled and frozen meat passing through Smithfield

from keeping pace with the tota l trade in frozen and chilledmeat . Although the markets ’ total operations have increased ,the percentage of the total imports of these meats marketed atSmithfield has steadily fallen from 6 5 7 in 1882—1886—thebeginning of the frozen meat era—to 41 in 19 10. The managersof the markets are sore about this

,and regret to find that

Smithfield’

s di stributiv e area is now practically confined tothe metropolis . In former days its area reached as far asBirmingham , and salesmen now in Smithfield could tell usthat they have supplied customers in Edinburgh . Nowadaysmuch more meat comes to London from the country than goesfrom Smithfield to the Provinces . Australasia has not beenfaithful to Smithfield . North and South America ha v edefaulted too. Grouping together the last two sources of



being devised for the great commodity of the Realm (as itwas then thought ) , hath since proved far otherwise

, for beforethat time a fat ox was sold at London for six and twentyshillings and eightpence at the most, a fat wether for threeshi llings and fourpence

,a fat calf the like price, a fat lamb for

twelvepence pieces of beef weighing 2; lb . at the least , yea ,3 lb . or better, for a penny on every butcher

’s stall in this City ,and of those fat pieces of beef thirteen or fourteen for twelvepence

,fat mutton for eightpence the quarter, and one cwt . of

beef for four shillings and eightpence at the dearest .” Therewere then 120 butchers in the City and suburbs, and of theseevery one killed six oxen a week , which is in forty-six weeks

oxen,or 720 weekly .

” The foreign butchers for a longtime stood in the High Street of Lime Street Ward on the northside twice every week—viz . , Wednesday and Saturday andwere some gain to the tenants before whose doors they stood ,

and into whose houses they set their blocks and stalls ; butthat advantage being espied they were taken into Leadenha llthere to pay for their standing to the Chamber of London .

These references are from Stow’s Survey of London . In16 3 1 a writer

,Howes , gives RuflEians

’ Hall as a cant namefor West Smithfield , on account of its being the usuall placeof frayes and common fighting during the time that sword andbuckler were in use .

” The Corporation appear to have claimed

market tolls in the fifteenth century . One of the features ofthe riotous St . Bartholomew ’s Fair was the enormous sale ofroast pork , and beef sausages came into fashion in 1750, atabout which time it is noted that the average weight of oxenwas 370 lbs . , and of sheep 28 lbs . The Fair was closed in1830 the Corporation bought the Bartholomew Priory rightsin 1850. Smithfield was then the market for live stock andthe dead meat mart was at Newgate Market

,which was

close by .

Smithfield Market in 1853 .

An article in the Qua rterly R eview, June, 1854, The LondonCommissariat ,

” by Dr. Andrew Wynter, presents the liv e

THE GREAT SMITHFIELD MARKET 187

stock market of Smithfield very vividly, and the followingextract is made

Wha t they do see in reali ty, if they have courage to wand their way along any ofthe tumble-down streets approaching to Smithfield , which the grea t fire unfor

tunately spared, is an irregula r space bounded by dirty houses and the raggedpa rty wa lls of demolished ha b ita tions , which give it the appea rance of the site of arecent conflagration—the whole space comprising just six acres, iiitecn perches,roads and public thoroughfares includ ed . Tha nks to the common sense whichhas at length lifted up its potentialvoice, the days of Smithficld are numbered, andthose who wish to see this enormous aggregation of edible quadrupeds before i ttakes its departure to its spacious new abode atCopenhagen Fields must notdelaythe vis itmuch longer. The best time is ea rly in themorning—say , one or twoo'

clockoi the “ grea t day,” as the last market before Christmas-day is ca lled. On thisoccasion, notonly the space—calcula ted to hold oxen and sheep, bes idescalves and pigs—is crammed, butthe approaches a round it overflow with live stockformany hundred feet, and sometimes the ca ttle are seen blocking upthe passage asfar as St. Sepulchre’s church. The mea t itself sufiers in quality , for anythinglike fright or passion is well known to afiect the blood , and consequently the flesh.

Beasts subjected to such d isturbances will often turn green within twenty-fourhours after dea th.

The same writer,after careful examination of all the sources

of supply, gives the following estimate—in those days there wereno exact statistics—of the butchers ’ meat consumed by the

people who formed the population of the capital in1853 . Dr .Wynter values these marketing stock at

Beasts. Sheep. Ca lves.

Newgate Mea t Ma rketLeadenhall Mea t Market

Live stock broughtto London

Total supply of live stock and mea t toLondon in 1853

These animals were brought from the neighbourhood ofLondon , the country parts of England , Scotland , Ireland ,and the Continent, and were handled partly at the markets andpartly by the carcass butchers throughout the metropolis .


Smithfield Ma rket and its Supplies.

The whole district is rich with material for the tourist andantiquarian ; the site of St . Bartholomew

’s Pri ory on thesouth and the Carthusian Monastery on the north are hard bythe present markets . Shakespeare wrote of Smithfield ,

andDickens’s Nicholas Nickleby reposed in this neighbourhood

,

at the Saracen’s Head , which hostelry is still in existence . Asa popular encyclopsedi a puts it, Smithfield of old was available for jousts , tournaments , executions , and burnings .

”

Tremendous congestion prev ailed in these districts,which were

filthy and criminal beyond description,and in 1851 a Roya l

Commission was appointed to report as to what should be done .

A scheme was adopted under which the live stock markets andslaughter-houses were taken away to Islington and Deptford

,

and the new London Central Markets, the largest dead martin the world, were opened in December, 186 8, for the sale ofmeat

,poultry

,and provisions . The centre of Old Smithfield

is now laid outwith an ornamental garden and fountains .The first part of the Central Markets was a huge

parallelogram covering 3% acres, with 162 shops . Themarket was a success from the start, and was soon followed bythe erection of the poultry section , Opened in December, 1875 .

In 1879 the fruit and vegetable market was begun,to be

followed by the fish market, now termed the Smithfield MarketAnnexe and used as a meat section . Last, but not least, theextension, which is now entirely giv en up to frozen and chi lledmeat

,was opened in 1889 for general trade . The western

most section of Smithfield was nicknamed the JapaneseVillage because of the somewhat Japanese style of theoriginal decorations .The London Central Markets as a whole now occupy aboutten acres the main building , bounded by Long Lane on thesouth and Charterhouse Street on the north, stretches 600feet east and west by 240 feet north and south . The buildingis in the Italian style with Mansard glass louvre roof ; thecentral avenue is 27 feet wide , and there are six side avenues .

Each shOp is about 36 feet by 15 feet, and behind every shop


THE GREAT sm'

rnvmw MARKET 189

is an enclosed counting-house with ofiices above. The marketsare strictly wholesale , except on Saturday evenings , when a

few of the employees conduct a retail People’s Market .”

There are at present 340 tenants holding 344 holdings andgiving employment to about persons . The toll (28 . 3d .

per ton) on meat, etc ., in 19 10 came to and the sta ll

rents to The total capital expended on the marketsby the Corporation to 1909 exceededThe growth of Smithfield Market, which means the growth

of the imported meat movement, is seen at a glance in thefollowing table, extracted from the annual report of theSuperintendent of the Market, Mr. H . W . G . Millman

Origin or sources of supplies in terms per cent.

imported productions , C hilled orWeight of m m”

The average daily pitchings of meat at the Central Marketsduring 19 10 were mutton and lamb carcas ses ,quarters of beef, and pork carcasses .An exceedingly interesting chapter of Smithfield ’

s historyis opened up when we examine the efiectproduced upon thegreat Central Markets by the coming of chi lled and then frozenmeat . For the five years prior to the Strathleven ’

s arriv al,

meat produced in the United Kingdom was 86 per cent . of thewhole quantity marketed at Smithfield ; the 14 per cent.imported had grown to in 19 10. This drop of 56 percent . in the proportion of home supplies in the thirty years has ,of course , involved a complete change in the methods of the


market . (It must be noted that these percentages of homeand imported meat supplies apply to London only . For thecountry as a whole the figures are

,approximately

,for beef and

mutton home produced,6 35 per cent . imported

, 36 5 percent . , equal to 88 7 lbs . per head of the population per annum . )When frozen meat first appeared , the small quantity of meatimported was refrigerated Am erican beef and Dutch andFrench mea t ; there were large consignments from France ofall sorts , calves sheep , etc . , and the beef was of very goodquality . In country districts frozen meat has satisfied anewly-created want

,but in London it has—by its excellence

and cheapness , and its appeal to the seven million consumerswithin twenty miles radius of Smithfield—been graduallysupplanting other kinds of meat .By about 1883 frozen meat had become so important on the

Central Markets that the Corporation had to make specialprovision for it, but even then that body failed to grasphow indispensable an auxiliary cold storage would prov eto be to the meat trade and the market—hence it missedits finest opportuni ty of becoming the cold storage authoritywithin the area of its market rights . The market salesmen took the incoming of the Australasian and Argentinemeat with great calmness ; gradually more discriminationwas exercised as to quality, brands , etc . , as frozen meatbecame a force at Smithfield . The more enterprising ofthe salesmen of the markets Opened their arms gladlyto the produce of the South ; many firms saw the potentia lities that lay in the new business , took it up 'on a properscale

,and did well . At first only a few salesmen went into

the business,but by degrees frozen meat penetrated farther

and farther,and now it has conquered nearly the whole market

and has become absolutely necessary to the majority of thetenants .

The American I nv asion .

This may be a fitting place to write of the American inv asionof Smithfield and what came of it . Mr . T . C . Eastman was



that they did not get a very square deal with some of theSmithfield salesmen .

” There were difficulties between theAmerican importers and some of their salesmen . At any rate

,

the former made up their minds to sell their own meat . It ison record that the Morris Beef Cc . , whi ch has three shops , pa idfor the goodwill of one, the stall whi ch belonged to Mr . EdwardPoole, for another, the Venables stall, and

for the third, the one acquired from Messrs . Jenn ings .The Hammond Beef Co . has two stalls on the market Armourshold four stalls . By the Combinations in the Meat TradeCommission it was put to Mr . Woodrufi

'

that Swifts (who holdsix shops at Smithfield ) in 1901 paid for the goodwillof one of the stalls they acqui red , transferred by Mr . Frost .To the same Commission one of the American witnesses saidthat the Americans hold about 5 per cent . of the Smithfieldstalls—that would be seventeen . These stalls just referred toare stalls run in the name of the companies, or partners . Butit is constantly said and suggested in letters to the Pressthat the Americans are interested in shops nominally heldand conducted by other parties, and that if the truth wereknown it would be found that they really control a large numberof shops at Smithfield .

Administration of the Market.

The control and management of the Central Markets is vestedin a committee of the Corporation consisting of six aldermenand twenty-nine commoners ; no tenant of the market is per

mitted to belong to the committee . The chairman of the committee in 19 11was Mr . James Rowland Brough . The rule excluding tenants is of comparatively recent origin , and is constantlybeing attacked on the ground that a committee of managementskilled , as to its personnel, in every mercantile business exceptthat of handling meat must of necessity be incapable of athoroughly efficient, just, and sympathetic administration of

London’s great Central Markets . Considering how vast andhighly complex the operations of the Central Markets are, andthe number and variety of interests involved, it does appear



going on the market . Such a claim would practicallyinv olv e payment Of toll on every carcass imported intoLondon and would be a tax on the food supplies ofthe metropolis . The Corporation also desired to make bylaws to control the Operations of wholesale dealers and agentswho transacted business with Smithfield salesmen . This pointis dealt wi th in the following extract from one of the suggestedb y

-laws Any person not being a tenant of the markets

who shall , in the markets or their approaches , hawk or ofi'

er‘

for

sale any goods , or solicit or tout for or take any order forany provisions or marketable commodities

,shall , for every

Offence , forfeit and pay a sum not exceeding What wasmeant by approaches is understood when it is mentionedthat

,under the old charter

,the Corporation took the term to

include a radius of sev en miles from the Central Meat Markets .These claims were really a protest against the system whichhad grown up of deliv ering frozen meat ex store suchmeat , instead of, as formerly, being brought into the market,would be sold there by sample , on brand, or otherwise, and thebulk would be despatched from cold store . Probably, theCorporation in making these claims were actuated to somedegree by the knowledge that not a jot of the enormous profitsmade occasionally in the transfer of Central Avenue sta llsfor the good will —to American houses came its way. Andas to the second part of its new demands ,

the Corporationobjected to the Market being used as an open exchange, forbuyers and sellers—notbeing tenants- to meet there and dobusiness . It was necessary that the Board of Trade should

grant permission for the suggested b y-laws to be added tothe Central Markets ’ constitution , and at this point the FrozenMeat Trade Association

,after having , in conjun ction with the

Agents-General for Australasia and other trade associations ,resisted the proposals , lodged with the Board of Trade a comprehensiv e statement Of Objections to certain Of the by-laws .The Board of Trade was to hav e held an enquiry into thesuggested by

- laws, but the inquiry was postponed at therequest of the Corporation in 1905, and has not taken place tothe present time . The course adopted by the Association was


successful in blocking the proposals of the Corporation in ageneral way , though some change was from that time mad e in

the form of tenants’ agreements to cover the Markets Com

mittee’

s claims in this matte r Of tolls . Onc efiect of theCorporation ’s claims to penalize persons (non-tenants ) whoattempted to hawk or “ tout ” in the markets was to

cause firms who did the sort of business aimed at to establishthemselves in offices round the market in West Smithfield .

This had been going on for some time , and the possibility ofcumulative £5 fines made firms get a stand outside the market .The whole matte r has now narrowed down into arrangementsbetween the Corporation and its tenants, and where the agreements (which vary in different parts of the Market) admit ofsuch action , the Corporation exac ts toll from tenants on allmeat sold at their stalls whether delivered from the stalls orfrom outside cold store . The episode is interesting as a prote ston the part of the Corporation of London against the decentrali

zation of the chilled and frozen meat trade from the Central

Markets .

Getting the Meatto Market.

Insulated vans convey the meat from the dock stores to themarket . The cold stores begin loading up meat for Smithfieldat about 10 p.m . , and the vans reach the market about 3 am .

the following morning . The salesmen and their staff arriv ebefore 4 e .m . , at which time the retailers begin to come along ,all in a hurry to get their daily supplies for London ’s flesh-foodneeds .There are several toll offices outside the market, and each

v an-load of meat is weighed , and the toll (2s . 3d . per ton ) paid tothe clerk , who giv es a pass , which is handed to the policemanat the portals of the great Smithfield market . The meat ishome on the backs of stalwart market porters to the variousshops or stalls these porters are strenuous persons ,and stand not upon the order of their going . To meet in fullcareer 9. porter laden with a 200-lb . quarte r Of hard beefis to experience a knock-out . Sample carcas ses of the

0 2


different qualities and weights are unclothed and hung up on

the salesman ’s hooks, the bulk being stripped for examinationby buyers when purchasing . In this way from one carcass to200 carcasses are sold at a time , a ccording to the requirementsof retail buyers , who consist of suburban butche rs , representativ es of the large stores, Government contractors , restaurantkeepers , etc . The retail buyers may also purchase joints ,pieces or oddments ,

” and some of the Smithfield stallholdersmake a speciality of cutting up carcasses to oblige their cus

tomers . In the chi lled beef trade rumps and loins arevery commonly cut from the hindquarters for the West-endbutcher . The buyer negotiates swiftly—there’s no time towaste at Smithfield i—and if a bargain is struck , woodenskewers are stuck in the carcasses, which are forthwith againshouldered by the porters and carried to the waiting v an ofthe buyer, or, perchance , to one Of the two railways whichrun underneath the market.

Market Methods at Smithfield.

The keen purchaser frequently buys on the brand he usuallyinspects the tag attached to the carcass to satisfy himself as tothe sub-marks for quality and weight . The suburbanbutcher often likes to secure Canterbury brands

,and sees that

the ticket is left on the carcass so that he can , if necessary,show his customers that he is selling genuine Canterbury meat .For all comers the salesman is prepared ; he wi ll sell you ashoulder Ofmutton , a dozen kidneys , or 500 sheep , for he catersfor one and a ll.”

The rule in settling in the Central Markets is a week’s credit .Credit is giv en for longer terms in some rare cases , but thefrequency of bad debts in the market of late years has limitedthi s practice, and the salesman now pulls his man up verysharply if he fails to pay promptly .

It is only to be expected that the biggest meat mart in theworld has complexities which would prev ent the onlooker who

cursorily regards its Operations from getting to the bottom of its

methods . Its salesmen are divided , roughly, into sections ,



overrule to some extent the question of the cost price of themeat . Smithfield Market

,with its vastness and multiplicity

of interests , is large enough to make a study Of the influencesthat determine the market price of the day a subject as elusiveand as deep as it is attractiv e to follow . As a rule, a jobberdoes notpay toll on any meat bought inside the market , theimporter having paid it ; but on meat , etc bought outsidethe market the jobber has to pay toll, though it is necessaryto qualify this by saying that the practice depends on theterms of purchase .

The Americans are doing a lotof harm to the jobber . TheirOperations make it difficult for him to exist , and the day maycome when the jobber will be almost eliminated . He has tobe a very smart man indeed

,and has to watch the market with

lynx-like eyes to secure his turn .

” He is essentially aspot operator .The term di rect trader may serve to describe the position

of the third class . The man who buys liv e stock (the carcassman and brings the carcasses to Smithfield for sale on his

own account, and the c .i .f . buyer of frozen meat, fall into thiscategory , as they get very near the producer . But the Smithfield tenants who form the majority of this division are thelarge firms of importers who distribute from Smithfield . in awholesale manner, or sell to their co-stallholders . TheAmerican houses and the companies in the Australasian andSouth American trade, although they may do at times commission and jobbing business

,are a very distinctive class Of Smith

field tenants, and one likely to increase .

Prices for the Day .

The meat prices vary from day to day and, in times ofmarketexcitement , from hour to hour. It is not easy to understandand expla in how these rates come to be fixed in and acceptedby a market of such enormous proportions and div ergentinterests . Retailers going from stall to stall could tell us thatwonderq y little v ariation exists in the ideas as to the day

’sprices on the part of the salesmen . It used to be imagined in


New Zealand that prices for frozen meat were settled day byday by the Smithfield ring ”

1 The slighte st knowledge ofSmithfieid

’

s business shows that a ring cannot exist—itcould were frozen meat a market by itself and in the hands ofa few. But New Zealand frozen meat is only a small percentageof Smithfield

’

s pitchings , and has to take its place alongsideEnglish , Scotch , American , Dutch , Australian , Argentine, andother meats . It is impossible to mention all the factors workingautomatically towards current meat prices . We feel it inthe air,

” said one of the salesmen , when asked how the markettenants arriv ed at the morning ’s prices . A few Of the moreobvious influences may be mentioned . First, Of course , anychange in the public demand for meat, favourable or unfav ourable ; retailers ’ buyings would be affected by this , and theweather has a curiously potent (not altogether sentimental )effect in causing the butcher to purchase briskly or cautiously .

Then would come the controlling factor in the situation , thesupplies of meat—not only frozen meat, but all sorts , for thedifferent descriptions act and react upon one another, and theprice movements of superior kinds strongly affect the wholemarket . The salesman knows roughly the quantities of meatwarehoused in London , and the expected imports , and he learnsfrom the carriers the bulk to be pitched on the market on ace rtain day . Argentine chilled beef, very sensitive as to value,powerft influences market prices . The state of generaltrade in the country has its effect . The salesman, with all

these currents and influences around him , weighs the generalcircumstances of the meat market and arrives at a roughidea of the marketing value Of his meat . Of course thereis much come and go in the business . If , for example , heconsiders that the factors promise well , he will test his buyerswith a penny per stone rise on the market rates of the previousday. Finding his sales checked , he drops his price again anhour la ter, but if sales continue fre ely , he may try for a furtheradvance . The same general principles

,presumably , apply to

Smithfield as to all other open markets and exchanges , thefluctuations in price being intensified in the case of meetbyrea son of its perishable nature .

CHAPTER XIV

REACH ING THE CONSUMER

THE retail sale of frozen meat puts the whole industry to thetouch . The New Zealand farmer, the Argentine estanciero,the Queensland grazier

,have in mind the fancies of the English

meat-buying public in breeding their animals for freezing .

The whole of this business , with its enormous invested capitaland widely extended mercantile links

,depends as to adequate

financial return upon the favours of the British consumer .Engineers burn the midnight Oil in designing new andeconomical machinery and plant for freezing works , ship , andcold store . Shipping and railway systems are changedespecially to serve the needs of the transport of frozen meatmarketing and mercantile methods swiftly adapt themselvesto its di stribution . All these processes await their crucial testat the butcher’s shop . Of course

,the butcher is not now

a butcher, but a meat retailer, and the frozen meat trade hasbrought about the change .

The retail meat trade in England is divided into two classes,the butcher who kills his animals in his own slaughterhouses,and the meat purveyor who purchases his stock-in-trade inthe markets . The latter class

,with which thi s chapter is

concerned, is again split up into three sections . There is the“ family trade man who sells meat of the highest qualityobtainable he runs accounts, and has often to give long credit .The mixed trade man giv es some credit, but his businessis mostly on a cash basis . Then there is the Colonial ” orcutting trade—all cash business . The family trade shopmakes its principal show at the beginning of the week, themixed trade shop at the end ; as for the

“ cutting shop ,there ’s no show at all . Immediately the frozen meat goes intostock, there it is cut up hard and bright .



have showed him that frozen mutton has been sold as homeproduced

,of which he surely

,as well as the English farmer,

has a right to complain,and police court prosecutions have

revealed the practice Of inferior frozen meat being palmed Off

as Canterbury or New Zealand .

” The New Zealandgrower has desired above all that the article he produces shallnot lose its identity when it reaches the shop stage, and hebitterly resents the fraudulent use of the description NewZealand in the selling Of frozen meat . But the improvementthat has taken place of late in the quality of South Americanand Australian mutton tends to lessen the grounds for theNew Zealander’s complaint in this connection . According tothe oft-stated opinions of all practical men in the meat tradeof Great Britain , New Zealand mutton has steadily deterioratedin quality in recent years, chiefly because New Zealand hasdecided to dev elop her lamb trade at the expense of mutton .

The keen demand for lambs for freezing has tempted farmersto ship many of their most promising young animals insteadof keeping them for breeding stock .

Schemes , of whi ch there have been many, have in the pastbeen framed mainly in order to give shippers the benefit ofretail profits . To give an instance , there was a very elaboratedraft scheme, dated 1887 , for selling New Zealand mutton andlamb in twenty shops, to be Opened in fifteen of the mostimportant centres of Great Britain . It was proposed to invest

in the venture,and to turn over carcasses a

week . A respectable profit was counted upon , but the scheme,intended to conserve the retail selling returns for the NewZealand interests, nev er got beyond paper.With regard to proposals in this di rection that were carried

to completion , a bold mov e was made in 1899 by the Christchurch Meat Co. in inducing Mr . H . Woodley to open up atQueen Street, Cardiff , a shop for the sale of choicest Canterburymutton and lamb . The shop was fitted Up in an attractiv e style ,with agricultural scenes pictured on the tiled walls . Thisenterprise was a joint affair between the company andMr . Woodley, but after a few years the business was taken overentirely by the latter . The venture was not intended in any

REACHING THE CONSUMER 208

way to compete with the company’s c .i .f . buyers , but, on thecontrary, was intended to assist them by advertising thechoicest qualities of New Zealand meat . This action of theChristchurch Meat Co . in giving up their interest in the Cardiffshop showed that the directors came to the conclusion that itwas not their business to run the retail trade , and no doubtthis is the position wisely taken up by the managers of theAustralasian meat works in general . Another v enture con

nected with the retail sale of the highest qualities of NewZealand meat and other produce was that ofMr . H . C . Cameron ,who opened the New Zealand Produce Stores in Mancheste rin 1894 . He brought New Zealand meat successfully beforecla sses of Manchester consumers who had been accustomedhitherto to see lower grades of frozen meat vended in by nomeans attractive shops . This business was taken over in1898 by Messrs . W . and R . Fletcher, Ltd .

An ambitious scheme was propounded in 1903, when theBritish New Zea land Meat and Produce Co. , Ltd . , was formedin New Zealand with a share capital of Quotingfrom the prospectus , this company was formed for the purpose of supplying direct from the producer in New Zealand to

the consumer in Great Britain and elsewhere New Zealandmeat

,butter, cheese, and other produce .

” Many leading menconnected with the meat export industry helped forward thefounding of the company

,which had the blessing ofMr . Seddon,

Prime Minister . A prominent feature of the proposals wasthe adoption Of a defrosting process . The capital was reducedto of which sum something under was paidup . When business was opened in London , four suburbanshops were taken . It was discovered , however, that therewere too many butchers in London to allow of the originalscheme being carried out with success , and at the present timethe company’s retail business is confined to only one shopatFinsbury Park . The company has , however, settled downto ordinary importers ’ business , and now,

with a wholesalestall in Smithfield Market Annexe , conducts a profitable trade .

The first dividend, 6 per cent. , was paid in 1908, no dividends

having been earned on the retailing business .


The idea that. money could be made by meat producerstaking over the retail selling of their own frozen meat has beenvery widely held in the past . About eight years ago par

ticulars were forthcoming concerning a bold venture in thisdirection . A company was to be formed with a capital of

of which was to be devoted to the purchaseof 400retail meat shops

,being for preliminary expenses ,

and for working capital . It was estimated thatsheep and cwts . of beef would be turned over

weekly, say, cwts .’

of meat per annum . The cost priceof meat was put at 3d . per lb . all round, and selling at 4d . perlb . left an annual gross profit Of over net profitclose on The author of the prospectus, a practicalmeat man , pointed out that this sum paid a handsome dividendon capital and left a substantial surplus . The principle ofbusiness adopted by the great London stores was to be introduced . Close attention was to be given to the utilization of

the inferior parts Of the carcass by having them sent to thecompany’s shops in poor districts . The promoter wroteOur line of policy will be to transfer the goodwill Of localshops from the local shopman to the company .

” The estimatesand the plan of campaign in thi s case were all worked out mostclosely . What one had to take for granted, it may be presumed ,in order to arrive at the a year net profit

,was that 400

suitable shops could be acquired and manned , and the wholerevolutionary system Of management set going as smoothlyas a clock is wound up . Nothing came of the scheme

,but

its deta ils are mentioned here,as they possess features of

interest .Of course , one of the recognized difli culties of running

multiple meat shops is the unreliability of the employees,especially in the case of businesses of a casual kind . Howev er,the failure of a ll attempts on the part of New Zealand andAustralian meat producers themselv es to carry out theretailing of their meat is due to a deeper cause , and can onlybe attributed to the fact that a good farmer makes a badtradesman

,even as , Of course, a good tradesman would make

a bad farmer . English and Scotch farmers for the past fifty



of these tendencies need conv ince one that the public are losingtheir taste for j uicy and tender mutton , which is far morepopular in the British Isles than on the Continent of Europe

,

where,generally

,mutton is notfancied .

One reason why frozen mutton has not made its way sothoroughly and successfully into the better-class houses is

,

probably,because to a great extent it is cooked without

sufficient hanging . Frozen meat has no chance at all unlessthe frost has been entirely remov ed from the carcass or thejoint . Frequently the meat which was in the cold store on

Friday morning is in the citizen ’s ov en on Sunday the jointis bound to be tough . One cannot be surprised at the dislike

for frozen meat which would follow the consumption of such anindigestible joint Many retailers thaw outthe meat properlyby various means , but some do not . The matter is one wellworth taking in hand with a view to the education of thepublic . Unfortunately, when frozen meat has been wellthawed out and has been hung - till it has become ripe

,it is

apt to be unsightly in appearance . On account of its excellent eating qua lities, frozen lamb , therefore, commands a specialfield in the retail vending ; neither frozen mutton nor frozenbeef approaches it .It must he confessed that frozen mutton is not as reliable

an article as frozen lamb , and one of the reasons why theformer has not become as popular with the public as lamb isbecause of the shipment of secondary and inferior grades

,and

of ewe mutton sent from Australia and New Zealand and

now beginning to arrive from South America . New Zealandis losing her mutton trade in Great Britain to some degree .

Plate mutton, bright and of excellent quality, and arrivingregularly

,is getting to be preferred by the retailer

,and

threatens to command the markets . It is maintained by theEnglish meat merchants and experienced market men thatfrozen mutton is somewhat lacking in flavour and tenderness

,

and that shippers should be content with their mutton occupying a secondary place in the markets of Great Britain theysay that the intrin sic merits of the meat are indicated by theprice which it fetches on the wholesa le markets . They dismiss

REACHING THE CONSUMER 207

the idea of prejudice , pointing out that the word is outwornand ridiculous when Great Britain uses over frozencarcasses annua lly and asks for more . But there can be no question that for the first ten to twenty years afte r the Strathlevenlanded her cargo the force of prejudice acted as a considerabledeterrent to frozen meat enjoying the degree of popularity towhich its good qua lities and cheapness entitled it

,prejudice

manifested in the servants ’ hall—at the instigation of thebutchers—and the suburban snobbishness because frozen meatwas not considered the proper thing .

”

The Retailing of Beef.

Speaking of the average frozen meat shop , pure and simple ,in England , it is obvious that its style and fittings generallyare capable of much improvement . Many visitors fromAustralasia and other countries remark about this . Something is wanted to make the shops brighter and more attrac tive .

With regard to frozen beef,the retailer has not found this

a very popular class of meat in his trade . That, at any rate , iswhat he says . Probably , the far better appearance of thechilled beef from North and South Ameri ca has crea ted someprejudice against the frozen quarter ; the dampness in the aircondensing upon the exposed surface of 200 lbs . of beef causesthe rather unpleasant phenomenon popularly styled weeping .

” These things , however, are but externals , and no one

questions the intrinsically good quality of the frozen beeffrom New Zealand and Australia and South America .

Frozen beef is mainly retailed at the cutting shops , thoughthe better parts find their way into the mixed trade . Thechea p rates at which this beef has been wholesaled must havemad e it an extremely useful article for the retailer, and thepublic who have bought the enormous quantities importedhave also obtained the maximum of nourishment at minimumprices .

With the coming of the Argentine chilled beef about thebeginning of the nineties , the working Of the frozen meat shopsbecame immediate ly easier . Never was any development in


the food import trade more welcome ! Though the NorthAmerican supplies Of refrigerated beef were a necessity to themeat trade in thi s country, the suppliers themselves wereunpopular, and it was with great joy that wholesale and retailmeat men in Great Britain saw plentiful quantities of chilledbeef arriving from South America . Chilled beef from theUnited States of America is too high in price for the cheapershop to cut, but the retailer is able to sell good joints ofArgentine chi lled at moderate prices and work this meatconveniently with his frozen mutton and lamb trade . It isstated that frozen beef has come more into favour since theRiver Plate has been such a large shipper ; this is probablyowing to the regularity of shipments and steady annual increasewhich have marked the exports .

Counting up the Retailers.

A useful conclusion to this chapter wi ll be some figures togive an idea Of the numbers of shops in Great Britain—we maysafely exclude Ireland—atwhi ch the meat produced at home,and on farm , station , and estancia overseas is sold . Thereare reta il butchers in the United Kingdom . Thenthere are the stores—there are about in the UnitedKingdom—and the provi sion and grocers’ shops which also sellfrozen meat , as well as the stalls in streets and marketsand in country towns on market days, and also the humblecoster, who must not be forgotten . Noth ing in the shape ofan accurate calculation can be made , but one may suggest thatthere are not less than establishments in the UnitedKingdom at which fresh meat is vended . One has it on theauthority of Mr . Heap

,president of the National Federation

of Meat Traders’ Associations,that 80 per cent . of imported

meat is sold by firms who sell nothing else. A list of themultiple shop concerns handling frozen and chi lled meat only,with the number of shops

,was prepared for the purposes of thi s

book , but it was found impossible to ensure anything likeaccuracy. Brief allusion to this branch of the subject may,howev er, be made in stating that Messrs . James Nelson andSons

,Ltd . ,

run about shops in the United Kingdom ;



frozen meat shop pioneer in Great Britain . The first directorsof Eas tmans, Ltd . ,

were Lord Greville,Messrs . George Scheibler,

H . Scott Ritchie, Russell Monro, Henry Bell , James Bell, andJames John Thomson

,managing director . The business of

Messrs . Bell was started in 1827, and registered in 1888 as alimited liability company

,the whole Of the shares being held by

members of the firm and their managers—their turnover from1878 to 1888 was over £17 It was in 1879 that Messrs .Bell began to open up meat shops in Great Britain , and at thetime of the amalgamation they had 330 shops in the BritishIsles . In 1900 the whole Of the American business was discontinued ,

and the property sold, and from that time onwardEastmans , Ltd . , have devoted themselv es to their shop trade,in supplement to which they have a wholesale Smithfield con

nection . The 330 shops in 1889 have now increased to overthe company have cold store depots at London , Glasgow,

Dublin , Liverpool (two ), Manchester, Leeds , Newcastle, Bristol,Chatham, and Sheerness , capable Of holding carcassesof mutton . Eastmans

,Ltd . , are very extensive buyers ofNew

Zealand mutton and lamb,and they handle very considerable

quantities of frozen and chilled beef from all parts of theworld .

References to James Nelson and Sons, the retail meat shopsof which house, scattered up and down Great Britain, formthe great rivals of Eastmans

,Ltd . ,

appear on p . 80.

Mention , too, may be made Of the part which Messrs . JohnRose and CO. took in the retail distribution of Canterburymutton and lamb . In this department of the trade theyranked as early pioneers (see p .

The Argenta Meat Company,Limited

,is an important

undertaking running a number of frozen meat shops in thenorth . It has been from its beginning an excellent customerfor the highest grades of New Zealand mutton and lamb , andits shops are amongst the best class of retail meat establishments , where imported mutton , lamb , and beef are sold . Thecompany was started by Mr . G . J . Ward and Mr . WilliamRushworth , and the first shop was Opened in Oldham in 1895 .

CHAPTER XV

Paovmomn nrs'rarsu'

rron

As the successful marketing of frozen meat depends largelyupon careful handling and efficient and rapid distribution , itwill be well understood tha t the comparative merits of ports ofdestination for frozen meat shipped to Great Britain havealways been the subject of considerable controversy . London

,

with its huge population,its pro-eminent railway facilities ,

and, generally , its overwhelming importance as compared withother centres

,has always occupied first place as a centre of

distribution for frozen mea t . Twenty-one years ago out of a.total import into the United Kingdom of carcasses offrozen mutton and lamb

,London received eleven

years ago out of it took and in 19 10 ittook out of a total import for the United Kingdomof carcasses . So in 189 1 London was credited with71 per cent . of the total importations, in 1901 with 6 7 percent . , and in 19 10with 6 6 per cent .If minimum handling were the only consideration in getting

frozen meat to the consumer, it is probable that direct shipmentto the various chief ports round our coast nearest to thedistricts of population would be a method difficult to argueagainst, and with certain of our large provincial ports thistrad e has developed to a very large extent in the last few

Quite early in the frozen meat campaign , in 1886 , vesselsfrom the River Plate were directed to Liverpool , which portquickly became the chief distributing centre for Argentinemutton . In 1902 over carcasses were landed there

,

against at London, but of late South America haslargely increased her London landings . Argentine meat is

r z


landed at Cardiff, Manchester, Bristol, Glasgow,Southampton

Hull, and Newcastle, as well as at Liverpool , but the Merseyport has been the great distributive headquarters for thenorth of England of the importers .Had Australia and New Zealand—e specially Australia—been

able to arrange for the regular despatch of vessels to Liverpooland other ports in the early days of the trade

,no doubt

importers of Australasian meat would have put up a fightwith the Plate companies in those markets . But the Austra lasian shipping services made London their destination ,and refrigerated and other produce from those Coloni es has ,in consequence

,been despatched to, and largely handled in ,

London . In 1892, however, arrangements were made for

Australian and New Zealand mutton and lamb to be consigned direct to Liverpool

,and from that year to the present

time the outports have been used by Australasian shippers .

The volume of business was,however

,quite small till 1904

,

when the West Coast steamer serv ice was started fromNew Zealand to Liverpool, Cardi ff, Avonmouth , Glasgow,

andManchester. In 1907 and 1908 about a million carcassesyearly were shipped direct to those ports from Australia andNew Zealand, and by 19 10 the totals had grown to over

According to the statistics published by the LondonCentral Markets Commi ttee

,during the twenty-nine years

,1880

to 1908, tons of frozen meat have been importedinto Great Britain from Australasia, and of this totaltons

, 722 per cent . , have passed through Smithfield market .This percentage is now, however, lessening year by year.Probably

,increasing quantities of Australian meat will be

shipped to the provincial ports , but London will always remainthe most favourable centre for selling New Zealand meatand the higher grades of frozen mutton and lambs fromSouth America and Australia .

The question of the comparativ e adv antages in shipping

to the various ports could be discussed at great length ,

but as this would be to little purpose here, the discussion need

not be entered upon further than to say that it would seemthat London and Liverpool are fated long to remain the chief



Liv erpool.

The claims of Liverpool as a meat centre require no supportit is the second port of the Uni ted Kingdom , and its shipping ,cold stores , cattle lairages , markets , and railways comprise a vastand excellent receiving and distributing system . The leadinglines Of foodstuffs brought to Liverpool in twelv e monthstotal about in value . In 19 10

, quartersof frozen beef from South America were landed there

,while in

1890only about quarters reached the port . In 19 10also,

chilled quarters from South America were imported ,and lamb carcasses from the same source . The lambsimported into Liverpool from Australia and New Zealand in19 10 numbered and carcasses respectively

,

and mutton carcasses and respectively, whilefrozen beef from the Antipodes was imported to the extentOf quarters from Australia and from NewZea land .

Liverpool is well provided with cold storage accommodation,

its seventeen stores having a total capacity of more than twomillion carcasse s of mutton . A glance at the map will showthat eight of these cold stores are situated either at, orin handy access to , the line of docks for which the port isfamous .As regards the actual landing facilities for frozen meat at

Liverpool , most of the steamers carrying frozen meat dischargeat the North end of the docks , and this is most suitable forthe consignees of the meat , owing to the close promixity ofthe principal cold stores to the Canada, Brocklebank , Langton ,and Alexandra Docks, where unloading usually takes place .

The meat is discharged from the steamer’s hold by meansof large canvas slings on to the quay, under a covered shed ,where it is sorted and delivered according to mark . Duringthe last year or eighteen months a considerable number ofinsulated vans have been built by cartage contractors for thepurpose of conv eying the meat from the ship’s side to coldstores or railway depot, a distance Of only from about half ami le to a mile . The handling of the meat on the quay is

PR OVINCIAL DISTRIBUTION 215

undertaken by the maste r porte r. He , in many instances, isonly a nominee of the steamship companies , which arrange theirown discharge and employ their own men on the quay to

deliver to consignees .

At several—but not all—Of the discharging berths allocatedto frozen meat steamers, railway lines have been laid down bythe Mersey Docks and Harbour Board to enable refrigeratorcars to be run alongside for the loading of the meat direct fromthe steamer . The meat is discharged on to trucks

,and these

are run across the Dock Board’s shed to the railway line,where the meat is then loaded into refrigerator cars . If meat

,

however, intended for despatch to provincial markets cannotbe loaded in railway vans alongside the steamer, it is usuallycarted in street wagons to the nearest railway depot or coldstore , and loaded up there in ordinary or insulated railwayvans

,according to destination .

A few railway rates in force from Liverpool to variousconsuming centres will illustrate the Mersey Port’s positionin this connection . There is a 2-ton rate Of 22s . 6d . per ton

,

delivered , to Bradford, Leeds , and Sheffield, and 118 . 8d .

(station to station ) to Manchester. The 4-ton (owner’s risk

rate ) to Glasgow is £1 per ton , while the 5-ton rate, delivered , tosuch towns as Newcastle-on-Tyne , North and South Shields ,and Sunderland

,is 328 . 6d . per ton . The ste amer rate to

Belfas t is 158 . and to Dua 22s. 1 1d . per ton . The railage toBirmingham is 258 . per ton for 3-ton lots .

Manchester.

With the completion and opening in 1894 of the ManchesterShip Canal , and the erection of cold stores in Mancheste r and

on the Canal , enthusiastic efforts were made to establish adirect trad e between Australia and that city . A beginningwas mad e in 1895, when the sailer Ti

'

xma ru took carcassesfrom Geelong , Australia, direct to Manchester . The mea t wassold c .i .f . at 23d . per lb . to local buyers , and opened out insplendid condition . However, the River Plate importers, withthe avowed purpose of discouraging further direct imports


from Australia, lowered their price for mutton to 21d . andunder—thus causing the Manchester buyers of the Australianmeat to make a heavy loss . Though the claims of Manchesteras a suitable port for the direct import of Australasian frozenmeat have been advanced with great pe rsistency, the prospecthas not been inviting enough to induce the shipper

,the shipping

companies , and the mercantile interests in England, to landAustralian or New Zealand meat on the Ship Canal wharves

,

except to an insignificant extent .The Port of Manchester

,for port it must be called, with its

Canal facilities,vies with London as a centre of population

,

as within a twenty mile radius of Cottonopolis thereis a population of nearly eight millions . This centre

,too

,has

specia l cold storage equipment which is worthy of note .

On the Ship Cana l is a large refrigerated transit chamber,for

the sorting of frozen meat and produce before delivery to

railway wagons or carts . This chamber has a capacity ofcubic feet

,and is certainly an excellent prov ision , con

stituting that feature of cold storage equipment which hasbeen advocated far and wide by those who study the idealmethod of handling big lines of frozen produce imports .There are also at Manchester good facilities for storing frozen

produce . At Weaste,on the Ship Canal , there is the large

store of the Colonial Consignment and Distributing Co. , now

leased and managed by the Union Cold Storage Co . Its

capacity is carcasses , and alongside large steamers canbe berthed and discharged . The Union Co . also has cold storesin Miller Street , Manchester, with a capacity of carcasses the Manchester Corporation has within easy cartage distance from the docks cold storage accommodation forcarcasse s of sheep alongside its extensiv e market and abattoirs .The Corporation abattoirs and meat market , together with theircold store , are second only to Smithfield ,

London , and the dailyhanging of meat is greater than in any market in the Kingdomexcepting Smithfield . The municipal cold store is situatedconv eniently for the v arious markets Of the city . At theForeign Animals Wharf and Lairages at the Manchester Docksthere is accommodation for cattle and sheep , with



are about 200 shops dealing exclusively with thi s article , andone firm of importers, Messrs . H . Woodley and Co. ,

who run anumber of retail meat establishments, may be mentioned asbeing identified with the trade from the eighties to the presenttime. There is a call for an immense quantity of frozen meat

,

as well as rabbits and butter, in the Cardiff district , and regulardirect shipments would expand the trade .

The Cardi ff district includes the densely populated coalfields

of South Wales , which are , as far as provisions are concerned ,absolutely non-producing . Barry is included in the port ofCardi ff

,and has large up

-to -date cold stores alongside thedock ; Newport , twelv e mi les off, also has large cold storesclose to the railway stations . In both of these towns the publiccold stores are owned by the Cardi ff Pure Ice and Cold Storage

Co. , Ltd which has very extensive refrigerated accommoda o

tion, consisting of carcasses in Cardiff, inBarry, and in Newport . The managers

,Messrs . Neale

and West,have been associated with the development of the

direct imports of Argentine and Australasian frozen meat eversince these began , ov er twenty years ago . Cardiff is a finecentre for the distribution of refrigerated provi sions of all

sorts, and Australasian exports of this character might withadvantage be sent direct to that port to a greater extent thanis now the case.

Bristol,at the Avonmouth Docks, has provided considerable

up-to-date facilities for the import of frozen meat . Its first

supply of cold storage was , as a matter of fact , to aecom

modate the Canadian provi sion trade, for which a smallstore was erected in 1896 . It was in 1904 that the

Federal-B oulder-Shire boats began to call at Bristol and

land some of their New Zealand frozen mutton and lambat Av onmouth ; and as the trade proved too large for theexisting store another of similar capacity was provided byinsula ting a portion of the upper floor of a transit shed on thewest side of the Dock . In 1907 the importation of frozen meat

PROVINCIAL DISTRIBUTION 219

into Avonmouth began from Australia, and direct shipmentsfrom the River Plate in 19 11 have helped to make the BristolDocks Committee decide upon doubling its cold storageaccommodation .

The method of discharge of frozen meat at Avonmouth is asfollows . The meat is lifted direct from the hold of thevessel and delivered into the reception air-locked chambers

,

six of which serve the cold store . These air locks arenot much used for sorting purposes ; the meat in themajority of cases as it comes from the steamer is sorted asit passes through the small door in the end of the store . Theair locks are useful , however, for sorting purposes if the storesare crowded , and in addition it is possible in cold weather tomake use of the air locks as a storage chamber . The coldstore itself is alongside the steamer’s berth , so that exposure ofthe mea t between the ship ’s hold and the cold store is reducedto a minimum by the method of working referred to . Deliveriesfrom cold store are made by shutes direct into refrigeratorrailway cars , which are loaded under cover .

Glasgow .

The imports of frozen mea t at the port of Glasgow during1911 showed considerable dev elopment

,and the prospects at

this outport for shippers in the Southern Hemisphere arequite favourable . It is true that quantities of frozen meatlanded at Glasgow prior to and during 19 10were inconsiderable

,but the shipping facilities were limited . Glasgow is the

centre of the Scotch mea t trade ; it has a convenient wholesale dead meat market , and a large quantity of Irish meat ishandled there . Cold stores and landing and di schargingarrangements are avai lable for carrying on the importedfrozen and chilled meat trade, a considerable increase in which—especially from Australasia—may be anticipated . (Thedischarging fac ilities, by the way , would hear improvement . )Appendix V . shows Glasgow to possess cold storage accommodation equal to carcasses

,of which more than half is

at the stores of Messrs . William Milne, Ltd . and


at the stores of the Union Cold Storage Co. Scotlandhas , until recent years, been very backward in taking tofrozen meats ; considering the production of the excellentbeef and mutton which the graziers of North Britain supplyto the markets , this is not surprising . But the Scotch peoplein the cities and towns are now becoming customers forfrozen meat . The Glasgow market dealt with New Zealandboneless beef for coH0ps until this trade was practicallystopped by the Public Health Acts referred to at page 122,but a promising factor in the development of direct shipmentsto this port is the fact that Glasgow has excellent facilitiesfor absorbing large quantities of frozen beef of good secondarygrade to take the place of the said boneless beef, which, in largequantities

, was formerly placed—mainly by the North Americanshippers—on the Glasgow market .

Hull.

Hull as a produce centre has aspirations far beyond theposition it holds as a receiving port for the European shipments of eggs

,poultry , game, butter, etc . , coming to England .

It is anxious for more frozen meat imports,stating that owing

to its railway distributing facilities it is one of the cheapestcentres of distribution for one quarter of the population of theUnited Kingdom inhabiting about a fifth of its area . This is abig claim , and as yet frozen meat does notbulk largely amongHull ’s imports . The Humber port possesses four cold stores ,one , of carcasses capacity

,leased by the Compa fiia

Sansinena, and situated at the Alexandra Dock ; a town coldstore, of carcasses capacity

,owned by the Union Cold

Storage Co. , Ltd another store run by the same company isin the Sir William Wright Dock , of carcasses capacity

,

and one at the Alexandra Dock , of carcasses capacity,also belongs to the Union Cold Storage Co. Frozen and chi lledmeat is brought from the Argentine for the Sansinena Co . by theHoulder liners, and for the Riv er Plate Fresh Meat Co. by theRoyal Mai l Steam Packet Co .

’s vessels . The Federal-B oulderShire Line now books refrigerated cargo from Australia to Hull



been conveyed by steamer . Provincial Operators are closelyin touch with the metropolitan market

,and wholesa le values

in London and country are practically the same . Railwayrates for frozen meat from London to the various centresdepend to some extent upon the quantities forwarded . Therates on 3-ton lots are as follow : to Cardi ff, 25a ; Bristol ,20a ; Liverpool , 25a ; Glasgow, 53s . 4d . under 20 tons , and458 . over 20 tons . For England fid . per lb . covers this item ,

roughly speaking ; for Scotland, id . per lb .

By firms owning numerous retail shops very large quantitiesof frozen meat are distributed without passing through theOpen markets , and this may be said generally of all kinds offrozen meat handled in English country parts . The Argentinepeople, who exploited the provinces from Liverpool as theirheadquarters twenty-five years ago, were until recently muchmore at home there than the firms di stributing Australasianmeat . The former have their offices , wholesale and retail, onthe spot

,their arrangements are cut and dried, and there is a

regular all-the-year-round demand . Country markets are veryeasily over-supplied and cannot absorb (as can Smithfield )unlimited quantities of meat

,ev en at low prices . All classes

and qualities of meat are di stributed throughout the countryLondon and the South Coast take the highest quality . Pricelists are issued weekly by the Colonial Consignment and Distri

buting Cc . ,Ltd . , Thomas Borthwick and Sons, Ltd . , W . and R .

Fletcher, Ltd . ,Towers and Cc . ,

Ltd ., and others . These housesissue pamphlets, leaflets, and illustrated circulars , got up in avery attractive style .

Turning to the question of direct shipments from theSouthern Hemisphere

,thi s notice of the country trade may be

concluded with a few lines giving a sketchy idea of thecharacteristics of the various centres , from the point of viewof the importer of Australasian frozen meat, more on generallines than the specific information contained in the articlesabov e . Liverpool, by far the most important of the outports

,

”

the only port and trade centre which offers any serious riv alry toLondon , has largely increased its importance as a frozen meatport and centre during the la st few years . It distributes

PROVINCIAL DISTRIBUTION 223

throughout the Midlands , well across to the East Coast , andas far North-Eas t as Newcastle . The sphere of influenceof Liverpool , however, in the direction of the Eas t Coa st isbeing checked by Hull , at which fine port large cold storeshave been erected , and to which city South American directshipments of mea t are sent . When the new dock referredto abov e is completed , Liverpool

’s claim to be the distributingcentre for the North of England may be further disputed . Inthe Liverpool trade lean , small carcasses are preferred , distinctlyinferior—from a Londoner’s point of view—to the qualityhandled in the London market . This may arise from thefact that a large proportion of the population are operatives inironworks, cotton mills , and other factories, where the temperature is high

,and

,as usual in hot climates

,the consumer has

no appetite for fat meat . Manchester has been a bit of adisappointment to frozen meat people . The Ship Canal was tohav e been a highway for argosies laden with the refrigeratedproduce of New Zealand and Australia

,but some error was

made in these sanguine anticipations , for Cottonopolis importeddirect in 19 10 only Australian lambs ; a bubble burst, indeed ,when one remembers the efforts made years ago to attractdirect shipments to Manchester . But although Mancheste rreceives a certain quantity of meat shipped to that port

,the

shipowner largely takes advantage of the option in his bill oflading, and elects to rail to Manchester a portion of his cargoof meat from Liverpool in preference to the expense of

sending his v essel up the Canal . Cardiff is a large consumerof frozen produce, and a very satisfactory and growing trade isdone in that district . The Argentine companies have beenshipping to Cardiff for many years, and do a considerablebusiness there . Owing to the West Coast service calling atAvonmouth (Bristol) , few direct shipments of frozen meat fromAustralia or New Zealand are now being sent to the Welsh port ,which is a pity, as Cardiff possesses all the points which suggestan admirable port and centre for the reception and distributionof Australasian frozen meat and is the centre of a big mea tconsuming population, amongst whom retail distribution hasbecome well organized . Bristol has not in itself been a very


satisfactory market for direct importations . The trade donethere is of a healthy description as far as it goes

,but demand

has not responded to the di rect West Coast service shipmentson the scale that might have been expected from a city anddistrict with such a large population . Much of the meatlanded at Bristol is forwarded by rail to Cardiff for distri

bution—an unbusinesslike course forced upon shippers by thelack of di rect freight to the Welsh port . Glasgow is a usefulmarket for some special grades of beef and for New Zealandlambs of good quality, especially in the earlier part of theseason before Scotch lambs have matured fit for the market ;and a steadi ly increasing demand may be hoped for from theClyde port as frozen meat becomes more popular in the citiesof Scotland . Glasgow has nothad a fair chance of developinginto such a frozen meat centre as the importance of the cityand its situation entitle it to, owing to the service of refrigeratedvessels being very limited . For some reason no South Americanfrozen meat was despatched direct to Glasgow in 19 10. Glasgowis the most likely outport ” to increase during the nextfew years in the handling of direct-despatched shipments offrozen meat .What has been the effect of these outport markets upon '

general v alues ? An answer is ready, cov ering part of thesubject , in stating that the premium which, before the days ofdirect imports , frozen meat—railed from London—enjoyed inthe provincial centres has disappeared . Prior to the establishment of the West Coast service, the London importing housesin supplying their country customers were careful to make agood selection of meat that would stand the railway journeyand which would meet their clients’ requirements in everyway

,and for frozen meat thus placed upon provincial markets

a premium of about 1d . per stone of 8 lbs . , especially for

New Zealand mutton and lamb , over the London ruling rates ,plus carriage, was usually obtainable . As competition becamepronounced

,say

,about 1903, 1904 , and 1905 , and vessels landed

meat at the ports of the West Coast, supplies of frozen meatsbecame obtainable at these ports at the London rates, andnow mutton and lamb from South America and Australasia in


CHAPTER XVI

CUSTOMERS m OTHER LANDS

WHENMr . Mort in his Lithgow Valley speech heralded theera of frozen meat exports , he had in view the markets ofEngland

,and those only . For the first few years Of the

business there were no efforts made by the exporters ofAustralia and New Zealand to ship frozen meat to otherparts than the Mother Country

,and they centred their energies

upon popularizing their mutton and beef with the Englishpeople . Indeed, to the present day New Zealand does practically no

“ foreign trade in frozen meat . It was not so,however

,with the Argentine meat exporters, who, owing to

the greater suitability of their produce for Continental needs ,early dev oted themselv es to pushing their goods in Europeancountries . In many ways Argentina took up and prosecutedthe frozen meat trade on broader lin es than did Australasia . Her grasp Of the general position and prospects Of

the enterprise was thorough and intelligent, and quite earlyin the trade’s dev elopments the Argentine companies perceiv edthat frozen meat was an article whose possibilities of di stribution were world-wide . Whilst Argentina adhered to thebusiness principle not to put all your eggs into one basket,

”

Australasia was doggedly pounding away at her one market,London

,which

,of course

,showed a marked preference for

New Zealand and Australian meat as compared with Argentinein the early days of the trade .

Attempts on the Continent.

Belg ium .

—The first signs of departure from thi s principlewere

,perhaps

,to be noted in the despatch to Antwerp in 1885

by Messrs . Nelson Brothers Of the hulk (alluded to on p . 378)whi ch they had sent to Plymouth with carcasses . Thecraft was loaded with meat for a Belgian syndicate which had

CUSTOMERS IN OTHER LANDS 227

taken up very thoroughly the idea of importing frozen meat.This Belgian company had gone into the question deeply , theyhad shops in Antwerp , Brussels , Liege , and other Belgian towns ,appointed agents , and advertised the meat well . For a timethe sales were satisfactory , butafter a while the demand diedaway . The people did nottake kindly to the meat, and finally

the hulk had to bring back the unsold carcasses . TheBelgians insisted on the carcasses bearing the lungs , whichwere frozen in New Zealand . To inaugurate this departure,Nelson Brothers entertained the Belgian Burgomasters onfrozen mutton at Cannon Street Hotel when Mr . de Keyserwas Lord Mayor. The freezing hulk did not cease her connection with the frozen meat trade with her double failure atPlymouth and Antwerp . She was sent to New Zealand toact as temporary freezing works, and is now, after fifty yearsof stout service , still afloat .The battlefield of Europe has always looked a likely

customer for frozen meat, as she is a heavy importer of mea t.Belgium , as mentioned above, first attracted shipments Of

New Zealand meat, and Argentina followed up this tradein a determined fashion . A small duty, available storage,and energetic local butchering co-operation , were more thanmerchants handling frozen meat could resist . A Brusselsbutcher made in five years dealing in foreign meatin his two shops . Messrs . Jules Renard and Co.

, Of Antwerpand Melbourne , acting for Australian meat houses , endeavouredto get frozen meat into Belgium , but the Lung Law ,

” underwhich no meat could be imported into Belgium without thelung adhering to the carcass, proved a stumbling block . Thisstatute was repealed in 1894 as to sheep, but it is still in forcewith cattle. In 1904 the Sansinena Co . made another effortto open the Continent to refrigerated meat supplies . Inconnection with the company’s tallow business in Belgium ,

the idea of forming a separate company for the importationof frozen meat was ente rtained . Two shipments Of meatwere mad e to An twerp , the beef having to be sent in sides .

The result of the shipments was unsatisfactory, and noM blished business followed .


Fra nce—In 1886 the New Zealand Loan Co. tried Paris withone or two small parcels however

,we hear of no satisfactory

business following . Probably the expenses of the venturechecked further trials—the costs from discharge in London toselling in Paris came to 25d . per lb . Nothing more as regardsAustralasia seems to have been done till early in the nineties

,

when the shippers of Queensland beef—the graziers were thentaking the market risks themselves—began discussing withtheir London agents the advisability of looking for extraoutlets .

”

The River Plate Fresh Meat Co . had a depot of its own inParis nearly twenty years ago, starting its business there earlyin 1892, but giving up its cold store there in 1893 . The company

,

in the search for a fresh outlet, went to the expense of fittingup a special store and sent two boats into Hav re . They foundit very unremunerative, for after they had spent their moneyand made all arrangements, the French Government put alot Of restrictions in the way, and they were compelled to giveit up . One of the principal restrictions was that the lungs,heart

,etc . ,

had to remain in the carcass, which had to be cutup into four separate quarters—that prevails now

,and

,of

course, is prohibitiv e . This regulation , which was added tothe tariff law Of 1892 at the request of the agrarians, isapplied to all imported meat except Algerian . But a trade isregularly done in legs of mutton and rumps of beef with Parisiansalesmen—which meat

,by special regulation , eludes the Act ,

which expressly states that no frozen meat is to be importedinto France without the animal organs . The Riv er Plate CO.

chartered an old hulk ,the RobertM orrison , when they put up

their store in Paris , di scharging into the hulk from their oceansteamers . The hulk , in fact, was a bonded store for the timebeing

,and the company had to send over butchers to cut up

the carcas ses .The position of France differs from that Of Germany in this

important way : the latter country has a deficiency in foodsupplies for the nation , whereas France grows food enough .

But notwithstanding this, France at an early date attractedfrozen meat imports . The efforts Of the Sansinena Co . are


230 A HISTORY OF THE FROZEN ME AT TRADE

But the great Agrarian Party became alarmed, and immediatelyset up the agitation which resulted in the passing in 1903

of the meat inspection law, more correctly termed themeat exclusion law . German imports of fresh beef fromneighbouring countries (Denmark and Holland ) in 1899

showed a 400per cent . increase as compared with 1897 cattleof all kinds ,

on the other hand, fell off from to

The agrarians in Germany possessed enormous power andthus they succeeded in securing the protection theyclamoured for . The United States of America meat packers ,who shipped cwts . of preserv ed meats to Germany in1899, protested vigorously against the measure that prohibitedthe entry of their goods, but without success . SO the conditionswere not propitious in 1892—1893 for introducing frozen beefinto Germany .

Still,something had to be done, for Queensland beef was

arriving in London at the rate of tons a month . Hamburgwas attacked at the end of 1892 by Messrs . W . Weddel and Co. ,

with the Object Of di stributing the Queensland beef throughNorth Germany, the import duty being §d . per lb . Satisfactory arrangements as to storage in Hamburg having beenmade

,a bold step was taken in 1893 in despatching direct to

that port from Townsville, Queensland, the sailing freezer

Tumki’

no, with 300 tons of frozen beef . The venture beganauspiciously, but in the end proved a di saster to the Germanowners of this meat, owing to the opposition raised by thebutchers throughout the country

,though the meat was of

excellent quality when landed and the whole enterprise wellmanaged . As a matter of fact, the opening of separate shops

for the sale of frozen meat was one great mistake commonlymade in foreign countries . The sale Of the meat in existingestablis hments would hav e been far less likely to arouse theantagonism of the Continental butchers . These might havebeen encouraged to secure profits out Of the trade from theoutset in their own shops, though , of course, import dutieswere always calculated to afford frozen meat a smaller marginof profit as compared with home-killed than was the case atthe start of the trade in England .

CUSTOMERS IN OTHER LANDS 23 1

Before this the General Steam Navigation Co. insulated oneof their steamers for Messrs . Weddel , in order to convey frozenbeef from London to Hamburg . The market price for thebeef in that city was 3M. per lb . for prime quality meat .Mr . H . Kirsten was responsible for this enterprise , and shopswere opened at Hamburg specially for the sale of frozen beef,

and the public at first thronged them , the police being actuallyemployed to regulate the crowds . But the trade flagged ,both wholesale and retail , the meat hung on hand, and this ,coupled with the poor financial returns , forced the relinquishment of a promising enterprise , which had meant the shipmentof about tons of beef . The above facsimile reproduction of the price list of one of the frozen meat shops openedat Hamburg in 1893 may stand as a reminder of this prematureeffort to place frozen meat before the Germans .


No country seems in a better position statistically for frozenmeat exploitation than Germany . Of late years her meatsupplies hav e been heavily depleted, and the working classesin 1905 raised considerable outcry about high prices for food ,all the sections of the industrial life of the nation supporting the demand for modification of the regulations dealingwith meat imports . The answer on the part of the Gov ernment—impelled by the agrarians—was a new tariff wallhigher by 50 to 70 per cent . ! The temper of the GermanGovernment affords no hope of relaxation , but the GeneralElection of 19 12 may ultimately result fav ourably for thoseGe rmans who desire to see a more generous diet placed beforethe people . The meat consumption of the German workingman is small compared with that of hi s rival in Britain

,and in

order that the splendid country Of Ge rmany may benefit fullyby the output of her sons engaged in her vast industrialactivities it will be necessary to permit of the import of freshmeats under reasonable conditions .Austria —Part of the Tumkz

’

na’

s previously mentionedmeat cargo was despatched to Vienna by Messrs . Weddel, andthere again the Opposition of the butchers had to be reckonedwith . Considerable pomp attended the first arrival of Queensland beef in the Austrian capital , as will be seen from thefollowing extract from the Wiener Tagebla ttof June 24, 1893 .

A large consignment of mea t has just come to hand at a time when the supplyof mea t from V ienna threa tens to fa ll short on account of the scarcity of ca ttle in

the monarchy . The shipment comprises Australian oxen preserved in icefrom the effects of tempera ture. To-d ay the first wagon IS d ue at Vienna , andothers will follow on. The mea t will be sold next Tuesday in the places of the

Society of Victua llers atthe Centra lMarket, and a lso in the d istrict markets. The

price is 60kreuzers for first qua li ty of b inds and 50 kreuzers for first quality of

force, but it is anticipa ted tha t prices will fall whenever the contractors organizethe sa le in the market places on their own account . The Court Counsellor Osersa id tha t so tha t there might be no doubt about the good cond i tion of the Australi an mea t , he had ordered the Cour t Counsellor Professor a nd Dr. M . Grube to inspectthe mea t and report as to its nourishing properties. Afterwards these gentlemenvisrted the Mayor, atthe Town Hall

, to obta in his consent and support w ith regardto the sa le of the Austra lian mea t in Vienna . The Mayor replied tha t he had someknowledge of Austra lian mea t, ha v ing ea ten it and found it very good and

appetising . He also sta ted tha t he would do his utmost to introduce the mea t tothe public.

Both at Hamburg and Vienna municipal assistance wasforthcoming . But the opposition of local interests and improv

ing prices in London checked the business . The Argentine



London small quantities of Australian mutton and lambregularly . Switzerland , each of whose Cantons , by the way ,

has its own import regulations, is pretty bare of meat in the

tourist seasons, and some of the frozen meat sent to Genoa findsits way to Zurich . Mr . Coghlan

,Agent-General for New South

Wales in London , worked hard in 1908—1909 to secure entryfor Australian meat into the Swiss Republic

,and got the

British Foreign Office to intervene . The Central Governmentwas impressed , but from the following information from theArgentine Consul , indicativ e Of the present position , it wouldseem that the impression did not sink deeply . The importation of meat preserved by an artificial freezing process willonly be allowed on the special authority Of the Federal HomeOffice

,request for whi ch will be necessary to be made by the

Cantonal Government . This meat will only be able to besold on a clear understanding as to its nature and origin andcomplying with the condi tions stipulated in the Home OfficeAuthority with the view of protecting the health of the consumers .” Nev ertheless , small parcels of Australian and

Argentine beef are now going into Switzerland regularlythrough London .

How great the prize of new custom must be when it is wonis patent to ev eryone, but how great the need is for thediv ersion of heavy supplies from existing markets, only those intouch with the frozen meat markets can tell . The situationin Europe was never so promising as at present , but much hasyet to be done before a trade of big dimensions is opened out.

Were it possible to get a footing for frozen meat in the fairland Of France, or in Germany, what a godsend it would be forArgentina and Australia

,with their surpluses Of stock ! But

the main outstanding fact that these countries manageto supply themselv es from internal resources is a sufficientreason for anticipating the greatest possible difficulty inintroducing frozen meats into these markets, because it iscertain that if , by reason of lower prices , shippers could compete

with the local supplies,duties would be promptly raised so as

to stop such importation . We are face to face there with theradical and permanent difficulty which it is as well to recogniz e .


Although France and Germany are coupled in this paragraph ,a marked distinction must be mad e between them . Germanyis really the less able to feed itself now

,and imports con

sidera bly live cattle from surrounding countries,including

France , at times . France is the more self-reliant country.

When diplomacy induces these European protectionistcountries to refrain from directly prohibiting frozen meatsfrom Australasia or South America , or advancing the dutiesto a point which would stop imports

,they can easily pass

regulations, nominally to protect the public , which achievethe end that the interests opposed to meat imports have inview quite as effectually as if the goods were barred by statute .

On this point, there may be quoted the Opinion of the lateMr . William Cook, who had very considerable experience intrying to persuade the Continentals to take Argentine meat .Going to France was a mistake

,

” said he . So invete rateis the protective policy of the Continentals that if the importof frozen mutton and beef cannot be checked by existingarrangements and ordinary means, other and extraordinaryones will be resorted to .

”

An important poin t to take into consideration is that beforefrozen meat can be imported in commercial quantities intothe important European cities

,well-equipped cold stores will

have to be built there are only enough stores now to ae commodate a hand-to-mouth trade .

Customers in the East.

From its geographical position the continent of Australiaenjoys a peculiar advantage over its two rivals , NewZealand and South America, in undertaking to supply theEast with frozen meat . Directly it dawned upon merchantsand freezing works managers that London prices wouldcertainly fall to very unremunerative levels unless othermarkets could be found , they sent commercial travellers invarious directions to get orders . Farther Ind was exploredin 1893 by a commissioner , who reported unfavourably . Mr.

John Cooke ten years later had specia l inquiries mad e about


Eastern countries generally,and , as nothing further followed ,

presumably no good tidings were brought back . There hasbeen much vague talk Of getting frozen meat into Indi a ,China, and Japan , in all of which countries only the whitepopulation might be hoped for as customers

,and their numbers

are limi ted . The natives,where they are notentirely vegetarian

in diet, are too poor to buy imported meat . It is suggestedthat the Indian Government might with adv antage importfrozen beef for the Mussulmans so as to sav e the friction setup between them and the Hindoos when the former slaughtercattle for food . The only definite commitment in Easternparts was that of the Queensland Meat Export Co . in investingcapital in a local meat and storage company in Singapore,with premises at the Tanjong Pagar Dock . Though theenterprise

,as far as the Queensland Co. is concerned, has not

brought many shekels to the shareholders, the Singaporewhite population must have benefited . If we get good ,honest

,prime-fed Australian beef and mutton instead of the

stringy Calcutta and Bangkok stuff we have to put up with ,the better for ev erybody in Singapore, wrote the SingaporeFree Press many years ago.

Three years ago Australia’s customers in other lands

were receiving 40 per cent . of her meat exports , chiefly tothe Philippines , the Cape, and Malta, and this may wellaccount for the fact that Australia has been at times sincethe beginning of the century unable to keep pace with NewZealand and Argentina in regular shipments to the UnitedKingdom .

W ars Stimulate the Trade .

The Australian meat exports to the Philippines, Malta ,Egypt

,Gibraltar

,Hong Kong , and Singapore, are largely

for the supply Of military garrisons . Some proportion of thetotal exports go to great maritime junctions , such as Colomboand various Japanese ports , for the supply of the mail steamers ,and hotels entertaining European visitors . For troops, eitherin the fie ld or in garrison , frozen meat has come to be a necessity ,and in no di rection has the refrigerator been so fruitful of benefit



and Bloemfontein ,and the remainder of the assets , comprising

shares in the companies at Port Elizabeth , Durban , andPietermaritzburg

,were taken over by the Cold Storage Trust .

The Cold Storage Trust, Ltd . ,has its registered Office in

London , but is practically controlled and directed by interestsin Cape Town . Thi s company controls the following subsidiaryundertakings z—Port Elizabeth Cold Storage and Supply Co.

,

Ltd . ,Pietermaritzburg Cold Storage and Supply Co. , Ltd . ,

Sparks and Young, Durban and Johannesburg , and has someinterest in the Rand Cold Storage and Supply Co. , Ltd .

On the conclusion of the war in 1902 the Imperial ColdStorage Co.

,Ltd . , amalgamated with the South African and

Australasian Supply and Cold Storage Co.,and the business

was floated under the name of the Imperial Cold Storage andSupply Co. ,

Ltd . , and a new plant was erected at Durban , andsubsidi ary companies were formed at East London and JOhan

nesburg for the same purpose . The capital Of the reorganizedcompany was in £1 shares, in addition to a 6 percent . debenture issue of The share capital wascut down by one-half in 1906

,and was further reduced in

19 11 to at which figure it now stands .

The Imperial Cold Storage and Supply Co. ,Ltd . , with its head

Office in Cape Town , has cold storage plants at Cape Town ,Durban , Kimberley, Bloemfontein , and Pretoria, and controls subsidiary undertakings Operating at East London andJohannesburg , trading as the East London Cold Storageand SupplyCO. and the Rand Cold Storage and Supply Co.,Ltd . ,

respectively .

Professor Wa lla ce ’s S ta tement—Professor Robert Wallace,who has written a great deal on stock and agricultural questionsrelating to British settlement in South and East Africa, writesto the authors as followsSouth and East Africa are essentially stock, and not

agricultural, food producing countries , and when people beginto realize that European cattle are not suitable for the naturalconditions which prevail in those quarters without such aliberal supplement to the natural food which would be pro

hibitive in cost,they will breed animals with constitutions

CUSTOME RS IN OTHER LANDS 239

that will withstand the climatic conditions,and produce large

quantities of beef of second-grade quality and suitable to thelocal demand . South and Central Africa is a black man ’

s

country, and the white population is not likely under prospective conditions to increase at such a rapid rate as wouldrequire a large amount Of prime beef . All I can say is , if SouthAfrica is unable to produce as much meat as the peoplerequire , it will be the farmers

’ own fault , by allowing thecountry to remain unfenced so that epizootic diseases maycontinue, as in the past , to ravage the flocks and herds , or bypersisting in the impossible attempt to introduce highly-bredEuropean cattle under climatic conditions which are inirnicalto them .

”

Manila and Vladivostock .

Australia’s export of frozen meat—mainly beef—to Maniladates from the placing Of the American garrison in the Philippines in 1898. Queensland, whence the meat is shipped ,commands this trade on account of her geographical position .

A yearly contract is made between the American militaryauthorities and the Queensland Meat Export Co. ,

and the otherfreezing companies in Queensland take a share in it 7 centsper lb . gives a rough idea of the price . The 19 10 contract wasvalued at carcasses of lamb

,carcasses of

mutton , and lbs . Of beef, plus pork and rabbits, being

supplied . It is understood that the business is outrather fine ,but the Manila contract has proved useful to the Australianmeat men in prov iding an avenue for the disposa l of a respectable quantity of frozen beef during dull years .The market at Vladivostock came with a rush in 1906 , andin that and the following year over tons of Australianbeef found its way to the Siberian port . The negotiationswere first opened in 1898, when a cablegram was receivedby the New South Wales Minister of Agriculture asking if700 tons Of frozen beef could be sent to Vladivostock. Thebusiness was mostly negotiated in London by agents ofthe Russian Government, and considerable competition


between suppliers marked its developments . In 1908 theshipments fell Off

,owing to the port being supplied from

North China with live cattle, which were slaughtered at Vladi

v ostock and chilled on board three refrigerator steamers .

These Vladivostock contracts were also connected with thesupply of meat for the troops .

The Mediterranean .

An important section of Australian exports Of frozen meat,

representing meat supplies for the British garrisons in Egypt,Malta

,and Gibraltar, remains to be touched on .

Messrs . Wills and Co. , Ltd . , started refri gerating stores atPort Said early in the nineties, capable of holding 200 tons ofproduce from the depot the requirements in the way of meatof the passing mail boats and the small European populationwere supplied . At that time the Army contracts at Cairo andAlexandria were for native mutton at about 4d . per lb . Thething to do in Egypt was to secure this Army custom for frozenmeat

,and this has now been done . Practically all of the trade

falls to the Australian shippers, and since 1905 Egypt has been

an important buyer .About 1894 the British Government made up its mind to

feed the garrisons at Gibraltar and Malta‘

upon frozen meat .They had the necessary cold stores erected in 1895 at thoseMediterranean strategic points , and ever since the militaryforces there have had the benefit of the nutritious diet furnishedby beef and mutton grazed on the plains of Australia .

Mr.C . A . Lichtenburg , head of Messrs . Wills and Cc . , Ltd .

,

took an important part in getting frozen meat into Malta ,where it is partly used for the civil population

,and his firm

has held the contract since the trade was introduced . Allusionmay be made to the griev ance of which frozen meat importersin Malta rightly complain , namely, the di fferential importduties on live cattle and dead meat . These pressed unfairlyon the latter

,and the Australian Agents-General have had to

appeal to the Imperial Government on several occasions to



economic stage attained by England a generation ago, namely,that the absolute limit of the productiveness of the land inrelation to the population has been passed , and the only alternatives presented to these nations are reduced feeding or importation . The powers that be may fight as they please againstthe new demand

,but the cry for plentiful food is boun d to be

listened to in the end,which is not far off in European

countries , and is approaching ev en in the United States ofAmerica . In view of England’s experience, the Continent hasno excuse for prejudice against frozen meat based on inex

perience . But prejudi ce against it is , undoubtedly, cultivatedby the land-owning and ruling classes . Unless scientists findunexpected grounds for discarding frozen meat on its merits,this barrier must fall .Secondly, there is the demand from the peoples of the Far

East . About thi s the obvious suggestion to make is that thepresent moderate demand will grow according to the development of industrial enterprise in Japan

,China, and India .

This demand has been disappointing so far, but when the'

newindustries of China and Japan get into their swing , the importation of refrigerated meat supplies should follow ; the plainsof Queensland

,grazing excellent beef and mutton , are but a

few weeks away from Eastern centres , and the future will,doubtless, see a large volume of trade passing .

Then , thirdly, there are the Government contracts formilitary stations, British , American , etc . The dimensionsof this av enue can pretty well be measured, and frozenmeat supplies passing along it are likely to remain fairlyconstant whils t the nations are at peace . Wars of thefuture will cause a great stir in the trade

,and the

subject constitutes a supplementary division in this list ofCustomers .”

Fourthly, there remain South and East Africa, andabout these the Observation has to be made that CapeColony and Natal are rapidly becoming self-supportingthrough the development of agricultural and pastoralindustries . Except for casual and speculative shipments toCape Town and Durban, such as took place in 1910 and 19 11,


and the arising of abnormal conditions , the demand forAustralian refrigerated produce is likely to die down . Oldresidents in South Africa say that they are not at all certainthat the Staws named will not have to draw upon the Commonwealth Oi Australia for foodstuffs in the future , but otherslay emphasis upon the view that South Africa will one daytake a place among meat exporters . It may here be suggestedthat Madagasc ar, where there are cattle of a secondary grad eavailable for export, may be drawn upon for the needs Of thewhite population of East and South Africa, should thesedistricts require meat imports in the future . A freezing works ,fitted with Haslam ma chinery, has lately been erected on the

The holding back from the market of supplies of fat cattlein the United States of America, and the consequent heavyreduction of beef products , a tendency which first becamenoticeable in 1907 , enabled New Zealand meat to be experimentally exported from Liverpool to New York in 19 10. Frozenmutton and lambs were despatched , and although an importduty of 1} cents per lb . had to be paid, the meat was sold ata profit at 2 cents per lb . under the price Of native mutton .

This small trade was stopped by the authorities demandingveterinary certificates in a form which , not being necessaryfor the British market, had not been provided .

The Beginning of the End .

The position on the Continent at the latter part Of 19 10 andduring 19 11 with regard to meat supplies for the people became

acute owing to pronounced shortage of locally produced mea t .Serious disturbances took place in Austria and France, withriots causing loss of life . Throughout the more important andthickly populated countries of the Continent the communities

re belled against the monstrously high prices for butchers’

meat

they were called upon to pay, and the mob in Vienna shoute dGive us frozen meat . The war against the agrarian parties

was Officially declared in October, 19 10, when the AustrianGov ernment gave permission for 25 tons of Argentine frozen

3 2


beef to be brought into the country this declaration of waris a modern day crossing of the Rubicon . The signs of thetimes cannot be mistaken . Notwithstanding the difficultieswhich were placed in the way Of South American and Australasian exporters of frozen meat during 19 11, it is plain that theagra rian Obstructionists are weakening , and that with a littlemore pressure from the people the Government will have torelax the prohibitiv e regulations in force .

Summarizing what has occurred since the historic 25 tons ofbeef, referred to above, made entry into Vienna, it appears thatafter a fair run for the Argentine beef

,permits Of entry into

Austria for which were given up to June by the Government,

for tons, the agrarian party in that country againgot the upper hand

,and in July, 19 11, the Austrian Minister

for Agriculture announced that no further imports of frozenmeat would be allowed to enter the country . Some monthslater the populace of Vienna were rioting on account of dearfood, and in September some speculative shipments Of Argentine frozen beef were made—in anticipation Of Austrian Officialrelaxation of the prohibition—to Trieste . That prohibitionwas not withdrawn , and the meat was mostly sold in Italyand Switzerland .

From Germany little can be expected until the leavenof the 19 12 general election has worked . Switzerland in19 11 was a customer for a limited quantity of Australianfrozen meat there are some difficulties of transport of frozenmeat to Switzerland to be overcome, but during the summertourist—season it is certain that the Swiss market will call fora certain quantity of frozen meat .One Continental country, Italy, presents most favourable

prospects for the South American and Australasian shippers ofrefrigerated meat and dairy produce . There is no dispositionon the part of the authorities to block imports , and the dutycan be easily met . A grea t deal of frozen beef has reachedGenoa during the last eighteen months, and the principalexporting houses and their London agents hav e been makingthe closest inquiries in Rome

,Naples

,Milan

,and the other

principal Italian cities, with a view to the securing of contracts


CHAPTER XVII

THE CHILLED BEEF TRADE

MANY allusions to the chilled beef industry are scatteredthroughout this book , but it is in every way desirable that achapter should be devoted to thi s branch of the refrigeratedmeat trade . The Americans, who started their exportdressedbee f trade to England in 1875, have always avoided completecongealment Of the meat, depending at that early date uponthe cooling power of freezing mixture in tanks aboard ship tomaintain their cargoes at a chilling temperature . In 1874

a few parcels of hard frozen beef were shipped, as mentionedon p . 13 . M . Tellier in his Frigorifique experiment in 1876

and 1877 held the meat at a temperature of 32° F .

That chilled beef as a marketable article is superior tofrozen beef is unquestionable, and the only reason why theSouth American frigorificos did not adopt this way of preparingtheir beef for the British market prior to the beginning of thetwentieth century lay in their assumption that their chilledbeef could not be placed on the London or Liverpool market insound condition . It was thought that the life of chilled beefwas strictly limited to about fifteen to twenty days

,and that

the limit was prohibitive to an industry being carried on wherethi rty or forty days elapsed between slaughter of the beevesand the marketing of the beef . The same lion in the pathblocked anything more than the experiments which are referredto later on in this chapter with regard to Australia and NewZealand . With the improvement Of refrigerating machinery,rendering practicable the holding of beef in ships’ chambers atan unv arying temperature, the chances of the chilled beeftrade between Argentina and the United Kingdom becamemore promising ; and with the adoption later on of a scientificsystem Of sterilization it was proved that the dreaded mould

THE CHILLED BEEF TRADE 247

spot could be prevented , and , further, that beef could bebroughtto London even from far distant Austra lia in a chilledcondition and placed on the market in good order .

Frozen beef has certain advantages as to case of marketingit can be stored without suffering dete rioration , and it bearshandling bette r than chilled beef. But there end the pointsthat can be urged in its favour in comparing it with chilled .

The chilled beef industry stimulates the bringing to a highdegree of excellence the cattle of the country which makesthe shipments of the article , for the primest beef is requiredfor chilled exports . Chilled beef enters a high-class retailtrad e , where the demand is more regular and prices higherthan for frozen beef . Chi lled beef, to be sure , suffers terriblyin its wholesale value when the market is glutted , and itsprices on such occasions are apt to fall below those of frozenbeef . But the chilling process does far more justice to goodmeat than does freezing , and it is difficult to avoid holdingthe view that the great bulk Of supplies of refri gerated beef

for Great Britain in the future will ultimately be carried at achilling temperature . Chi lling mutton , by the way, has neverproved successful . The few experiments that have been mad ein this direction have been far from encouraging in theirresults : for one thing the fat of chilled mutton always becomes

discoloured .

In the nineties , a period Of unrest and development in thefrozen meat trade, the first attempts were mad e to bring meatfrom Australia and New Zealand at a chilling temperature .

The earliestexperiment was that initiated by the late Mr . J . H .

Geddes , whose fri ends shipped quarters of beef in thes .e. PortPirie from Sydney on August 21 , 1894. Dr . Shiels ’

thermostat was used to regulate the temperature of thiscargo , a Linde refrigerating machine supplying the coolingpower . The thermostat consisted Of a system of tubingfilled with spirit and hermetically sealed . By contraction orexpan sion of the agent, under the influence of temperature ,the thermostat controlled the action of the refrigeratingmachinery and regu lated the supply Of cold air in the meatchambers , thereby maintaining a uniform temperature . The


meat in the PortPirie had to be frozen down during the voyage ,so that experiment failed . The second, third , and fourthtrials to bring chilled beef to England from Australasia weremade in 1895. The Gothic brought in two successiv evoyages from Wellington beef quarters consigned toMessrs . Thomas Borthwick and Sons, the thermosta tbeing used also in these trials .These shipments were the first serious attempts

,showing an

appreciation of the advisability of introducing the chillingprocess into the Australasian meat export trade, made byEnglish capitalists on a commercial scale . The beef which wasthus treated was carried at 28 15

0 and 29° F . , and was landed solightly frozen as to be fairly described as chi lled . A certaindegree of success was achiev ed, but the financial results werenot sufii ciently favourable to induce further shipments fromNew Zealand

,because , as Messrs . Borthwick reported , the

quality Of the beef was not up to chilling standard . Thes .s . Raka ia later on brought 500 hindquarters from Brisbane ,but the experiment was a failure , as the beef had to be frozenafter being forty-nine days on board .

In the annual frozen meat review of Messrs . W . Weddeland Co. for 1895, that firm suggested that in connection withthe bringing Of chilled beef from Australasia “ it will probablybe found that only by sterilizing the atmosphere Of therefrigerating chambers can the meat be kept sound for a

sufl’

iciently long period —a theory which was not practicallytested till 1909 . A fifth attempt was the shipment of afew quarters in 1896 in the s .s . Urmston Grange fromBowen

,Queensland . This meat had been dipped in Oil prior

to shipment to prevent the formation of mould in no sensecould this beef compare with American chilled on arrival

,so

this trial was also a failure .

Nine years passed, and in July, 1905, quarters of beefwere shipped in the a .s . Tokoma ru from Dunedin , New Zealand,by the New Zealand Refrigerating CO. The shipment shouldhave been made by the s .s . M ata tua , whi ch had a speciallysuitable system of refrigeration, but the Tokoma ru wassubstituted , and various causes made the voyage a long one,



tunity . Ev erything suggests that the South AmericanRepublic is to be the great beef producing country for GreatBritain ; and the American Beef Trust people evidentlyare the strongest holders of this opinion .

Very extensive and serious losses from mould have occurredto shippers of chilled beef from the Argentine Republic duringthe ten years in which the trade has been built up , and foryears following the start of the industry . The loss accruingfrom the seizures by the sanitary authorities at English portsand markets became a pressing problem to shippers andimporters . For years it was practically impossible to get fullin surance cover for this article in transport , and, where obtainable

,underwriters sometimes charged prohibitiv e rates

,fiv e

or six guineas per cent . Thi s state of affairs set people thinking . If the fungus germ on the meat surface could be destroyedand the atmosphere of the ship ’s chamber kept sterilized

,the

mould trouble might be scotched . It may be well to statehere that Dr. Klein , Lecturer on Adv anced Bacteriology atSt . Bartholomew’s Hospital, and one of the highest authoritieson these questions, hav ing made an exh austiv e examinationin June

,1909

, of the black spots on some Argentine chilledbeef

,reported that the fungus notbeing able to thrive at a

temperature of the animal body (98°F . ) no pathogenic action

could be expected . It is Obvious that the material of theblack spotslis harmless to the animal body . But it should benote d that this av oidable mould defect has now been almostentirely removed

,and , in the case of some companies ,

altoge ther eliminated . Many men worked at this scientificproblem , and Mr . J . A . Linley patented a sterilizing systemnamed after him and set up a small experimental plantin the Southampton Docks cold stores . The first shipmentunder this system arrived in London in September

,1907, by

the s .s . Gua rdia na—l ,o59 quarters of beef, which were landedin excellent condition

,bright and dry . The English rights of

the patent were then taken over by the Improved Chilling Co. ,

whilst the South American Improved Chilling CO. exploitedthe process in Argentina .

The Linley system is thus described . First, the ste rilizing

THE CHILLED BEEF TRADE 251

agent is ev aporated by hea t and driven by means offans through ducts into the chambers or rooms

,wherein

the meat is to be hung , and there circulated . This vapour has

the efiect of destroying any bacte ria that may be on thesurface of the walls of the chamber. The chamber is againcharged when filled with meat, which is , of course , extremelyliable to gather the microbes in the course of butchering andpreparation for shipment . Afte r the vapour has beenallowed to remain in the meat chamber for at least an hour itis driven Off. The ship ’s hold and the beef loaded in it aresimilarly treated . The second stage consists Of an apparatusdesigned for drying and purifying the atmosphere . The airof the chamber or room containing the produce is passedthrough two tanks , the first one containing sticks of chlorideof calcium ,

which remove the major portion of the moisture,

the atmosphere then being passed through into a secondarytank in which rotate discs of lead kept moist with sulphuricacid . This latter Operation gathers the remainder of themoisture from the atmosphere and also removes any organicimpurities . Under this second system of drying and cleaningnothing enters the chamber or the ship

’s b old but air cleanedand dried . It will be seen that this treatment permits of application to the meat after slaughter, to the cold chamber beforethe meat enters , and to that chamber also when the meatis stored . The apparatu s is simple and comparatively inexpensiv e , and both the vapori zing and drying plant may becombined on a common bed-plate, and both are actuated bya ventilating fan, and can be worked independently . In theNO. 1 process commercial formaldehyde is vaporized in theplant at a temperature Of about 300° F . The evaporationtakes some fifteen to twenty minutes , and one ounce of commercial forma ldehyde to every 100cubic feet of the gross spaceis the amount of chemical used . In the case of a store thecharged gaseous atmosphere is allowed to remain some threeor four hours , and it is then replaced by pure , dry air suppliedunder No . 2 system , that is , ai r which has been passed in theapparatus over chloride of calcium and lead discs rota ting incommercial sulphuric acid . The system thus provides a


complete process Of sterilization,and is at once scientific and

practical , having been taken advantage of by several of thebig Argentine shippers . Nearly quarters Of chilledbeef have been brought to the United Kingdom under theprocess , the machinery for whi ch had been- at October, 19 11—fitted in four frigorificos, and on 19 vessels .Taking adv antage Of the facilities offered by the Linley

process, in which , it should be mentioned , Messrs . W . Weddeland Co. have throughout taken a keen interest, Messrs . JohnCooke and Co. , of Australia, sent ov er to London in 1909

,

19 10,and 19 11 five experimental shipments of chi lled beef

from their Redbank works, Brisbane, in all quarters,in

the Aberdeen Line s .s . M a rathon, in which the owners had

installed the necessary Linley apparatus , in addi tion, Of

course, to the refrigerating machinery . The first Of thesetrial shipments arriv ed in London in November

,1909

,after a

passage Of sixty-two days from Brisbane, the cargo consisting

of hindquarters and 150 forequarters . The QueenslandMeat Export CO. participated in these shipments, and theQueensland Gov ernment lent its aid in the form of a guarantee .

Three shipments arrived in London in the following year . Thecondition of the beef in three of these four trials was excellent

,

and it sold readi ly at prices averaging rather more than 3d .

per lb . abov e the rates current for Australian frozen beef Ofsimi lar quality . In one case the condi tion of the beef wasimperfect

,owing to the use of unsatisfactory meat wraps .

These trials,resulting so favourably

,proved that chilled beef

can be brought from Australia or New Zealand to the Englishmarket

,and that under the Linley sterilizing process it can be

delivered in sound condi tion even after a seventy days’

passa ge . But these small trials ceased in 19 11, and the specialplant was removed from the M a rathon . The support given tothe enterprise Of the firms named by the Queensland grazierslacked the thoroughness which was necessary for the con

tinuance of the Operations .In 19 11 an experiment on a small scale under the Nelson

Dicks-Tyser process was tried successfully . The s .s . Murita i

brought from New Zealand 70 quarters of beef which were


CHAPTER XVI II

SOME NOTEWORTHY INCIDENTS : 1880—19 10WHI LE the frozen meat industry with all its ramifications

needs to be studied separately in a number of its phases for thereader to gain a clear idea as to its Operation, it is only a runningaccount of the progress of the great trade as seen from the pointof sale or consumption which can indicate with any coherencythe importance attaching to the many developments in thehistory of the industry . Hence an attempt is made in thepresent chapter to Show the evolution of the struggle whichhas arisen on the part Of the three competing producers

,

Australia,New Zealand, and Argentina, to market their frozen

meat supplies, each working out the problem on its own system .

The story of the beginnings of the trade has already beentold . Australian frozen meat was first imported into GreatBrita in in 1880, New Zealand in 1882, and Argentine in 1883 .

Up to 19 10 the respective totals of sheep and lambs stoodthus : Australia, New Zealand,South America, —a grand total ofcarcasses .

The following figures Show the growth Of the frozen meattrade, and the relative position of the suppliers to GreatBritain, from 1885, when all three countries were hard at it,to 19 10

Tota ls.

Austra lia ’s Pa rt—All three of the countries mentionedwere well set at their task of export by 1884—1885. But

SOME NOTEWORTHY INCIDENTS : 1880—1910 255

even at tha t early date Australia—the pioneer—was handicapped by her erratic shipments . Whilst her two competitorsforged ahead well , Australia

’s exports were most disappointingby 1889 both New Zea land and Argentina had reached theirmillion carcas ses Of sheep and lambs, but Australia only shipped

in that year .However

,in the yea r 1890 a move was made, and by 1895

Austra lia was sending carcasses to the Englishma rket. Afte r 1896 the great drought, which culminate d in

1902,began to tell, and Australian exports gradually fell

away,till in 1904 the total amount of mutton and lamb

shipped to Great Britain was under half a million carcasses .

From 1905 Australia has been again exporting on an increasingsca le to England . One reason to account for the falling off

just referred to in Australian shipments of mutton and lambto England was the demand springing up at South Africanports , Manila, and the Mediterranean , and, to a less degree , in

the East . Australia is favourably placed geographically for

supplying these countries , and , indeed , has customers for herfrozen mea t in many lands .For many years after Austra lia started exporting GreatBritain was her only customer, but war works potent changesin this trade . The war in South Africa, the conquest of thePhilippines by the Americans, as well as the demands Of theBritish garrisons at Malta and Gibraltar, drew Off a tremendousquantity of Australian meat from the English market . In1902 Australia exported tons of frozen mutton and lamb,of which only tons were sent to Great Britain . Thepioneer shipment of frozen meat mad e in 1879 by the s.e. Stradi

leven, and selling on Smithfield at from 4M. to 6d . per lh. ,

included beef, and this meat for about ten years was shippedvery irregula rly from the various States of the Commonwealth .

In 1893 shipments rose to tons , owing to the beginningOf the Queensland Meat Export and Agency Co .

’s Operations .

From that point to 1901 the yearly imports averagedtons . The drought then dominated the position , and up to

1906 Australia almost dropped out as a regular and largesupplier of frozen beef . But in 1909 Australian beef aga in


became a factor to reckon with . Australian beef, as a matterof fact, has been going everywhere but to England ; in 1902,whilst South Afri ca absorbed tons of Australian frozenbeef, only tons were imported into the United Kingdom .

Though Australia took fifteen years to get to her first mi llionof Sheep and lambs shipped in the twelvemonth, she quicklywent ahead of New Zealand and Argentina in beef shipmentswhen the Queensland works started . From 1893 to 1899

Australia (nine-tenths were from Queensland) exportedtons of beef to Great Britain , the combined contributions of

New Zealand and Argentina only amounting to tons forthat period .

In 1884 Sydney beef was sold for 6d . a lb . at Smithfield .

Some bone-taint trouble affected early shipments—a fault,

unfortunately, that frozen beef (not Australian alone) isoccasionally subject to now

,depending as it does partly upon

atmospheric conditions at time of slaughter . In 1890

Queensland beef of magnificent quality was imported,

though a di sappointing set-Off to this item was the decision Ofthe War Office not to allow frozen beef to be supplied, althoughfrozen mutton was permissible, in Army contracts . The viewof the War Office was tersely put by Mr . Lawson, DirectorOf Contracts (in 1893) We find the beef suffers from freezing ,and the soldiers do not care for it —a dictum afterwardsfound to be greatly wide of the mark . The restriction wasremoved many years ago .

To proceed with the bare chronological record forming arunn ing account of the trade

,in 1883 carcasses of

Australian mutton were thrown overboard at the Strai ts of

Magellan when the s .s . Sorrento was beached there . In thefollowing year the average weight of frozen Australian sheepwas 6 2% lbs . To celebrate the opening Of the campaign Of theQueensland Meat Export Co. in exporting beef to England ,a banquet was given at the Hotel Metropole, London, on

January 27, 1893 . A distinguished company were present ,and Queen sland frozen beef, prepared by the hotel chef, formed

the piece de resista nce .

High W a ter Ma rk—a nd After.—From 1896 to 1899 was



Nev ertheless , the big jump up to be noted in 1903 was followedin 1904 by a setback almost as considerable

,and exactly the

same features were noted in the import figures for 1907 and 1908 .

But the expansion Of the New Zealand mutton and lambimports , as the freezing works in the Colony increased and asthe demand in Great Britain dev eloped , has been v ery satisfactory , though market priceswere attimes so low that curtailment of shipments seemed inev itable . The importance of thelamb trade was foreshadowed by the fact that the first steamerwith frozen meat brought 449 lambs out of a total ofcarcasses, and in the earliest days of the trade frozen lamb made1d . per 1h . abov e mutton prices . But one can have too muchof a good thing , and in 1889 the market was glutted withNew Zealand lamb . In 1893 New Zealand lamb went throughthe first of the crises to which it has been subject more thanonce in the autumn months , after the summer trade is gone .

It receded to 3d . per lb . , a price below the price which wasthen current for New Zealand mutton . In the following yearmutton experienced a slump , a record low market price of

2ld . per lb . being quoted . Prime Canterbury mutton fell to3d . per lb . in 1895, and in 1897 another serious crisis in thelamb trade occurred in September . The whole decade 18901900 was one Of struggle and trial in the frozen meat trade :problems came up for settlement, and as organization andprecedent were lackin g in many departments, there was agood deal of trouble before things settled down . Damagedcargoes constituted the most serious question . In 1898 20 percent . of the cargoes from New Zealand were more or lessdamaged , and conferences between shipowners and importerswere held . Damaged cargoes fortunately are now practicallya thing Of the past

,and in chronicling this feature which

disfigured the transit arrangements of the period referredto , it is pleasant to note the excellent record Of the vesselsconv eying chilled and frozen meat from Australasia andSouth America .

In 1903 the Seddon shop scheme was promulgated andcaused much excitement and feeling on Smithfield Market .

About the end of the previous year, a splendid one for


frozen meat importers , prime Canterbury mutton had touched5M. per lb . In 1903 New Zealand tried a direct shipmentto Cardiff, and in 1906 freight arrangements were definite lymade with the Fed eral Line for regular sailings to thewest coas t of England . This service is running now, andis carried on by the vessels of the Federal-Shire-Houldercombination . By 1908 the shipments of boned frozen beefin boxes from New Zealand assumed large proportions . Thismeat was from dairy and other cattle Of a light weight, and wasmostly shipped to Glasgow to be used for minced collopsand in other ways . During the year to July , 1908, tonsof this beef were exported from New Zealand , valued , f .o .b .

cost , at Under the regulations of the Public HealthAct of 1907 , port and market inspectors in Great Britainreceived additional authority from January 1

,1909 , and the

importation of boned beef in boxes was rendered practicallyimpossible because inspectors found it difficult to examinethe separate pieces of meat when frozen hard in a box .

New Zealand,with herds Of cattle chiefly devoted to dairying

and , therefore , not permitting any great shipment of beef , hasbeen an erratic exporter of this article . About 1899 she raisedthe scale Of exports

,and for a few years placed over

quarters on the English market per annum , the high watermark being in 19 10, when quarte rs were handled inGreat Britain .

Ea rly Prices for New Zea la nd Meat—As already mentioned , the pioneer shipment from New Zealand was that bythe sailer Duned in , and the mutton brought by this vessel wasdelivered in sound condition and sold for 65d . per lb . Duringthe first few years of the trade it was not all plain sailing , assome cargoes were brought in unsatisfactory condition , andtwo years afte r the Duned in

’

s arrival prices for New Zealandmutton at Smithfield had dropped to 4id . to 5d . per lb . Asea rly as 1883 the practice of the consignees Of distributing NewZealand meat throughout Smithfield was inaugurated . Theyear 1885 was one of sev ere trial , and the growing trad e hadto struggle against adv erse influences , mainly low prices . In

1886 the Colonial and Indian Exhibition proved helpful , as

8 2


the opportunity was taken Of organizing a prominent exhibitby which the public were favourably impressed .

The second shipment Of mutton brought by the Duned in ,

in 1883, made 7d . to 8d . per lb . ,which , as far as records go,

was high water mark in rates . If unfrozen ,” the chronicler

states,the meat would have topped the market .

” In 1884

New Zealand mutton was 4 1}d . to 5d . per lb . , and beef (hindquarters ) at one time touched Gid . to 6 %d . per lb . , againstAmerican town-killed (sides ) 5%d . to 6161. per lb . Theaverage weight Of New Zealand sheep imported in 1884 was655 lbs .

Rise of South Ame rica n Exports—The first arrival Of

Argentine frozen meat in London was in 1883 . Both themutton sent and the market prices it fetched were v ery poorat the sta rt the carcasses were almost lamb-like in proportions .But by 1886 a considerable improv ement had taken place inthe type of sheep exported . In 1884 Riv er Plate mutton wasmaking 3d . to 4d . per lb . in that year the average weight ofthe frozen sheep was 48 lbs . ,

15 lbs . less than the Australian .

In 1887 a trade with the Continent Of Europe was attemptedby the Argentine companies , depots at Antwerp and Havrewere esta blished , and in 189 1 carcasses were sent toFrance . By 1888 Argentina, in v olume of exports and by herexcellent trade methods, Showed great strength in competingwith importers of Australas ian frozen meat in Great Britain .

Argentina’s Success—On an average Argentina shipped

about frozen lambs a year up to the end Of the nineties .For the next Six years her Shipments av eraged and in1909 South America became a factor in the lamb trade inGreat Britain with an export of carcasses . In 19 11

the total shipments to England exceeded Argentinawas a long time making headway wi th beef shipments . For tenyears after the establishment of freezing works frozen beef wasquite a minor department Of her business the meat works wereconstrc d for dealing with sheep , and the liv e cattle trade ,which began in 1890

, rapidly grew to large proportions andprov ed a useful av enue for the disposal of a part of Riv er Platesurplus stock . This, by the way, was the year in which the



the meat trade . It should perhaps be mentioned that theyear 1902 was an annus mirabilis for the River Plate companics and their Shareholders ; Sansinenas paid 50 per centand James Nelson and Sons paid 50 per cent . The dividendpaid by the River Plate Fresh Meat Co . was only 25 per cent . ,but earlier in the year a distribution of the accumulated reservefund was made to the shareholders by way of bonus . The bulkof this reserve fund had , of course, been accumulated out Ofprevious years’ profits . The shareholders were immediatelyasked to put this 100per cent . bonus back again into the company in the form of capital , so that it really amounted to

capitalizing the reserve fund . Of course, this splendid yearwas followed by the Nemesis of competition , and a crop of newfreezing concerns sprang up under the stimulating effect Of thegolden Showers Of 1902 .

Frozen Pork .

—From 1903 the imports of fresh pork intoGreat Britain declined ; in that year the total imports were

cwts . (Holland and by 1906 thequantity was reduced to cwts . Seizing this Oppor

tunity,Australia and New Zealand shipped frozen pigs to

help fill the gap . In 1906 cwts . of frozen pork werereceived from Australasia, and the goods were welcomed at

Smithfield market, and were sold fai rly profitably . But itseems that the enterprise is not a paying one for the Shippersunless the home market is under supplied, for after 1906 , whenthe Dutch pork was again exported freely, supplies fromAustralasia fell away to an inconsiderable quantity . In 19 10

,

only 1 cwts . of frozen pork were exported from Australasiato Great Britain , but pork is too expensive an article for theAustralian and New Zealand freezing works to handle forexport unless the Shipper can expect a London market price inthe neighbourhood of 5d . per lb .

Vitality of the Ca nning Tra d e .—With the advent of frozen

meat in the eighties , canning meat became of secondary importance

,and this method Of handling stock has been resorted to

in Australia during the last thirty years, mostly as a collateralto a freezing works , in dealing with the less prime parts Ofslaughte red stock . But at some works all the carcass is tinned .


In 1905 Queensland developed her exports of tinned mea t veryheavily there was a big glut Of these good s in stock in GreatBritain , also of extract of beef, and prices went down to aruinous level . A la rge proportion of this canned meat was Ofinferior quality, and in December , 1895 , as low a price as 133 .

per dozen 6 -lb . cases (25d . per lb .) was accepted . Tallow wasselling as low as 208 . per cwt . at that time . The decennialfigures of imports of canned meat into the United Kingdommay be given for the last thirty years

Austra lia . New Zealand . South America .

Uruguay cwts .

Random Jottings : 1890—1908.

Having considered the progress of the trade in connection with

the separate developments of New Zealand , Australia, andArgentina

,it may now be well to sketch leading historical

events that embrace all three sections . In the ninetiesdifficulties and problems presented themselves in England asimports increased ; in 1892 France established frozen meatimport regulations , requiring that certain organs should be leftin the carcass

,which practically closed the markets Of that

country to shippers . Another Obstacle to Opening up theContinent for frozen meat was raised in 1905 by Germanyadvancing the import duty on meat by 50 per cent . Earlyin the nineties selling prices became lessened, and it was plainthat to make profits the costs of production and realization offrozen meat must be lowered .

In 1894 the London cold stores were blocked for nine months ,


and vessels were kept on demurrage.

as floating stores Queensland beef was then arriv ing in large quantity . In that yearthe working capacity of the London stores was carcasses

,stowed to marks , and there were 100 vessels engaged

in the trade . By 1895 the capacity of the London stores hadrisen to carcasses . The British Gov ernment built coldstores in the Mediterranean to make the supply of frozen meatfor the troops possible . By 1898 English cold stores gotwellahead of requirements

,and the refrigerated fleet numbered

13 1 vessels . Frozen rabbits by 1899 became a menace to thecheaper kinds of frozen mutton , and in the following year

tons were imported into Great Britain . In 1899 beefwas first Shipped from Australasia with jute bags over thecalico wrappers . In 1901 , the heyday Of the Australianexports to South Africa of refrigerated produce, there weretwenty-two cold stores in the latter country .

Owing to the scarcity of New Zealand mutton for somemonths at the end of 1902 and the beginning of 1903,carcasses of chi lled mutton from North America were importedinto England, the mutton being sold from 3%d . to 42d . per lb .

Contra sting Sy stem s—The main difference between theAustralasian and Argentine Sale systems in Great Britain is .

the direct outcome of the fact that the Argentine companieshav e their head or branch Offices in London . This is the casewith most Of them , though the Smithfield and Argentine MeatCo. , the South American Export Syndicate (Rio Seco) , Compahia Frigorifica de Patagonia (San Gregorio) , and the Venezuela Co. , transact their business through agents . But in thehistoric periods of the Argentine frozen meat trade

,1883—1902,

during whi ch the industry was in the making , the whole systemwas exceedingly compact . The three great companies boughttheir stock , froze the meat, shipped it in vessels owned orchartered by themselv es, and landed and sold it in GreatBritain . The Sansinena Co . and the Riv er Plate Fresh MeatCO. distributed and sold their meat through the usual wholesale channels , whilst Messrs . James Nelson and Sons reliedmainly upon their shops . The c .i .f . selling system was introduced when the La Plata CO. sent its meats to England

,but



A New Zea la nd Scheme—Ou September 5,1893

,at the

reques t of the agricultural and pastoral societies,a conference

was called by the New Zealand Government Of delegatesrepresenting thezsheepowners and freezing companies of theColony, and this was held at Wellington and numerouslyattended . The meeting was summoned to discuss certainschemes presented by Messrs . D . J . Nathan and M . C . Orbell

,

and the following resolutions were put before the conference1 . That the present methods Of conducting the frozen meat

trade being unsatisfactory and unprofitable to the sheep farmer,

it is desirable that a controlling company representing thevarious interests concerned be formed for the purposes set

forth below

(a ) To arrange for the amalgamation , buying-out , or federation of existing freezing companies .

(b ) To negotiate with shipping companies as to freights andkindred matters .

(c) To inspect, report , and act, as to the suitability and class

Of ships employed in the trade, and in regard to the insulation ,etc

(d ) TO attend to grading and insurance, watch the unloadingin London , arrange for storage accommodation near port ofdischarge

,and thus enable supply to be regulated

,also save

many handlings and cost of barges and delays caused thereby .

(e) To arrange for the concentration of the trade in GreatBritain and elsewhere, and to Open up new di stributing centres .

(f) To issue debentures for the purchase Of existing works ,new plant

,or establishing other works , and for raising the

necessary capital .

(9 ) To provide a sinking fund for the repayment of deben

tures .

”

2 . That,in order to achieve the Objects set forth in the fore

going resolution , this conference desires the Government tointroduce a Bill empowering such company to levy tax uponall sheep in the Colony . Shares to be allocated to each stockholder in proportion to the total amount of his paid-up sheep

tax .

”

After a long debate the resolutions were withdrawn , and the


following ones , proposed by Mr . A . C . Begg , of the New ZealandRefrigerating CO were adoptedl . In the opinion of this conference any attempt to estab

lish a monopoly of the frozen meat industry of the Colonywould be both undesirable and impracticable .

”

2 . That,in order to give confidence to buyers and to secure

as far as possible good quality of the meat exported,it is desir

able that the freezing companies in the Colony should agree toa uniform system of grading , as far as consistent with dueregard to local conditions .

”

3 .

“ That , in order to regulate the supplies to the homemarket

,and to prevent the glut which has been occasioned by

excessive shipments during the first half Of each year, it wouldbe very advantageous if provision were made for storageaccommodation in the Colony, so that supplies sent forward

may be regulated and any glut prevented .

”

This conference marked one of the stages of development Ofthe mea t export trade of New Zealand . From 1889 to 1894 theaverage price realized by prime Canterbury wether mutton at

Smithfield Market had fallen to the following rates 4§d . per lb . ,

43d 43d ,4M. ,

4M. ,and 41

13d .

—these were top quotations .The flockowners in the Colony became alarmed about thefuture

,and schemes and plans without and were put forward

to effect improvement in the conditions , locally and in England ,under which the frozen meat industry was carried on . Itis curious that the prac tical (positiv e) outcome of a conference called to sanction a revolutionary and visionary schemeshould have been the acceptance of two such bus inesslikemethods as standardized grading and local storing, neither ofwhich has yet been effectually carried outTwo London Confe rences .—In September, 1897 , a desperateslump occurred in the lamb trad e . The chief holders met onSeptember 22, and a declaration of stocks held bythem was mad e . In March , 1898, a series of meetings washeld in London and attended by these firms for the purpose ofconsidering the lamb position , which had again become acute .

These conferences , under the auspices of the Frozen Mea tTrade Association , were considered to have checked the rot


which had set in . Skipping forward a decade,allusion may be

made to one more meeting of the trade . That was on May 4,

1909 , when Sir Montague Nelson invited all leading importersof frozen mutton , Australasian , South American , and NorthAmerican , to di scuss the position—an exceedingly dismal oneOf over-supply and under-demand . Nothing came of thisconference except a useful exchange of views . In the marketing of Australasian frozen meat it has often been necessaryto attempt to secure combined action , either in limitingquantities Offered or in fixing minimum prices but suchmov ements have rarely been completely successful owing tothe number Of holders and their widely divergent interests .M r. Twopeny

’

s M ission .

—One of the most authoritative andwell-supported movements engaged in by meat exporters wasthe formation in Sydney in September, 1896 , of the AustralianMeat Export Association . Mr . R . E .N.Twopenywas appointeddelegate to visit London for the purpose of forming a committeeof the London representativ es of Australian pastoral intereststo supervise the di sposal of Australian meat in the UnitedKingdom . Mr . Tw0peny succeeded in forming the committee,which sat for some months under the presidency of Mr . E . T .

Doxat. The committee recommended that there should bea regulation of supplies of meat by agreement amongst thefreezing companies

,and also that a limitation of the number

Of consignees in the United Kingdom was desirable . Mr. JohnCooke was somewhat in opposition to the London committeescheme

,holding that our first duty in the Colonies is to set

our own houses in order by Shipping only first-class meat, andarranging for its transport and delivery in first-class condition .

” Although Mr . Tw0peny carried outhis mission in firstrate style , the London committee failed to send prices upward .

The British Austra la sia n of March 1 1,1897, thus alluded to

the matter : It is apparent that what has occurred has beenone of those occasional deviations from established usageprompted by the pressure Of depressed conditions of trade .

Ten Anglo-Australian merchants and bankers have beendiscussing academic problems, such as the c .i .f . trade, coneentration of shipments , etc ., at a round table, and still we are no



with the approval of the customer without giving any actualguarantee of origin . That usual practice still prevails .But the Commi ttee had cases before them of gross fraudulentsales , the most glaring of which was The Old EstablishedWelsh Mutton House in the Strand (until ten years ago) ,where New Zealand mutton

,the retail value of which was 7d .

per lh. , was sold as Welsh at 10d . A witness stated :“ I

have seen Prime Canterbury stuck above a shop that hadnothing but River Plate mutton in it .”

False Tra de Description—Allusion may be made here to anepisode in the history of the New Zealand meat trade . TheGovernment of that State has always been careful to safeguard the interests of its meat exporters . In 1900 the AgentGeneral in London determined to institute prosecutions ofretailers against Whom a clear case could be brought of passingoff inferior meat as New Zealand produce . New Zealandand Canterbury as terms had got to be well known andliked, and so unscrupulous retailers were in the habit of applying them recklessly . The matter was first put to the test byMr . H . C . Cameron

,the New Zealand Government ’s Produce

Commissioner in the United Kingdom,bringing proceedings

against a Blackpool butcher for applying a false trade description to a leg of mutton which the defendant sold to him onMarch 16 , 1900. This and similar cases were taken under theMerchandise Marks Act , 1887, under which measure for aprosecution to be successful it is necessary that the falsedescription shall be in writing . The magistrates di smissedthe case, but the High Court sent it back to them, and theretailer was convicted . Other prosecutions were broughtafterwards on similar grounds , and the New Zealand Govemment went to considerable expense and trouble to put a stopto this fraudulent practice, which , if persisted in , might wellhave injured the high reputation of the Colony ’s produce .In 1905 the New Zealand Government in conjun ction with theLondon County Council summoned a meat salesmanfor applying the labels of the New Zealand Refrigerating Co . and otherNew Zealand labels to Australian lambs supplied under contractto some of the London County Council asylums as New Zea land

SOME NOTEWORTHY INCIDENTS : 1880—1910 27 1

lambs . This case was under the same Act and on the sameindictment . On the evidence of the prosecutors

,there was

about lld . to 2d . per lb . difierence in value between the twodescriptions of lambs . The defendant was fined £20 for hav ingin his possession the goods falsely described . A hair-pin —ofthe kind then used to pin down Australian lamb s ’ tails at thetime of freezing —played no small part in the evidence againstthe loser . Another conv iction was secured in 1907 on much thesame grounds ; in this case Argentine meat was supplied undercontract in place of the New Zealand article .That the substitution of frozen meat for the home

grown article in the retail trade does not prevail as largelyas is thought by many people is proved by the relativ elylow wholesale values for the former . Undoubted ly, somepeople buying Canterbury mutton and lamb think theyare getting meat produced in the English Canterbury district

,

such is the magic ring of the trade description PrimeCanterbury .

” Salesmen say that the Cante rbury brand willsell anything . That improper misrepresentation takes place

,

and constantly, no one can doubt . Each grade is substitutedfor the one above ; American chilled beef for Scotch , Canterbury meat for home-grown , and Australian and Argentinemutton (to a diminishing extent) for New Zealand . The personswho have a right to complain are the English and Scotchfarmers , who feel to some extent in restricted values the effectof the substitution of the imported article for their home-raisedmeat . The consumer, too , has certainly good reason to findfault with his butcher, though the number of those who willnotadmit the excellence of the quality of the chilled beef andfrozen mutton and lamb is becoming less and less . Theadmitted and open sale of town-killed bee f for English ,that is to say, at English retail values , is an unjustifiablepractice , pressing hard upon the home producer in England .

One of the rea sons to account for the popularity of the livecattle trade with the carcass butchers is the profit which theymake in buying American cattle landed at English ports andreta iling this town-killed beef as home-grown . Therewas a case in the English High Court in October, 1908 (British


Tea Table 00 . v . Ga rdner) , in which Mr . Justice Ridley madethis remark I understand English beef to be beef bredand killed in England . One might as well call the English

soldiers killed at the battle of Waterloo Belgians . ’ Thejudge referred in terms of disapproval to the plea that townkilled is recognized by market custom as English meat .Mr . Edward Lloyd

,master butcher, of Chester, gav e evidence

before the Marking of Foreign Meat Committee on June 27 ,1893 , and the following paragraphs from the Report areinstructive

Lord Onslow (Cha irman) You a ssert tha t if a purchaser went into a shOp and

asked where the mea t !Birkenhead-killed American ca ttle] came from he would betold tha t it came from England 7Mr. Lloyd “ Yes, in 99 cases out of 100. Scotch bullocks they ca ll them often

enough) ‘Lord Onslow :

“ Tha t which is bought a penny a pound cheaper wholesale issold atthe same price as tha t which is bought ata penny a pound dea rerMr. Lloyd : “ Exac tly.

Lord Onslow And therefore the purchaser and the consumer have to paymore,and the butcher ma kes a grea t profit 7Mr. Lloyd : Exactly.

The Scotch and English graziers are the principal victims ,for were the American beef sold as “ American beef,

” thepublic , to some extent at least, would not buy it , however goodit might be .

The abov e remarks have not the force tod ay which theypossessed some years ago

,for North American exports of

both fat stock and chilled beef to Great Britain hav e veryconsiderably fallen off of late . Also it is well to say that, asArgentin e and Australian mutton hav e so greatly improv edand advanced relativ ely in price

,there is not now so much

temptation for the retailer to substitute these meats for NewZealand as there was some years back—but there is a readier

The most recent appeal to the law to invoke penalties forselling as New Zealand mutton meat which , as alleged by theprosecutor, the New Zealand Gov ernment, was of Australianorigin, was tried in the Liverpool Police Court in May, 19 11 .

The defendants were shipping merchants , and they sold to theAllan Line a quantity of mutton marked with the Crescentbrand of the New Zealand Refrigerating Co . The contract


CHAPTER XIX

A MI SCELLANY

IN the compilation of a record of an industry with so manyramifications as the frozen meat trade

,there is necessarily

difficulty in assigning a proper position in the story to manyside issues whi ch have to be dealt with . A chapter of miscellanea is almost inevitable , and the following items of interestare, without apology, given , regardless of their heterogeneouscharacter .

Congress of Refrigeration .

It is generally recognized that the campaign to secure marketsfor frozen meat among the countries of the Continent of Europe ,a fight only now proceeding—s lowly—to its more hopefulstages , has had a v aliant protagonist in the InternationalCongress of Refrigeration . The Premier Congres Internationaldu Froid was held in Paris in October, 1908, and nearlydelegates , from forty-three countries , attended this successfulgathering

,which was organized by a French engineer, the late

M . J . de Loverdo. The international movement has done muchto stimulate an industry which

,because of its special character,

had previously lacked the stimulus of combined action withinits ranks, and for this , as well as for the wide publicity gainedfor commercial refrigeration

,M . de Loverdo, with his initiative

and organizing genius, is principally to be thanked. His death ,which took place on January 12, 19 12 , was felt to be due insome measure to his tremendous labours for this cause . At theParis Congress 174 papers were read , and among the numerousresolutions carried were several bearing upon the subjectstreated in this book . Two of them may be given . Mr . T . A .

Coghlan , Agent-General in London for New South Wales , haddevoted his attention at the Congress to the modificationor abolition of regulations hindering the import of refrigerated

A MISCELLANY 275

produce into any country , in the inte rests of cheaper food ,

and his resolution , as accepted , was as followsThat the Congress expresses its opinion that in order to

reduce the cost of living to the working-classes , and to promoteinternational trad e , regulations which hamper the introduction into any country of frozen or chi lled produce , and thestorage

,distribution , and sale of such produce in any such

country , should be modified or abolished .

The other resolution (which was carried ) was one proposedby Mr . Gilbert AndersonThat , in view of the large expansion of the trade in refri

gerated products , it is desirable that an international uniformstandard of meat inspection be established and agreed to bythe various countries exporting and importing animal foods soas to ensure the healthy condition of the meat .”

Although no immediate action was taken with regard tothis resolution , M . de Loverdo rather more than a year beforehis death proceeded to organize an International Meat Inspection Conference , to which it is still hoped the Powers may beofficially invited by the French Governrrientto send delegates in1912. This is a great step in the right direction , and it is feltthat

'

the discussion of the subject among expert delegates of bothmeat producing and consuming countries may do much to convince the latter that the high standard of inspection ruling inthe British exporting countries is a strong argument for theremova l of the barriers that are now raised against this trade .

It will, d oubtless , be the policy of British producers to ask

European delegates their highest demands as to an inspectionstandard , and then to satisfy those demands as far as theirexports are concerned .

The veteran refrigerating engineer and inventor, CharlesTellier

,whose pioneer work is recorded elsewhere , was present

at the Paris Congress , and was accorded a great ovation .

As an outcome of the Congress the Association Inte rnationaledu Froid was formed , besides which it was decided to hold asecond Congress in Vienna two years late r and further Congreeses triennially . The British organ ization of these Con

greases has been conducted by the Cold Storage and Ice

T 2


Association , the scientific body in the United Kingdom repre

sentative of the refrigerating industry .

The Second Congres International du Froid was held inVienna in October

,19 10. Governmental representatives of the

meat exporting countries were well to the fore , and Sir WilliamHall-Jones, High Commissioner for New Zealand, moved thefollowing resolution

,which was carried unanimously in full

CongressThat

,subject to every reasonable regulation to ensure

sound and perfect condition , restrictions operating to preventthe introduction of refrigerated meats and other food productsinto countries whose inhabitants would benefit by their additionto their food supplies

,should be abolished or modified .

At the Vienna Congress it was decided to hold the ThirdCongress in America in 19 13 , and Chicago has been fixed uponas the centre for these meetings on September 15 to 20of thatyear.

Lord Bacon ’

s Frigorific Experiment.

It is reported that as early as in 1816 three Esquimauxwere the forerunners of the commercial pioneers of sixtyfour years later . They brought frozen ptarmigan and othergame to Harwich packed in air-tight cases . They hadto pay £50 duty and £10 for carriage, but this produce fromthe frozen North sold well . Back farther, to 1626

,we come

to the incident, whi ch no conscientious chronicler canneglect, in which Lord Bacon fell a victim to his praiseworthyendeavours to Open up the frozen meat trade . Here is thebiographer’s statement

K ing James died in 1625 . His unfortuna te and ill-requi ted Chancellor (Bacon)surv ived him for little more than a year . Always in feeble health from his youth,his life was fina lly sacrificed to an experiment . He believed tha t decomposi tionmight be prevented by freezing ( then an origina l idea ) , and he determ ined toascerta in , experimenta lly, if he was right . Therefore , one cold spring morni ng hedrove to Highga te, al ighted , bought a fowl at a neighbouring cottage

,and stuffed

it with snow which lay on the ground around him. By the time this opera tionwas finished he felt greatly chilled , and sought warmth and shelter at LordArundel

’

s house , which was nea r at hand. Here he was gladly welcomed by thehousehold , given warm cordials , etc., and was put into a damp bed ( l) . From thisfa tal hospitality he never recovered and he seems to have been aware tha t he wasin grea t da nger, for he wrote to his absent host, comparing himself to the elderPliny

,who lost his life by too nea r an approach to Vesuv ius when watching a



in the summer of 19 10 The South African beef in question ,consisting of a carcass weighing 126 stones , realized 3M. per lb .

The quality of this South African consignment was reportedby Smithfield to be, if anything , superior to that ofthe beef from other countries, although some few improvements were suggested in the matter of dressing , and therecommendation was made to ship younger cattle in the future,and, if possible, in a cooled state, instead of being frozen hard .

”

Frozen Beef from St. Helena .

The unexpected happened when the import of a parcel offrozen beef (8 sides) from thi s island into London occurred in1909 . The Imperial Government are adamant

,as a rule

,to

applications for subsidies or assistance for commercial purposes,

but the authors learn that on behalf of the struggling farmersof thi s Crown Colony, the Government of Great Britainextended a helping hand in the way of supervising and assistingthe small shipment of beef, which, unfortunately, realized anunremunerative price for the consignors .

Argentine Meat at l8d. an Ounce.

A startling incident occurred in 19 10 at the Palermo International Fat Stock Show

,held on July 15. Nothing more

remarkable is chronicled in this book than the contestbetween the Las Palmas frigorifico and La Plata frigorificofor the possession of a bunch of five Hereford steers owned byMessrs . Duggan Brothers . A world

’s record was establishedwhen the La Plata people secured the animals with the fabulousbid of m/m per beast, the cost of the mea tworking out at 18 . 6d . per ounce . The La Plata company tookin all 177 head of cattle , at a cost of m/mThese cattle were all chi lled and exported to the Londonmarket . The beef was of splendid quality, but suited to thewinter rather than the summer trade

,and the price at which it

sold was not above that ruling for chilled beef of primest

A MISCELLANY 279

quality . When asked , afte r the Show, for some explanationof his action in buying the Herefords at over a head ,

Mr . Pryor, the La Plata manager, stated We wantArgentine breeders to be assured that if they will only produce the right sort of anima ls , prices will be forthcomingto remunerate them amply .

”

Canterbury Mutton at the Lord Mayor’s Show .

In the early days of the frozen meat trade one of the principalproblems which confronted the importe r was the bringing ofthe meat prominently under the notice of the masses of thepopulation . One of the most successful efforts in this direction

was made with carcasses of Canterbury mutton , selected fromparce ls consigned to the New Zealand Loan and MercantileAgency Cc . , Ltd . By the combined ingenuity of the consignees , their Smithfield salesmen , Messrs . Ward and Stimpson ,and a leading firm of carriers , a lorry load of these carcassesformed one of the exhibits of the Lord Mayor’s Show in theyear 1885. The mystery as to how this exhibit came to formpart of the famous procession has never been satisfactorilycleared up by the City authorities , but the fact remains thatthe lorry with these carcas ses hanging from a specially preparedframework of wooden beams traversed the streets of the Cityand formed an object of curiosity and inte rest to the thousandsof cheering sightseers who were informed by placard that thecarcasses in question were New Zealand Frozen Mutton—theMeat of the Future .

” As a matter of fact, the lorrywas driven by Mr . Fardel] , principal of the firm of v an

proprietors referred to above, into the unformed processionbehind the Guildhall . Excellent as was this advertisement, itdid not end with the mere exhibition of the meat in the streetsof the City, for the morning papers of the following day allcommented upon this novel feature of the Lord Mayor

’s Show,

some treating it as part of the authorized procession , andothers indignantly inquiring how it was the lorry with itsburden found a place in the time-honoured pageant . It is


also recorded that though the carcasses lost some of theirbloom by exposure to the murky Nov ember atmosphere

,they

were sold at Smithfield on the following morning at pricesabove the market v alue of the day for prime carcasses

,as the

buyers were anxious to exhibit them in their shops as frozenmutton which had formed part of the Lord Mayor’s Show . A

very smart advertisement !

Kosher Frozen Meat.

One of the modern distribution dev elopments of the tradein Great Britain is indicated in the following adv ertisementwhich appeared in The Jewz

'

sh World of August 19 , 19 10

NOTICE TO THE JEW I SH PUB L I C —We hereby give notice tha t the Ecclesiastica l Authorities and the London Board of Shechi ta have granted facilities for theimporta tion of Chilled and Frozen Kosher Mea t from Argentine. This meat isprepa red by officials authorised by the Ecclesiastica l Authorities, and appointedby the Boa rd of Shechita . The mea t is porged and Koshered prior to beingshipped, and is therefore ready for use. The first consignment has a rrived and

will b e followed by consignments at regular intervals . It is now on sa le in theshops of reta il butchers holding the Licence of the Board. Horwitz Abrahams

,

Limi ted , Importers, 56 Aldga te High Street, E .C.

The first lotof kosher frozen force of beef—from the Campana.

works—arriv ed in London in August, 19 10. A five years’

contract was entered into with the Riv er Plate Fresh Meat Co.

for the supply of regular consignments . The whole schemewas pushed forward by the Jewish authorities in the interest

of the poorer sections of the Jewish commun ity, owing to thehigh prices of home and European supplies . At the time ofthe arrival of the abov e-mentioned shipment, prime EnglishKosher forequarters sold at 6M. per lb . the Argentine kosherfores made 3d . to 3%d . Over ten years ago Nelson Brothersmad e a bold bid for thi s business, but the scruples then of theShechita Board on religious grounds could notbe got ov er, andit is unfortunate that six months after the launching of thelater enterprise recounted abov e the offi cial announcementhad to be made that the trade had not proved a success .



thus the meat is guaranteed to be fit for food . If our contentionis correct, and we can trace most diseases by examination of

the lungs, it is evident we do, at least, something from thesanitary standpoint in discarding such animals as are unfit .Even after the meat has been purchased and brought home, itis not done with . The blood is removed , so far as possible, bysoaking the meat in water for half an hour

,and then it is

cov ered with salt, the salt being again removed by rinsing .

That process is called making the meat kosher . ’ The fleshof beasts dying from any other cause than death by the shochetis forbidden . The veins and arteries are , before eating , removedby a peculiar process . Diseased or dying animals must notbe killed . The kosher Jew does not eat the hindquartersof the animal .”

An Early W elcome to Frozen Meat.

In the account of the efforts of the pioneers of the frozenmeat trade

,the work of Mr. John Grigg , of Longbeach , New

Zealand,must be noted . The following account of the recep

tion in thi s country of meat shipped by Mr . Grigg on the

Dunedin in 1881 is given by hi s son , Mr . J . C . N . GriggWhen the sailing ship Dunedin left Port Chalmers , part of

the cargo were some half-bred Shropshire wethers and lambsrailed from Longbeach by my father, John Grigg, and consigned to the New Zea land Loan and Mercantile Agency Co . in

London . Three lamb s and two wethers were consigned directto me at Cambridge , they were delivered to me on a Monday,and di rectly they arriv ed I had them put in a fishmonger

’

s iceroom and wrapped in a blanket , where they remained thawinguntil Thursday . Kettle was the name of the Jesus Collegecook who agreed to cook the three lambs and sheep all at once .

On Thursday afternoon I went to the kitchen at 4 p .m . , andsaw them all being spitted , the joints being turned by the oldsmoke jack . I told Kettle the sheep were from New Zealand ,but asked him not to tell anyone . Next day the men in theJesus first boat (then head of the river) were lunching with

A MISCELLANY 288

ms , and I had two cold joints of Canterbury lamb on the table .It was only natural that men in training should have twohelpings , but when one said , You will think me damnedgreedy , Grigg , but the lamb is so good , I must ask for a thirdhelping

,

’ and another followed suit, I was delighted , and thenI told them the lamb was from New Zealand , much to their

Stephen Fairbairn , of Melbourne , was one of themen

,and he was very excited , as his father was chairman

of the first freezing company formed in Victoria. I wrote

at'

,once to my father to say how excellent the mutton

and lamb were , especially the latter, which was perfectlysweet and good several days afte r leaving the fre ezingchamber .

After this first shipment I received letters from my fatherexpressing great confidence and hope in the future of thefrozen meat trade . My father with others in Canterbury atonce started to build freezing works at Belfast, after forminga small farmers ’ company .

”

Flock Maintenance and Experts.

It is inte resting to note that the export of frozen sheep andlambs from New Zealand , increasing steadily (the period1903—1904 was the only exception ) as it has from 1882 to thepresent time, has not depleted the flocks of the Dominion ;indeed , the frozen meat export has been accompanied by asteady growth , from about head of sheep in 1881

to about in 1901, at which date New Zealand wasshipping 16 per cent . of her flocks to Great Britain in the formof frozen sheep and lambs

,a percentage which rose in 1903 to

24 per cent . In 1003—1904 sheep fell in numbers , butan upwardmovement set in again in 1905, and has continued to the date

of the last ofi cial enumeration . In the United Kingdom , withan area not very much more extensive than that of NewZealand , there are sheep

,and the annual killing of

sheep and lambs is about 40per cent . , and of cattle 25 per cent .


So New Zealand ’s sheep stock will , no doubt , still furtherincrease . The following figures illustrate this paragraph

Sheep in New Zealand. Frozen b

liu

x

t

p

tgi'l

te

‘

llld Lambs

The wonderful position of New Zealand to-day in the exportof frozen meat is due to the suitabili ty of the land for sheepbreeding and the evenness and mildness of her climate . Thatthe Dominion can keep on exporting such a very large proportion of its sheep , and still go on increasing the number of itspermanent flocks

,is due to the high percentage of lambs

reared . Roughly speaking , the percentage of lambs rearedyear after year is about 90per cent . Many farmers in Canterbury rear 120 per cent . , and in some cases still higher percentages are recorded .

Enter Mr. Hooley .

An incident that may be mentioned here was the temporaryappearance of Mr . Ernest T. Hooley in the frozen meat tradearena in 1897 . On May 21 of that year, his solicitors , Messrs .

Ashwell and Tutin,issued a circular letter in which it was

stated that he was prepared to “ form a combination ,” if

supported by the industry,with the object of placing the frozen

meat trade upon a satisfactory footing . His plan was toamalgamate the freezing companies in Australasia, and he wasprepared to purchase the companies on the basis of the netassets as per balance sheet plus a bonus equal to the aggregateamount of dividends paid during the previous seven years .

A new company would be formed in London with a largercapital than the aggregate v alues of the concerns taken over.

Mr . Hooley ’s idea was that the trade on this side lacked capitaland organization

,and he thought a combine would improve



weather, the forequarters may be cooked sooner . As there isa tendency for the juice to run from the mutton while thawing

,

it should be hung in such a way as to check this . The hindquarter, haunch , and leg , should be hung by the flaps

,the

knuckles hanging down , the loins and saddles also by the flaps ,giving them a horizontal position . This meat should not besoaked in water for the purpose of thawing (as some suppose) ,but hung in the larder or other dry

,draughty place

,and wiped

occasionally with a dry cloth in damp weather . Flour shouldnot be used, as it is apt to turn sour . When put down forcooking , the chump part of the leg or loin should be exposed tothe fire

,or hottest part of the oven

,for a few minutes, to toast

the part out and so seal it up , thus keeping the gravy in thejoint .”

A Frigid Message.

The housewife who , about 1888, found pushed up alongsidethe bone in a leg of mutton (which she had purchased as

English at 9d . a a piece of paper bearing this legendWhere did you buy thi s leg , and what price did you pay ?inform J . C.,

Ashburton, Christchurch, N must have been

Tallerman Enterprises .

Some interest attaches to the work done by Mr . DanielTaHerman in introducing Australian preserved meats atcheap price during the times of scarcity that preceded theStrathleven voyage . Mr . Tallerman arriv ed from Melbourne tosettle in London in 186 8, bringing some packages of meat intallow with him . This meat was mild-cured, boned mutton ,enclosed in a lin en envelope, and was rolled like sides of bacon .

It was packed in casks,and tallow was run round the meat .

This mutton carried well, and when chopped into mincemeatand cooked with potatoes it made an appetizing , nutritious, andeconomical dish , the potatoes absorbing the fat . At one timethere were 100 tons of the meat on hand in London . Mr .Tallerman and his Penny Dinners at Norton Folgate were

A MISCELLANY 287

famous from 186 8 to 1872 . The movement was initiated by agigantic banquet to London working men and women at

the Lambeth Baths on December 1 , 186 9 , at which manyAustralians were present . The following is from Punch

,

January 8 , 1870The French Emperor having expressed a desire to test

some of the Australian meat, which furnishes the pennydinners in Norton Folgate , Mr . Tallerman , manager of theAustralian Meat Agency, at once submitted samples to theTuileries . The Emperor, on the principle of fla texperimentamin cor

-pore vili, caused some of the meat to be cooked for the

soldiers on guard . Finding that they survived it, and even , likeOliver Twist , asked for more , he ordered the same dish to beset before the principal ofi cers of the Imperial Household .

The officers , unlike the privates , shuddered , but ate , and totheir own amazement, relished ; and then the Emperor triedit himself, pronounced it good, and expressed his grac iousintention of causing a more extended trial to be made—wepresume on the Empress and the entourage.

”

The British public were very much prejudiced againstpreserved mea t in any form owing to the disas trous outturnof some shipments from South America of charqui (186 6

to The Observer of October 31, 186 8, spoke of themacerated caoutchouc-like lumps of charqui which earned theexecrations of the populace Australian meat was popularlyte rmed charqui for some time .

Mr . Tallerman formed a company for each clas s of meat hehandled . The Norton Folgate campaign was conducted byhim at his own risk and expense . Later on he turned hisattention to tinned meats , which he showed at the ViennaExhibition of 1873 . The Emperor of Austria tasted Australianmea t, and was so pleased with it that he made Mr . Tallermana Ritte r Kreitz of the Order of Francis Joseph . Mr.Tallerman acted in London for the French company whichfinanced M . Tellier

’

s Frigorifique venture , and he importedinto Great Britain about 10 tons of the meat. The newspapersfrom 186 8 for ten years or so were full of Mr . Tallerman’

s

enterprises for introducing meat preserved in all sorts of ways.


In 1874 he took premises in Upper Thames Street,and fitted

up a patent refrigerator . In 1879 he opened up a retaildepartment for the selling of American dressed beef in one of

the arches of the railway Mr . Tallerman and the salesman incharge (Mr . Burket ) worked in cc-operation . This is mentionedon accoun t of the enormous interest excited . Mr . Tallermandeclares that people a week v isited the premises

,many

of whom purchased meat,and that £100 a week was paid in

tolls (%d . per A merry season of fourteen weeks wasexperienced

,in which was taken . This enterprise

,

howev er, was short liv ed, the salesman-partner left , the boomcollapsed

,and the place was soon closed .

Frozen Meat Squibs.

An amusing hoax was perpetrated in the seventies on thePre ss and public of Australia . It proceeded from the pen of awell-known gentleman in Brisbane , who grav ely described howexperiments had been successfully carried on at freezing worksin Sydney Harbour on a liv e lamb , which after having beenfrozen hard under the influence of drugs had been unfrozenagain at the end of six months and thawed out alive (l) and,with the exception of the tail , absolutely sound . (The tailhad been snapped off in the process . ) Thi s was cabled homeand created great commotion in interested circles , and aleading London journal

,carried away with the excitement ,

dev oted a leader to the subject . Allied to this yarn there wascurrent at the same period, say about 1875, at the squatters

’

clubs in Queensland,the story that steps had been taken to

analyse the poison which the mason wasp - to temporarilypoison its victims—injects into the bodies of the spiders placedin the nest in whi ch the eggs of the wasp are sealed up .

(These clever insects , well known to all residents in Queensland ,stuff the bag charged with eggs and spiders into keyholes, gunbarrels

,etc . ,

and then close up the apertures . When theyoung wasps emerge from the eggs they break up the sac andadmi t the air, whereupon the unfortunate spiders , which hadbeen in a condition of suspended life , revive, only to be


CHAPTER XX

THE DIETETICS OF FROZEN MEAT

THE dietetic value of frozen mea t is really proved by thefact that it is consumed and found perfectly acceptable by allclasses in Great Britain . But, possibly, its food-value maynot be completely represented by its popularity. Publicexperience and scientific tests have long ago vindicated frozenmeat

,so that when

,for instance, in September, 1909 , Mr .

Rowland Hunt in the House of Commons asked ironi cally ifthe War Minister was aware that, according to a pamphletissued

,experts consider that one pound of freshly-killed beef is

worth a stone of frozen meat, nothing more than an outrageon common sense was perpetrated . Mr . (now Lord) Haldaneneatly countered by saying that he was sure that the

hon . member had , Without knowing it, flourished on frozenmeat .” The Minister realized that to reply directly tothe query would be an insult to the inte lligence of theHouse of Commons ! It may be well, however, to bringforward in this chapter conclusive ev idence that frozen meat,as to primeness of quality and excellence of condition , issound and sterling food ; that the processes through whichit has passed hav e caused no injury and deprived the meatof none of its nourishing value . Further, there may be put onrecord statements of practical men , and the results of scientists

’

researches .To begin at the beginning , on p . 98 are given some

particulars of the enormous sums paid by breeders in theArgentine for pure-bred sheep and cattle imported from GreatBritain . The progeny of the rams and bulls purchased fromthe pedigree flocks and herds of the British breeder have beensent to England in the form of frozen meat . The object of theSouth American buyer of these expensive animals was to

THE DIETETICS OF FROZEN MEAT

improve the native stock in the Republic so that the deadmeat exported might be of unexceptionable quality . Withoutforcing any comparison between the frozen meat imported intoGreat Britain and the home stock slaughte red for food ,

therecan be no doubt that, if it were possible to compare the frozenand chi lled meats marketed throughout England and Scotlandon a given day with home-fed meats of all grades , and strikeaverages for qua lity, the imported meat would not be theinferior. As in Argentina and Uruguay, so in Australia andNew Zea land , where the whole of the flocks and herds are ofBritish blood . For many years past the stockmen in thosecountries have been steadily buying pedigree sheep and , to aless extent, cattle, from English and Scotch breeders . TheKent or Romney Marsh , Shropshire , Southdown , Hampshireand Oxford Downs , Dorset Hem—numbers of rams from thesemea t breeds are exported to Australas ia yearly . What is themeaning of all this ? Simply that in eating frozen meat weare eating—to a great extent—just the same class and gradesof meat as we should order from English and Scotch grazingdistricts . It would be a good thing if the Government of NewZealand were to cause a circular to be sent to every householder in England announcing the fact that the Kent orRomney Marsh sheep exhibited by Mr . Ernest Short, ofParorangi, New Zealand, at the Argentine 1910 CentenaryShow beat the British sheep of the same cla ss and tookchampionship honours . This is the stock from which NewZealand meat is bred 1

Scientific Tests.

In previous chapters have been described the processesthrough which the frozen meat passes from the time it leavesthe freezing works until it arrives at the English butcher’s shop .

The experience of thirty years in conducting the trad e haseliminated all faulty methods and has established such asmooth procedure that accidents and mischances in the

conveyance of the meat from point to point which wouldinterfere with good condition are rela tively rare, and if the

U 2


treatment to which reference has several times been made,

viz . , sufficient thawing out, is observed frozen meat ranks withthe bestTo revert a while and meet the objection of the critic who

says that freezing injures meat,the point might almost be

answered in general terms . Did the Beefsteak Club find thatthe freezing process had spoiled the flavour of the Canterburywethers that pleased them so mightily Do the millions whoenjoy the tender frozen lambs find the pleasure to their palatelessened owing to the carcasses having been subject to KingFrost for a couple of months or so ? But let us see whatscientific men say .

Back in 1896 the London journal the Hospita l printed somearticles giving the results of certain quantitativ e cookin g testsmade by Mr . Samuel Rideal, D .so. whi ch testsshowed that frozen meat was digestible, nutritious , palatable ,and economi cal . This examination certainly has historicalinterest , in view of its being undertaken for the purpose ofpublicly dissipating current prejudi ces against frozen meat .Under the direction of a clev er practical cook , two legs ofmutton of nearly equal weight were baked for an equal lengthof time in ovens equally heated . No . 1 was English grown andkilled and cost lod . per lb . No . 2 was the best New Zealandfrozen mutton , thawed at the butcher

’s, and sent in readyfor use . Two and a quarter hours were given to the baking ,and the following are the resultant figures

Weight when delivered by the butcherWeight when taken from the oven

Seven sub-tests were made as to weight of slices suitable forhospital diet, bone and waste , gravy, etc . , in all of which thefrozen joint held its own . It is clear

,

” wrote the Hospita l,even from one experiment that the assertion that NewZealand meat is essentially and invariably more wasteful thanEnglish cannot be supported . Then the Hospita l commissioned Dr. Rideal to undertake tests concerning the nutritive


294: A HISTORY OF THE FROZEN MEAT TRADE

In testing for the comparativ e digestibility of steak thefollowing results were obtained

Argentine Chilled . Argentine Frozen. English .

698 9 6 3 -78

the percentages of lean portions of meat available for digestivepurposes turning out in the three cases as follow

Argentine Ch illed. Argentine Frozen. English.

814 85-3 72-2

The housewife, who in the past has had preached to her suchtales as to the wasting qualities of imported meat on cooking ,

might with profit study the following results of baking tests

made in the course of Dr. R ideal’

s investigations

lb s. ozs.

Weight when deliveredWeight when taken fromoven 4 15

Weight of slices sui tablefor hospita l di et

Weight of bone and

wastePure boneGra vy in di sh after ca rv111g

Gra vy under dripping

Then as to its digestibility,the same authority arrived at

the following figures of percentages

English AustralianMutton. Mutton.

W ate rFat

Organicma tter and associa tedmineralma tter “

Percentage of n itmgenous organicma tter digested 152 5

The concluding remark of Dr. Rideal in his report as to thisclose scrutiny of the value of refrigerated meat is that It issatisfactory to find the general opinion confirmed that no

THE DIETETICS OF FROZEN MEAT 295

incipient decomposition or hydrolysis takes place under coldstorage ; while this further series of tests also fully supportsthe favourable conclusions arrived at as the result of previousexperiments , by further illustrating the satisfactory foodvalues of frozen mutton and lamb . To sum up , the ana lyst,in a paper read before the first Inte rnational RefrigeratingCongwss in Paris in 1908 said : In a series of quantitativecooking trials I found that the food va lue of frozen was

not less than that of fresh meat.”

There is also solid material at hand in favour of frozen meatin the highly technical paper of Mr . W . D . Richardson , chairman of the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society

,

delivered at the same Congress , on the subject of The ColdStorage of Beef and Poultry .

” This essay is illustrated by awea lth of diagrams from photographs of meat substancesunder freezing and thawing conditions . Changes in flesh foodsunder cold storage were the problem , and the chief changeinvestigated was bacterial action . Experiments were mad eon fresh and frozen beef knuckle the latter was observed upto 554 days , and the conclusion the scientist came to was thatfrozen meat from 93 to 554 days old is in the same conditionbacterially as meat from freshly slaughtered animals .

” Thisis a high testimony to the preserving powers of refrigeration ,though , of course , the cost involved in prolonged cold storagewould of itself serve to ensure that the public meat suppliesare never submitted to such lengthy warehousing .

Two paragraphs may be quoted from this valuable paper

There are no facts known at present which would milita te aga inst thebility of flesh preserva tion for an indefinite length of time under proper cond tionsof storage. OstertagoWilcox (Ha ndbook qf Meat I nspection, p . 824) says : “ Coldis unquestionably the bestmethod of preserving mea t. Itcauses no altera tion inthe mea t, ei ther with regard to taste or nutrit ive value.In conclusion, cold storage appea rs to be the bu t method of re serva tion of

flesh foods atpresent known to man, inasmuch as it modifies to s cm extent theappea rance and utility of the product than doother methods. Tha t improvementsmay be and will introduced into cold storage practice must be admitted , buttha t in principle cold s prevents or inhibits to a extent the forca of

dete riora tion, chemical an biochemica l, cannot be deni it is a sa tisfactory ,ancient and sa fe means of preservation of flesh foods for long periods of time .

Another endorsement of the fac t that the nutritive matte ris identica l in home grown and frozen mutton has been mad e


by Professor James Long in the record of the results of a testwhich he undertook a few years ago at the request of the WarOffice . To make his test Professor Long took thi rty legs ofwether mutton

,Scotch , English , New Zealand , Argentine , and

Australian, and the following extract may be made from hisreport

If we make a general comparison between the home-grown and the importedmutton we obta in the following results, which represent the avera ge of the

fi fteen jointsHome-grown Mutton

Rea lNutritive Ma tterAverage Weight (Fatand Lea n)

per joint . devoid of moisture.

lb s. ozs. Per cent.10 7

Imported Mutton8 8

Practically spea king, the real nutritive matter present in ea ch lotof mea t,the

home-grown and the imported , wa s identical, for the difference was butslightlymore than 1 per cent . The quantity of mea t in its moist condition wa s a ctua llyhigher in the imported than in the home-grown legs of mutton, b utthe fat, whichcounts ma teria lly owing to its useful feeding properties , told in favour of the

British mea t,although a large proportion is invariab ly wasted .

These favourable verdicts , from persons so competent topass them , make out a very excellent case for frozen meat,well worth the attention of the British public and the peoplesof Continental countries . Indeed , the whole of this volume ,when carefully epitomized , yields testimony, beyond question ,notonly of the dietetic value of the supplies of frozen andchilled meat which arrive at the ports of Great Bri tain, butalso, speaking generally, of the enormous benefit to a nationengaged in industrial activ ities which these supplies confer, inbeing regular

,skilfully handled

,cheap

,and, as to quality and

soundness , guaranteed by Government veterinary certificate atthe country of production , and by the examination of theinspectors of the Medical Officers of Health at the ports of

importation .

Further te sts made by English and foreign scientists of thedietetic v alue of frozen meat might be cited in this chapter,and additional evidence leading to a favourable conclusion ofthe frozen meat case would not be difficult to bring forward .

But the authors think that enough has been wri tten, bearing


2 98 A HISTORY OF THE FROZEN MEAT TRADE

of frozen meat as a war supply, a leading witness before theRoyal Commission on the South African War said of coldstorage that it saved South Africa .

”

The Sound Quality of Imports.

Referring to the position of frozen meat on Smithfield

Market, a well-known figure there has remarked The tradehas now reached such a point that it is really difficult toconceive what our position would be were it not for frozenmeat .” The same suggestion occurs with more force withregard to the publi c . What would happen if there were nofrozen and chi lled meat to be had i The benefits of refrigeration have penetrated into all the conditions of life . Travellersrecollect down to the eighties the wretched stock and miserablefowls carried on board steamers to supply fresh meat forpassengers . Since frozen meat came along, the mail steameris provisioned as easily and as well as the hotel .If it may be stated that the vegetarian resta urant of our

towns—the first of any size was that opened in Queen Street,Cheapside, London , in 1882—was, broadly speaking , a protestagainst meat scarcity and dearness , it may also be said thatsuch food purveying institutions have probably been robbedof full dev elopment by the advent of cheap frozen meats .Though vegetarianism has its advocates , there is undoubtedlya consensus of scientific opinion that a generous mea t dietis necessary for the hard worker.

CHAPTER XXI

WHAT THE TRADE HAS DONE FOR AUSTRALIA

(Specia lly Contributed by Mr. John Cooks, of Austra lia . )

I 'r would be freely conceded by most that no man is in a

better position to say what the frozen meat industry hasmeant to Australia than Mr . John Cooke, senior partner of thefirm of John Cooke and Cc . , Australia . Mr . Cooke has contributed the following lines concerning the part which thefrozen meat trade has played in developing the resources ofAustraliaPrior to the introduction of refrigeration in the preservation

and transport of fresh meat, the only methods of disposingof the surplus sheep and cattle produced in Australia were

(a ) Preserving and packing mutton and beef in cans

(b) Boiling down the carcasses for their tallow .

Neither of these methods offered much encouragement tostock producers to increase their flocks and herds , as thereturns from canned meat were frequently very trifling , whilethose obtained from tallow refining were small , afte r providingfor the cost of manufacture , casks , etc .

The values ruling for sheep almost entirely depended ontheir fleeces , the carcass on average representing very littleindeed in the price . In the same way the value of any bullockor cow outside the category of a fat beast fit for local consumption depended entirely on the hide and the tallow that couldbe extracted through the digestor . There was accordinglylittle to stimulate station owners to improve their holdingsor increa se their flocks and herds , seeing that they could neverreckon on getting a profitable market for their surplus stockwhen these were ready for market or when they wanted todispose of them. Likely enough a dry spell would intervene


when they were overstocked , and , having no profitable outletwhatever, they had simply to look on while their stock graduallydisappeared . These conditions made stock-raising in Australiaa very precarious proposition , and greatly retarded thatdevelopment which the magnificent lands and healthy andgenial climatic conditions ought to have brought about .There have been occasions when prices for sheep were so lowthat they were sold by the score instead of per head .

The frozen meat export trade has changed all that,and

has proved to be by far the most potent factor in the growthand prosperity of Australia during the past twenty years .The was te lands of the Crown have not only been renderedmore valuable per se

,but lessees have been encouraged to

expend money in improvements, thus increasing the carryingcapacity of their runs

,and converting what might have become

rabbit warrens or barren plains in to wool and meat-producingproperties . All owners of rural land, whether of 100oracres, have had a permanent and increasing value placed upontheir holdings owing to the fact that the stock they raised hashad established for it a profitable minimum value . Landowners have accordingly been enabled to improve their holdingsby fencing , water conservation , and cultiv ation , and furthermore, they have felt justified in spending money in the way ofintroducing improv ed strains of blood into their flocks andherds .It will be manifest that all classes of live stock , whether

stores or fats, have benefited by the export of fat carcassmeat ; in fact, in many cases prices obtainable for store sheepand cattle have approximated

,and

,indeed , occasionally even

equalled, those for prime slaughter animals .

The long and terrible drought which culminated in 1902

and brought the total sheep stock of Australia from aboutninety-eight down to about fifty-four millions, and cattle fromabout twelve down to seven millions, temporari ly checkedthe export of frozen meat

,and it is hardly necessary to point

out that had that export industry not been maintained andextended , it would have been utterly impossible during the briefperiod of seven years to have restored the numbers of sheep



the mainstay of the industry, the quantity of frozen beefshipped abroad has been steadily extending , and would havebeen much greater but for the long drought that ended aboutseven years ago. It can readily be understood that therestoration of herds of cattle takes a much longer period thanthe recovery of flocks of sheep .

The commendable schemes of immigration now being soenergetically promoted by all Australian States have manifestlybeen made much more practicable through the advertisementgiven to Australia by the ever-increasing distribution ofAustralian meat through the length and breadth of the UnitedKingdom .

Other localities have taken their part in the trade,notably

South Africa,the Philippine Islands, the Medi terranean ports ,

and it is not difficult to foresee that all the great Europeancountries—France, Germany, Austria, etc—must follow theexamples of Italy and Switzerland, and, by admi tting frozenmeat free from impossible conditions and on a moderate scaleof customs duties , enable their citizens to obtain wholesomemeat at prices within their means .”

rm; me n-r mm. 3 111 JOS EPH ozouc z

mum, Plum. M INISTER

or zmu xn, 1904;—19 12 .

am. sous co on . mt. " w as“ masox.

TI" : FONTR IBI ’ IH ID‘ 0? CHAPTER." XXL. XXI I . , AND XXI I I .

Tu!an y . 302 .



quickly every pastoral and agricultural di strict in the Colonyentered into the trade

,which has expanded to a v olume

exceeded in value only by wool , and which has not nearlyreached its limits . Thi s expansion has , no doubt, been greatlyassisted by the popularity which New Zealand meat has gainedowing to the efficient system of inspection by whi ch the freedomfrom disease of all exported meat is assured .

From the beginning in 1882 wi th a small shipment,slaugh

tered on land and frozen in the hold of the carrying ship (asailing vessel ) , the trade has grown by 19 10 to the followingdimensions

No. of mea t freezing works in opera tion , 1911Da ily slaughtering and freezing ca pa city in sheep carcasses, 19l1Cold storage capacity, sheep ca rcasses , 1911

Exponrs, 1910

Mutton , carcasses Weightlegs and pieces

Lamb , carcassesBeef, qua rters

Rabbits (number) Total value (export) ,

In addi tion , meat preserving is an adjunct to most of themeat freezing works, and adds considerably to the volumeand value of the output .The value of the land, bui ldings, machinery, and plant

employed in the trade is approximately thenumber of hands employed, and the wages paid inthe year 19 10,When the question of entering upon the export of frozen

meat was under consideration, it was held that if 1d . per lb .

net could be realized by growers for their mutton , the pros

perity of the pastoral industry would be assured the averageprices actually realized have generally ranged from 2M. to

3d . per 1b . for mutton , 3gd . to «id . for lamb , and 2d . for beef,besides the value of the skins, hides and fat .The success of the frozen meat trad e has been reflected in

the rapid progress and great prosperity of the Dominion.

This is to some extent shown in the following comparative

NEW ZEALAND‘S GAIN FROM FROZEN MEAT 305

official figures, though the progress is not entirely due to thefrozen meat trade , but 18 largely contributed to by the kindredindustry of dairying

Popula tion 1880 19 11Capital value of land inNew Zea land 1882 19 10

Land in cultivation , area 1880 1908

No. of culti va ted holdings 1908Exports 19 10

NO. of shes in the Domin ion 19 11

No. of cat e 19 11

From the inception of the trade in 1882 to December 3 1,19 10

, there were exported from New Zealandcarcasses of mutton and lamb , besides millions of legs ofmutton , notwithstanding which immense drain the number ofsheep in the Dominion has in the same period nea rly doubled .

The frozen meat trade has revolutionized agriculture in NewZealand . It has greatly increased the v alue of land and hascaused the adoption of improved systems of farming and morethorough cultivation , though the capabilities of the land forproduction have not yet been more than verypartially exploited .

The imperfect results already obtained have demonstratedthat New Zealand has a capability of production surpassing ,area for area , that of any other country in the world, andrequiring only population , skill , and energy to develop it . Thetrade , supplemented by dairying , bore the chief share in rescuingthe country from depression

,and enabling settlement to be

promoted, with the result of a vast increase in production andalso in the national wealth ; and the improvement in the methodsof farming has restored the fertility of a large quantity of landwhich had been exhausted by repeated cropping , and hasincrea sed the fertility of large areas which were previouslyconsidered to be not worth cultivating . Above all, the pastoraland agricultural industries of the Dominion have never beforebeen in such a sound position as at the present time .

CHAPTER XXIII

ARGENTINA’

S DEBT TO REFR IGERATION

(Specia lly Contributed by Mr. HerbertGibson . )

IT is not easy, even for those whose memory carries themback a generation or so

,to step out from the throb and bustle

of the great Argentine freezing factories, from the flocks ofcomely sheep of typical breeds, from the great paddocks inthat mighty zone of twelve million acres of alfalfa where herdafter herd of sleek Shorthorns graze, from the whole panoramaof thi s modern pastoral industry, and to see things as they werewhen in 1877 the steamships Frigorifique and Pa ragua y

receiv ed in their chilled holds the first consignment of RiverPlate fresh meat to be conveyed to Europe .

It is not,after all , so long ago . Men who still like to believe

themselv es young can talk of their stockbreeding experiencesof those days . Wire fencing had scarcely yet come intogeneral use and most of the live stock was herded and roundedup in open country . The water was drawn from the wells ina rude sleeve made from an ox hide . The thatch and wattleof the stockman ’s butwere bound with raw leather thongs,and often as not a horse-hide did service for a door . Cattlewere unimproved . Here and there progressiv e breeders suchas Juan Fernandez

,Pereyra, Lezama , and others

,had intro

duced Shorthom blood to their herds, but the merits of Englishcattle encountered opposition . Their hides were too thin, andthe hide on the ox’

s back constituted in those days half itssale value . Their flesh was too deep and fat to take the saltproperly, and salted sun-dried cha rqui beef was the sole meatexport . They wanted, too, more feeding than the hardythick-skinned creole bullocks . So breeders would have noneof these sleek roan and red English beasts

,and the bulls bred

from them were unsaleable except to a most limited circle of



in Argentina’s pastoral wealth and revenue is due,and is

wholly and solely due, to the applied science of conveying

overseas in a frozen or chilled condi tion fresh meat for Europeanconsumption . The improvement in the quality of the Argentine flocks and herds , the adv ancement achiev ed in pastoralmethods and in laying down alfalfa and other permanentpastures , have been in response to the demand created by therefrigerated meat trade

,and have only been made possible by

the increased rev enue that trade has brought . Progress hasbeen attained , of course , in the general economy of the stockfarm . In 1877 ev ery sheep produced 158 tons of wool ,and in 1908 the same number produced 248 tons of wool .Wool still constitutes 40 per cent . of Argentina’s total exportof animal produce . But in 1877 the total value of meat exportsfrom Argentina

,being cha rqui and meat extracts , amounted to

and in 1908 the tota l value of meat exports , beingfrozen mutton and lamb , frozen and chilled beef, preservedmeat cha rqui and meat extracts , amounted to Tothi s important sum cha rqui contributed There is ,therefore, sufficient evidence in the foregoing to justify theconclusion that the frozen meat trade has added four-and-ahalf to five millions sterling per annum to the Argentinepastoral industry . Since the first shipment of frozen beef in1877 the cattle stock of the country has doubled and thepastoral revenue has trebled, and the difference between theratio of progress in revenue as compared to that in numbersmust be credited to the business of refrigerating mea t .So far back as 186 7 patents were granted by the Argentine

Gov ernment for methods of preserving meat . Mysteriousenough some of them were

,as

,for example, one whose sole

ingredient was the oil of grape seeds . An other is somewhatvaguely described as an application of heat or cold .

” InOctober of 1877 we find the first record of the refrigerating art .Mr . C . Tellier obtains a patent for the desiccation of meat ata temperature of zero by the application of methylic ether .Immediately following the name of this great pioneer in therefrigerating art comes another patent, granted in July, 1878,for freezing meat by means of sal ammoniac in a vessel or

ARGENTINA’S DEBT TO REFRIGERATION 309

chamber with a temperature below zero . There is no needto follow the records further . The definition of the art ofrefrigerating meat had arrived .

In these experimental stages the cattle were slaughtered atthe sa la dero of Don Eugenio Terrascu , and the meat was ladenin the chilled hold of the steamers at the mole-head of the portof San Nicolas , a town on the River Parana, between BuenosAires and Rosario . Success did not attend these first ventures .

The oft-told tale of the difficulties attending the crude freezingof beef need not here be repeated . Mr . Terrascu constructedhere his first freezing establishment in 1884 . It was subse

quently rented by the then three other River Plate freezingcompanies in order to shut it down , and its ruins by the sideof the old landing stage of San Nicolas are a monument to thedisaster that awaits the first pioneers in every industry .

In 1882 Messrs . Drabble founded at Campana the RiverPlate Fresh Meat Cc . , and a year later near Buenos Airesand on the banks of the Riachuelo Messrs . Sansinena and Sonserected what became at once

,and has since continued to be

,

the most successful of all the freezing factories in the Republic .

In 1892 Messrs . J . Nelson and Sons constructed at Zarate theirLas Palmas Produce Co and ten years later

,following

upon the closure of the British ports to Argentine live stock,

and the spurt giv en to the meat trade by affairs in SouthAfrica

,there arose in rapid succession the four more freezing

companies that, together with the three existing previously,represent the total trade of the Republic in that industry .

Their total capital amounts to and they employover men in the works and yards .

The prominent place occupied by the Argentine in theBritish meat trade is one from which it is not likely to bedisplaced . Argentine flockmasters have experienced threeyea rs of drought

,and the drought has been sev erest in the

South where the sheepb reeding industry is still the predominantone . The eflects of this drought will be most in evidence inthe coming year

,when supplies will fall short, but the shortage

will not remain a permanent feature,nor is local consumption

likely to overtake production in the visible future . Argentine


breeders are giving more attention to the lamb trade,and new

breeds of sheep are being introduced for that purpose .

The production of chi lled beef will further expand . It isalread y three times as great as the production of frozen mutton

,

and it cannot fail to increase,for all three factors

,the breeder

,

the freezer, and the consumer, are profiting by it . If the freezerhas encouraged the estanciero, by buying his steers at pricesunheard of in the live-stock export days, the estanciero hasnobly responded to the call . There are already twelv e millionacres of alfalfa in the country and the area is rapidly increasing .

England has been drawn upon for her best cattle (and has,incidentally

,profited much thereby) , and large sums have been

expended to secure good blood . There are over purepedigree cattle now in the Argentine Herd Book . In the ruralcensus of last year more than half of the total number of cattlewere returned as improved, that is , of an approximately puretype of the English breeds , and principally by the Shorthom .

There is abundant land both for breeding and feeding morecattle . It is sometimes said of the Argentine that agricultureis displacing cattle breeding

,and sometimes the reverse is

stated,that cattle breeding is ousting agriculture . Neither

statement is true . They are component factors, sharingbetween them the process of occupying the West where formerlyneither wheat nor alfalfa grew

,but where a thin sprinkling of

creole cattle eked out a starving existence on the unwillingnative herbage . Not one-fifth of that country has yet beencalled into productivity either for agriculture or cattle raising .

Visible supplies there may be,but the limits to increasing

those supplies are not yet visible .

With the necessary material beside him , the land, the plough ,the herd , and the willing market at his door, it would indeedbe strange if the Argentine cattle breeder relaxed his energyand cried Enough !” In 1877, when Don Eugenio Terrasonshipped the first frozen beef at San Nicolas , a prime fiv e-yearold bullock was worth to him in his sa la dero £4 . This is whathe could pay to turn the beast into cha rqui and tallow andsalted ox hide . In this present year of grace the freezingfactories have been paying the Argentine breeders £16 for



and southern Brazil for its supplies . But there is no particularoccasion to discount so remote a future . Suffice it that inthe meantime there is yet abundant room southwards

,as far

as the Straits of Magellan , for the country’s flocks to multiply

sufficient room in the farther west, in her northern territoriesand beyond their boundaries , in the rich pasture lands of theParaguayan Chaco, and in the great cattle country of southernBrazil , to breed far more cattle than at present exist ; andsufficient room in the core of the country to graze on the alfalfalands and to grow on the wheat lands enough beef and enoughcorn to supply, even beyond the lives of the young generation ,the demand of her foreign markets .

No doubt, too, there will still be then gentlemen who writearticles . They will tell kindly of the good old days when ,upon what have become the homesteads of the small farmer,there were paddocks of alfalfa each of which ran into thousands

of acres ; how in these paddocks there grazed herds of Shorthorn cattle to supply the export trade of chilled beef which atthat time was one of the most important industries of theRepublic and how, even as in pre-historic times DonEugenio Terrascu loaded fresh beef in the chilled holds of

steamers at the mole-head of San Nicolas , there were men whoforesaw and worked for a new order of things in rural economy ,and how sometimes the failure of the individual showed theway to the success of the collectivity . Forsitan at720.9t

nomen miscebitur istis .

CHAPTER XXIV

now THE BRITI SH rcnmc m s nannmrsn

WHEN the mutual relations that exist between the greatfrozen meat industry and the many classes of traders engagedin its maintenance have been considered, there yet remains tobe surveyed the effect of the trade upon the one great classon whose behalf it had its inception and upon whose customits future rests . The public , and pre-eminently the Britishpublic , stands after all to gain most from the frozen meattrad e , that is , if the tons of frozen and chilledmeat imported into the British Isles from 1874 to 19 10 haveadvanced the physical welfare of the nation .

How has the community been affected 7 The openingchapter of this book dealt with the crisis of meat scarcity whichculminated in the seventies, and the efforts of scientific mento meet it . A survey of ancient and modern history showsthat nations eat meat according to their wealth , if this be notsta ting cause for effect . Conversely, John Bull without his roastbeef would have made but a poor show during the last thirtyyears . He became unable to provide sufficient meat for himselfwhen he became a manufacturer, and so it has come about thatBritain in the Southern Seas and the Americas hav e had toturn wholesale meat suppliers for his benefit . The UnitedStates of America have furnished the expensive joints of beeffor the ta bles of the well-to-do, and , notwithout refrigeration

’said, Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina did more thanthat . They have provided the meat food required by thegreat body of workers in city and town . The manufacturersupon whom the wealth and industrial fame of England andScotland rest owe an enormous debt of gratitude to thepioneers of the frozen meat trade , by whose efforts their workpeople have been able to get plenty of sound and cheap meat.When frozen mea t was first introduced , there was great scarcity


of fresh meat at reasonable prices in Lancashire and Yorkshireand in the cotton districts generally . It was frequently amatter of meat once a week now it is meat twice a day .

The question remains , could the strain of modern industrybe borne on the former allowance ? Tak ing the beginningof the industrial era in the United Kingdom as coincidentwith the middle of the nineteenth century, the followingfigures

,supplied by Mulhall,! of the av erage price of

“ meat—beef

,mutton , and pork—for the quinquenni a mentioned

show clearly how prices rose as population increased , and asfresh meat became a more recognized article of diet185 1—1855

,age. per 1b . 1856—1860

,63a ; 186 1

—1865,std .

186 6—1870, 7§d . ; 187 1— 1875, 82d ; 1876

—1881,8gd .

Now ev en in the rural districts the peripatetic meat manhas his beat , districts whi ch fifty years ago furnished nothingbetter to the agricultural population than a bread and cheesediet, with bacon as a luxury, and an occasional j oint ofbutcher’s meat to mark a red letter day . Then take theposition of the professional and middle classes . When Englishand Scotch meat would not go round, what a struggle wasthat of people with small incomes and large families (a not

uncommon association thirty and forty years ago) in battlingwith their butchersThe position at the beginning of the eighties was indeed

serious,with the English meat crop equal to the supply for no

more than seven-and-a -half months of the year . The statisticalwriters of the period were keenly concerned in the problem .

Mulhall,after the success of the Dunedin shipment was assured

,

pointed out in his pamphlet,referred to above, that the farms

of Otago and Canterbury could send sheep to the Londonmarket more easily than could the Tweed farmers 100 yearsago when meat was selling at 1d . per lb . in Scotland and10d . in London . When statisticians forsake the past andpresent for the future

,ev en a Mulhall may make mistakes ;

here is an extract from the pamphlet : We may expect in

1896 a population of 42 to 43 millions, and to feed our people

England '

sNew Sheep Farm pamphlet , published in 1882 .



of the House Committee of the Beefsteak Club, the late SirMorell Mackenzie, and M . Waddington , the French Ambassadorin London . The other members of the Beefsteak Club whoreported upon the mutton were Mr . Corney Grain , Sir FrancisBurnand, Sir Squire Bancroft, and Mr . George AugustusSala . All of them reported very favourably on the experiment,and I believe those interested in the trade in New Zealandmade use of the reports for the purpose of recommending NewZealand meat .”

All these connoisseurs pronounced in most enthusiasticterms on the mutton ’s merits . Baron de Worms reportedThe freezing did not hurt it in the least, in fact , the greatestepicure would fail to di scover that it was not home-grown .

”

General Sir H . de Bathe went further in saying that the muttonwas better than what I can buy at Chi chester By the way,North Canterbury four or fiv e-year-old wether mutton is neverseen at Smithfield nowadays . The difficulty in placing frozenmeat on the footing in England whi ch it deserves has not beenwith the classes nor with the masses

,

” but with the greatand all-important section of the community, the middleclasses, who are, un fortunately, to a great extent, despoticallyruled by convention and prejudi ce.The consumption of meat

,including pork products, in

Australia is put at 233 lbs . per head of the population , in theUnited States at 144 lbs . , and in the United Kingdom at122 lbs . Refrigerated meat accounts for 22 per cent . of this122 lbs . , say , 27 lbs . per head, and in a paper read by Mr . P . B .

Proctor at the first Refrigeration Congress held in Paris in1908

,the remark was made that these 27 lbs . of refrigerated

meat per head did not displace other meats previously con

sumed , but represented an additional supply . Could there bebetter evidence of the boon to the community as a wholethrough the introduction of frozen and chi lled meats ?It has been possible for the British public to increase their

consumption of meat in thirty years to the extent mentionedabov e owing to the low price at which frozen meat has beensold . The low price does not imply any inferiority whatever

(the idea—ii anyone holds it—that refrigeration has brought

HOW THE BRITISH PUBLIC HAS BENEFITED 3 17

about any deterioration in the quality of meat consumed inthis country must be dismissed ) it simply indicate s low costof production in the country of origin . In cheapening thebutcher’s bill by 25 to 50 per cent . , surely the farmer inAustralasia and Argentina has conferred upon the Englishhouseholder a boon of incalculable magnitude l The householder when he puts on his considering cap will perceiv eanother point, viz . , that had it not been for the advent offrozen and chilled meat , home-produced beef and mutton ,not being able to keep pace with the population , mustinevita bly have been forced up to a prohibitive price .

The present generation obviously does not realize whatfrozen meat has done for them the value of a grea t mov ementis never properly appreciated except in the perspectiv e of afte ryears . A new race has arisen since the days

,over a century

ago, when it was necessary to put a clause in the articles of theLondon apprentice binding the employer only to providesalmon so many days a week , and since the later days when itwas the idea l of happiness of the Dorsetshire ploughboyto swing on a gate all day long and eat fat bacon .

” Nowthe apprentice , were he here , could batten on beef ste ak from

Queensland and Argentina, and the ploughboy, as it is, nodoubt , revels in his succulent New Zea land chop .

In London,the biggest city in the world , and the centre of

the largest Empire , refrigerated meat has its chief triumph ,for the metropolis is mainly fed with meat from overseas . Acertain proportion of English and Scotch meat certainly isconsumed in London , but the West-end folk are v ery largecustomers for chilled beef of the highest quality and the bestgrades of New Zealand sheep and lambs . The huge populationof London ’s suburbs absorbs great quantities of the frozenmeat which arrives from all three sources , New Zealand ,

Argentina, and Australia .

Frozen Meat for Tommy Atkins .

One good thing frozen meat has done for the British public

is to ensure a bountiful and economical diet system forTommy Atkins . The meat issued to the troops at the home


stations in the British Isles is beef six days a week and mutton

one day the daily ration for a soldier is lb . in barracks and1 lb . in camp . The beef on four days must be home-fed ortown-killed ,

” and on the other two days frozen beef may beused . The mutton issued on the one day may be frozen . Sothe British Army is fed on frozen meat for three-sev enths ofthe year : could there be a better evidence of its sustainingpower ? For many years the Army commi ssariat stuck outagainst the use of frozen beef, using chi lled Americaninstead, and the change made some years ago in favour offrozen is a welcome sign of the ofl

’

icials’ conversion to reform and

retrenchmcnt. The War Office is a keen buyer wether muttonfrom 50 to 70 lbs . only is accepted

,beef must be 170 to 200 lbs .

per quarter,and beef and mutton mus t have the original labels

attached . Tommy Atkins wants beef all the time, but for hiswell-being the doctors modify this stimulating diet with one

day of mutton . It was about 1902 that the War Oflice took thestep of insisting that only home-bred and/or Colonial ” meatbe supplied to the troops in the United Kingdom . This

measure of preference to British produce,absolutely prohibiting

the use of American and Argentine beef and mutton, cameabout through the influence of Mr . Joseph Chamberlain, thenColonial Secretary . The principle enunciated by thi s policy wasso startling and revolutionary that many persons have wonderedhow it escaped the notice of Mr. Chamberlain

’s politicalopponents . Argentina suffered some inconv enience in consequence , and New Zealand ewe mutton jumped into favourwith contractors . The supplying of ewe mutton from NewZealand spoiled the colonial contract trade . Argentina thenshipped nothing but wethers and gave more satisfaction .

Because Australasia was unable to supply the quantityrequired, in 1906 this contract clause became a dead letter .

Since then sundry members of the House of Commons havefrom the Opposition benches inveighed aga inst this letting inof the “ foreigner

,

” but owing to the irregular arriv al ofsupplies from our own overseas Dominions the Governmenthas remained under the necessity of maintaining the policyof the open door in Army frozen meat contracts .


CHAPTER XXV

THE POSITION OE THE BR ITI SH FARMER

SEEING that the refrigerated meat industry in its forwardmovement naturally brings under discussion the question of

home supplies,it is not out Of place here to make a brief

examination of the position of the English and Scotch grazierand sheep farmer in regard to the importation of frozen meats .

In one sense the home producer has Obviously been injured,

because the imports Of meat must tend to keep prices at alower lev el than they would be if home supplies were aloneavailable . But as the latter eventuality is out of the question ,

as far as England is concerned, one may at once turn to thereal issue and consider whether the imports Of meat hav e beenof such magni tude and character as seriously to injure theBritish farmer or to make his operations altogether unremunera

The authors have consulted sev eral gentlemen who areacknowledged authorities on this question . Mr . R . E . Turnbull ,

has been kind enough to work out a comparisonbetween the years 1880 and 1910 as to the supplies Of meatavailable for consumption .

1880 Compa red w ith 1 9 10.

1880.

Popula tion Of the United K ingdom,

Supply of home-fed stock

2 000 fatca ttle and vea l calves

101 1860000 sheep and lambs4, pigs for pork and bacon

Home supply1mmports

Total supply Of dressed mea t

THE POSITION OF THE snm sn FARMER 321

Home supply 66 } per cent ., foreign and colonial 33} per cent.Per head of population , 102 lbs . , viz . , home supply 6 8 lbs .

,

imported 34 lbs . Average price Of home-fed cattle (offal givenin ) about 72d . per lh. , and Of sheep aboutThe three years 1879 , 1880, and 1881, were the most disas

trous for owners Of sheep in this country that any farmer nowliving ever experienced .

The total number Of sheep and lambs in the United Kingdomin June , 1879 , was in June, 1882, the number wasonly or per cent . ) less than in1879 . Liver fluke was the malady that caused the loss . Theharvest of 1879 was gathered in wretched condi tion , the rainfall occurring during harvest and being very excessive .

1910.

Popula tion Of the United Kingdom,

Supply Of home-fed stock

fatca ttle and veal calves

fatsheep and lambs5: :098 000 fatpigs

Home supplyImported mea t and mea t from imported stock

Beef and veal

Mutton and lambPork, bacon and hamsUnenumera ted

ImportsTotal supply Of dressed mea t

Home supply, 55 ; per cent. , foreign and colonial , 444 percent . Per head Of population , 114 lbs . , viz .,

home supply,

6 3 lbs . , imported , 51 lbs .In 19 10 the total supply Of meat (beef, v eal , mutton , lamb,

pork, bacon , and hams) exceeded the supply in 1880 bycwts . , or by rather more than 45 per cent . The

increase in population was (assuming that in 19 10the population was 28 8 per cent . The increasein the supply Of home-fed meat was cwts .

,or 20 1 per

cent. ; in foreign and colonial the increa se in the supply was

R M . Y


remarkable , being cwts . per cent . In 19 10the supply Of meat per head of population was 12 lbs . morethan in 1880

, being 114 lbs . as compared with about 102 in1880. (Of the total supply about tons were exported . )In 19 10home-fed cattle averaged about 14d . per lb . less than

in 1880, and sheep 2d . per lb . less than in 1880.

Mr . Turnbull concludes his statistical survey as followsWhile the large and increasing supply of meat from abroad

has pressed heavily on the farmers and landowners of theUnited Kingdom , the severe competition that breedersOf cattle,sheep , and pigs, have been subjected to has undoubtedlyresulted in a marked improvement in the quality Of herds andflocks on nearly every estate in the kingdom . With regard tosheep

,the number Of sheep and lambs marketed in twelve

months now equals about 40per cent . Of the number in thereturns . During the ten years 1870—79 the number marketedonly equalled on the av erage about 35 per cent . The quantityOf mutton and lamb now marketed equals about 25 lbs . foreach animal in the returns ; in the earlier period the average was about 22 lbs . By securing earlier maturity andmarked improvement in quality the home breeders have tillquite recently held their own in face of increasing foreigncompetition .

Some of the British breeds of sheep are now tOO heavy forthe family requirements Of the consumer. This is notablythe case as regards the famous Lincoln and Leicester breeds .The joints Of mutton cut from sheep Of these breeds are toolarge for ordinary household use . (There is still a good demandfor large joints for restaurants . ) The demand is now almostentirely for joints cut from sheep of small or medium weights ,60 to 70 lbs . The Down breeds meet this demand admirably .

The Lincoln and Leicester breeds thrive better than any otherin the districts where they are bred, and having regard to theirabundant production Of wool they are notlikely to be replacedby other breeds . With regard to cattle , the quantity Of beefand veal marketed in twelve months now equals about110; lbs . for each animal in the returns . In the twenty yearsthat followed 1870 the average was only about 105 lbs . The



quantity theory Of money notcome to his assistance . On theother hand , the increased supply of meat from abroad hasbeen a blessing in disgui se to the farmer as well as to theconsumer, for without the foreign competition , which thefarmer has, I think , on the whole , very successfully withstood,prices Of butchers’ meat would have risen out of all proportionto its food value in relation to other commodi ties

,and the

ignorant people would have blamed the farmer and createddi sturbances and rioting—such as have recently occurred inFrance—which would have upset the social order Of thingsand been bad for the farmer as well as for the country asa whole .

”

A Pessim istic Note from Yorkshire—How the sheep farmersof Yorkshire and Scotland have been adversely affected isshown by an extract from the letter Of one Of them , Mr . JohnMackenzie

,North-Cote , near Skipton . Speaking as a sheep

owner myself,I should say that the importation Of frozen

mutton has reduced the profits Of the rank and file of Britishflock owners to vanishing point . By rank and file I , ofcourse

,mean sheep owners who are entirely dependent on the

breeding and rearing of store sheep for their revenue . Indeed .

over large tracts of the Scottish Highlands the businesshas had to be entirely abandoned ; vast areas of excellentsheep land (mountain ) having been cleared of sheep in recentyears and put under deer, the former occupiers (most grazingruns are leaseholds ) of those lands, in many instances, betakingthemselves to Australia, New Zealand, the Argentine, and theUni ted States Of America

,where , as a rule, they usually amass

fortunes by following the occupation at which they could notmake bread and butter at home . And I am quite within themark in saying that the pressure on the home producer is notyet nearly so acute as it will be . Every man who has takenan intelligent interest in this question can have no two opinionson the matter .”

The Splend id Ped igree Stock ExportTra de—The imports Offrozen meat into Great Britain have steadied the prices ofhome-fed meat all round for the last thirty years no morebuying Scotch wethers (alive) at I s. a lb . l But it does not

THE POSITION OF THE BRITISH FARMER 825

follow from that that the home trade has been robbed of profitsin fact, taking an average Of ten years , Mr . A . J . Hickma n

,

Of Court Lodge , Egerton , Kent, speaking a year or two ago,said that sheep growing is the most profitable branch OfBritish husbandry . Mr . Hickman , of course , did not includein his average the disastrous 19 11 season for sheep farmers

.

One most favourable eflect as mentioned above upon

the home stock inte rests Of the frozen and chilled meat tradehas been the demand from South America and Australasiafor pure-bred animals, and upon this demand the pedigreeherds and flocks in England and Scotland have been largelybuiltup

,and brought to the present flourishing condition . Argentina

particularly, as will be seen by figures given elsewhere in thisbook

,has been a splendid customer, and no one can speak of

the beef and mutton received from that Republic as a for

eign article pure and simple , considering that it representscattle and sheep descended from the Shorthorns and Lincolnsheep and other breeds imported from Great Britain . SomeBritish breeders Of live stock have in this way immenselybenefited by the sale of their stud sheep and cattle for

grading-up purposes to the pastoralists and graziers Of theSouthern Hemisphere .

The Ev idence of Fa cts a nd Figures .—In order to prove

the correctness of the view held by some men thatthe production Of meat in the United Kingdom has beenrendered unremunerative by importations it would be necessaryto show that the numbers Of cattle and sheep had been steadilyreduced by the pressure Of outside competition . But thereturns show that with slight fluctuations the number Of cattleand sheep in the United Kingdom has been maintained, and,indeed , increased .

According to the Board Of Agriculture returns , Cheviothill wedder lambs averaged in 1876—1880, 148 . 2d . per headfor top quality ; in 19 10 the price for the same animal and


grade was 158 . As to store cattle, according to the sameauthority, a Teviotdale stir averaged £9 83 . in the fiveyears mentioned , and in 19 10 the value is given as £10.

It only needs the working out Of the argument of this chapterto show in how remarkably small a degree the large importations Of chi lled and frozen meat hav e afiected the British stockbusiness . It is evident that the farmer has perceived how bestto meet his competitor, by striving to produce only the highestgrades Of meat . So it has come about that the market pricesfor the best qualities of home-produced cattle and sheep havewell withstood the attack from overseas . Two distinct tradesexist

,English and Scotch meat, and chilled and frozen, respec

tively , and though there is a considerable overlapping, thehigher retail rates paid for home-fed meat allow of apremium on the wholesale market and on the farm forstock fed in British pastures . The new industry Of frozenmeat has found out new consumers in England . Of course , atthe start the British farmers were alarmed at the invasion oftheir tight little island by American beef and New Zealandmutton , and the discussions at the market ordinary mustthen hav e been portentous . The new era introduced forEnglish and Scottish stock raisers about 1880 looked threatening enough . Rapid transit, cheap freight, and Gov ernmentala ssistance and encouragement, helped the Australasian andArgentine farmers to launch their ventures in a style thatpromised badly for the British grazier, handi capped as he waswith relatively dearly-rented and heavily-taxed land . That adifference in public estimation and price does exist betweenhome-fed and imported dead meat we know, but it has notalways been clear why it is quite so pronounced . Were thesystem Of transit, handling, and cooking Of frozen meat ideal ,the margin of value between the two descriptions wouldprobably be much less . American chilled beef—admi ttedlyequal , or superior in some cases , to British in quality—Oftensells at the same rates as best English . Canterbury muttonand lamb have been mistaken for English Down meat by goodjudges when the properly thawed out joint has been placedbefore them hot from the oven when cold however home-fed


328 HISTORY OF THE FROZEN MEAT TRADE

tion to the import Of frozen meat, are relaxed or removed .

Then some considerable part Of the chilled and frozen meatimports , at present finding their market only in Great Britain ,will be diverted to Continental States , and the British farmershould , in consequence, be able to secure enhanced price

stock .

CHAPTER XXVI

TEE INCORPORATED SOCIETY OE MEAT IMPORTERS

SOONER or later in the history Of a trade the efforts towardsassocia tion among its members spring up , and it was early in1894 that an attempt was made to establish a society in thefrozen meat industry which should form a common ground fordea ling with the difierences Of conflicting interests in the trad e .

Unrestricted competition amongst holders of stocks had led andwas leading to serious losses , preventing the trade from beingput on a proper basis at the selling point . Some Of the leadingimporters Of frozen meat (Australasian and Argentine) thenformed a Frozen Meat Importers’ Association

,

” and a set Ofrules was drawn up . But the motif of the whole movement

,

the regulation by mutual consent Of prices on Smithfield

market, proved too strong for the organization , which brokedown when some members , who acted in dual or triple capacitiesas Smithfield salesmen , dealers , or direct consignees , found itimpossible to reconcile the interests of their own businesseswith those Of the trade as a whole . SO after a few months theAssociation was dissolved .

This preliminary failure , however, did not discourage thosewho had set their minds on the establishment Of a trade organization , and the necessity for a trade association was so urgentthat in 1895 the Frozen Meat Trade Association was

formed , with ten members , on wider lines than its predecessor.The pitfall Of adhering to the principle Of price regulation wasavoided , ample agenda being found in the shape Of matte rs Ofmoment afiecting the whole body of the trade , such as insurance claims , market customs , and the relations Of importerswith carriers , etc . It was soon discovered that there weremany questions which could be far be tter handled by a bodyrepresenting the frozen mea t trade than by individuals so the


Association gradually assumed an influential position andacquired important functions .

Disclosing Stocks.

One of the early schemes devised by the Frozen Meat TradeAssociation was that put forward on September 24, 1896 , forthe Obtaining Of reliable monthly returns Of the stocks offrozen meat . This was outlined as follows

Tha t the quantities held by ea ch importer, whether in London or the provinces , be declared bythe means of counters or coloured cards. The followmg numbers to b e Inscrrbed on the countersor cards z—e ; 500 ; Different colours to represent the various clas ses :Austrahan sheep by wh1te counter ; New Zea land sheep by green counter ; Pla tes by red counterlamb s by b lue coun ter ; quarters of beef b y yellow counter.

That the stocks b e returned of the quant1t1es held on the lstday Ofthe month. Stocksto includefrozen mea t on any ship or steamer, docked b utnotdischarged.That the counters be collected by a comm1ssiona1re ca llmg atthe various contrrbutors’ Offices on

the first Tuesday in each month, and that he be provided W ith a locked boxor bag intowhich thecounters ca n be deposrted .

That each contributor be suppli ed with a stock Of the necessary counters or cards , which mayl

ie put1n the stock returns box, erther when the commiss1ona 1re calls, or atthe meeting Of thessocratron.

Tha t a meeting be held on the day Of the collection, at such hour in the a fternoon as may bearran ed , when the boxshall be Opened by a member Of the Commrttee of the Assoc1atron, or, inthe a ence of a member Of Committee, by a member Of the Assoc1at1on in the presence Of thesecretary , and the stocks then declared.Any contrrbutor to the stock returns to have a general invitation to attend such meetings.

Tha t contri butors be re nested notto impart to the Press , nor to any private person othercontrrbutors, the state of he van ous stocks.

This scheme did not come into Operation , but as the subjecthas received so much attention of recent years, the details mayhave present , and possibly future, interest .

The Weekly Prices Cable.

It was notuntil 1897 that the Association entered upon themost useful section of its Operations, a phase Of action whichwon for it prominence and appreciation in Australia and NewZealand . In that year Mr . R . E . N . Tw0peny , the then editorof the Pa stora lists ’

Review,arriv ed in London as the delegate

Of the Australian freezing companies , and the Associationarranged with him for the weekly transmission by cable of aset Of quotations . The prices were arriv ed at by averaging theLondon market quotations furnished by the members Of theAssociation . From 1897 to the present day the weekly cable ofSmithfield prices—amplified from time to time according tothe needs Of the trade—has been despatched . This officialrecord has been found to be of incalculable benefit to all


332 A HISTORY OF THE FROZEN MEAT. TRADE

Zealand, North American , and South American firms,ship

owners , bankers, underwriters , Australian Agents-General andGovernment Commissioners ) now make it a very importantbody . All vexed questions affecting the interests of the frozenand chilled meat trade are taken up ; where wrongs can berighted

,and reforms effected, the institution takes action , and

much of the improv ement which has been introduced into theworking Of the trade during the last ten years or so has beendue to its interposition .

One thing there is which the Frozen Meat Trade Associationhas been unable to do, viz . , to introduce into the forward tradean approved c .i .f . contract form . For years this was hammeredat

,and at length a form , which seemed to meet all requirements,

was welded into shape . But the great bugbear Of the frozenmeat trade—conflicting interests—has prevented the generalacceptance Of the form .

Past Presidents and Vice-Presidents.

The first president, in 1896 , was Sir Montague Nelson, andsuccessive presidents have been

1897. Mr. George Goodsrr.

1898. Mr. e b am Cook. Vice-President, Mr. George Good sir.1899 . Mr. R 1chmond Keele. V ice-Pres ident, Mr. e lrarn Cook.

1900. Mr. George Good srr. V1ce-Pres1dent, Mr. R ichmond Kee lc.

1901. Mr. W1111am Blankley. Vree-Pres1dent, Mr. George Good srr.

1902. Mr. J . N. Newman. V1ce-Pre81dent, Mr. George Good alr.1903 . Mr. J. A. Potter. V1ce-Pres1dent, Mr. J . N. Newman.

1904. Mr. C. H . Inglis. V1ce-Pres1dent, Mr. J . A. Potter.

1905. Mr. A. W. Pottinger. V ice-President, Mr. W1111am Blankley.

1906 . Mr. W. La ue M itchell. V1ce-Pres ident, Mr. A. W. Pottmger.

1907. Mr. W. Lane Mrtchell. Vice’ Presrdent, Mr. Willram Blankley.

1908. Mr. Gordon H . Campbell.1909 . Mr. Gordon H. Campbell.

INCORPORATED SOCIETY OF MEAT IMPORTERS.

1910. Mr. Gordon H. Campbell, first President.Mr. e liam Blankley, first Vree-Pres ident.

1911. Mr. Gordon H. Campbell, Pres ident.Mr. e liam Blankley, Wee-President.

1912. Mr. Gordon H . Campbell, Pres1dent.Mr. e liam Blankley, Vice-Pres ident.

Mr. Thomas Guy Nind acted as secreta ry till 1909, whenthe position was assumed by Mr . Louis H . Furniss . Theregistered Office is at 15 and 16 , West Smithfield , London, E .C.

The Society, which is split up into sectional Committees andholds periodi c general meetings, has now over a hundredmembers

,and it is certain that on the lines of its charter it wi ll

in process of time become still more effective in operating for

S IR ALFRED SEALE HASLAM .

To f are p .


CHAPTER XXVII

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION

ALTHOUGH a detailed and technical description Of the processes by which the science Of refrigeration is applied to thefrozen meat industry would only appeal to a very few Of thoseinterested in the commercial side Of the industry

,a more

important and wider function is fulfilled by giving a briefaccount Of the elemental principles on which mechanicallyproduced cold Operates to preserve the great meat suppliesOf the world tod ay

,and of the development of the application

Of refrigeration in the service of man .

The Principle of M echa nica l Refrigeration .—The present

glance at the scientific side Of refrigeration must be as briefand non-techni cal as possible . In the classification of thetypes of machine the divisions adopted by Sir J . Alfred Ewingmay well be followed .

The first broad di stinction that may be drawn is betweenthose machines that use air as their working substance andthose which use a liquid which is alternately vaporized andliquefied during the cycle Of Operations .In machines using air

,the air is compressed in a cylinder,

the heat produced by the compression is removed by watercirculation and the cooled air is allowed to expand in anothercylinder against a resistance and becomes further cooled invirtue of the work it does

,and is then discharged into the

chamber to be refrigerated . These machines are usuallyspoken Of as compressed air machines .In machines using vaporized liquid the underlying prrnciple

is the using up Of heat units when a liquid passes to a gaseousstate , the heat used being said to become latent .In such machin es simple mechani cal compression may be

adopted as the means Of restoring the vapour to the liquid

b ri n e f r/ U r fu n!from ( ole/ ( 7400 1160 6

Amm on i a

Wfi k r fi /fer /na s smgMwugé ( b a d e / were

ntm na rxs Irw srm rmc (TOP) THE COMPRESS ION srsrs ar

THE ABSORPTION svsTEn or REFR IGERATION.

70 fa ce 334.



tion previously to the desirability of utiliz ing the expansionof compressed air for the production of cold

,the credi t of

actually constructing such apparatus appears to belong in thiscountry to Professor Piazzi Smyth . In 1839 he had com

menced experiments . He seems to have worked for a longtime with apparatus on the method of blowing air throughloaded valves before the principles of the mechanical theoryof heat as applied to gases were properly understood . Av acuum ice machine was invented by a Dr . Cullen overa century and a half ago, and Ferdinand Carré

,a French

chemi st, invented the ammonia absorption machine sixtyyears ago . In 1834 , Jacob Perkins invented a refrigeratingmachine on the compression system . The reputed father ofthe cold air refrigerating machine, the system of freezing soprominently associated with the early stages of the frozen meatexport trade

,was Dr . John Corrie, an American , who liv ed

and died at Appalachicola , in Florida . Gorrie introduced hismachine in 1849

,and now, sixty-three years later, Uni ted

States citizens are proposing to erect a statue to his memory .

There was also a long list of experimental work and commercialenterprises undertaken in Australia and New Zealand

,and this

pioneering efiortis recorded at some length in another chapter .In addition to the brief summary of early refrigerating

patents recorded in Appendix XII ., it may be well to give here

a few particulars concerning some of those whose names areprominently identified tod ay with refrigerating machinery .

Mr . J . J . Coleman , whose name will always be associatedwith the famous Bell-Coleman machine of refrigeration ’searly days

,was

,prior to his connection with that enterprise ,

one of the scientific experts in the employment of Young’s

Paraffin Light and Mineral Oil Co. In the paper whichhas been referred to above he gave some inte restingparticulars of the dry air refrigerating machine which hefitted on board the Anchor Liner Circa ssia in March , 1879 .

The plant consisted of two compressors , 16 inches di ameterand 16 inches stroke

,and was connected with a chamber

of about cubic feet capacity, including engine spaceand chamber walls . Mr . Coleman wenti to New York

DIAGRAM I LLUSTRATING THE BELL-COLEMAN REFRIGERATISG MAP IHNK.

To {a rr y. 336 .



duced in 1873, and improved in 1877 . It was in thefollowing year that the firm of Messrs . J . and E . Hall, Ltd . ,

took up their first interest in refrigeration by bringing overthe Gifi‘ard cold air machine which had been exhibited at theParis International Exhibition of 1877 ; and in the earlyeighties this firm was at work fitting ships for the carriage offrozen meat

,etc . In 1888

,Messrs . J . and E . Hall, Ltd

brought out the carbonic acid compression refrigeratingmachine, a type of machine which has ha d a very extensiveuse on board ship . Messrs . J . and E . Hall , Ltd . , have alsocarried out a great number of installations on land, and are inthe front rank of manufacturers of refrigeration machinery .

The Oswestry Grange, a sectional diagram of which appears onpage 126 , is one of the many refrigerated liners fitted withMessrs . Hall ’s machinery .

An early patentee of the cold air compression machine wasMr . T . B . Lightfoot, who became in 1890 the managingdirector of the Linde British Refrigeration Co. , Ltd . In 1880Mr . Lightfoot introduced an improved cold air machine inwhi ch the expansion was performed in two stages, and thismachine did considerable work in meat freezing on land and

at sea . Mr . Lightfoot was also the designer of what wasprobably the first commercially successful ship ’s refrigeratingplant in which a chemical refrigerating agent was used , thisbeing on Messrs . Turnbull, Martin and Co .

’s s .s . Perthshire in1893 (refrigerated capacity cubic feet) , all ships carrying frozen meat having up to that time been fitted with air compression machines . The first meat freezing plant designed byMr . Lightfoot and supplied by the Linde British RefrigerationCo . was that sent out to the Wellington Meat Export Co. ,

New Zealand, in 189 1, and in the same year the two works ofthe Queensland Meat Export Co . at Brisbane and Townsvillewere fitted with refrigerating machines by the Linde BritishRefrigeration Co .

Among the earliest types of refrigerating machines appliedcommercially was that invented by Mr . J . C . De la Vergne ,who introduced a patent ammonia compression refrigeratingmachine in the United States, and had several plants in opera

PROFESSOR CARL VON L INDE.

To fa ct p . 338.



of the company, for his indefatigable energy in perseveringwith his experiments with ammonia for refrigerating purposes at a time when very little practical progress had beenmade with it in any part of the world .

During the early nineties , howev er, the old dry air processbegan to giv e way to the more economical system employingammonia and carbonic acid gas, the former of these twochemical refrigerants receiving more favour so far as use inshore freezing works was concerned, and the latter beingregarded with similar favour for marine refrigeration . Havingbecome used to the system of circulating air through therooms by the old dry a ir machines , which belched the coldexpanded air into them to be pumped out again , re-compressed by the compressors , expanded , etc . ,

in constantcycle , many meat experts then persisted that any systemwithout such rapid circulation would prove injurious to

the meat . The result was that , consequently, in the early daysof the ammonia compression plants they were made to expendtheir energies upon cooling batteries connected with thefreezing chambers by air ducts through which a ir was constantly circulated by means of fans, thus forming a completecycle as before . After a time, however, this process began towane , owing to some of the batteries frequently getting out oforder and also on account of the immense amount of spacetaken up by the unnecessary plant and air ducts . Thus thissystem of refrigeration later gave way to the method ofhaving the freezing rooms and stores fitted with directexpansion coils

,and the Deniliquin works of the R iverina

Frozen Mea t Co. , Ltd . , can justly claim to be the first up-to

date establishment in Australasia to have its freezing'

chambersand stores specially designed for, and fitted with

,a di rect

expansion pipe system operated by an ammonia compression

plant, a combination now so widely adopted .

It is a good testimonial to the quality of refrigeratingengineering work to state that at a conside rable number ofrefrigerating stores to-day there may be found in operationmachines erected when mechanical refrigeration was a new

science , and these plants have been steadily discharging their



become, that the makers’ claim to be able to keep the tem

perature of a meat hold to within a degree Fahrenheit, or less,

is justified . Two systems of brine circulation are in use,viz . ,

the Open cycle and the closed cycle systems . In the formerthe return current from the various circuits in the system isopen and visible . In the closed system thi s is not so, and it isclaimed for the latter method that wi th it there is no possibilityof air getting into the piping and by air-locks preventing theproper flow in some parts of the circui t . One of the latestsystems of temperature regulation in meat chi lling ships’ holdsis a patent method of brine attemperation introduced by theLiv erpool Refrigeration Co. ,

Ltd . This works on the closedsystem , and in thi s method there are two systems of mains,one conveying the zero brine, which is pumped directly from

the brine cooler,and the other conveying attemperated brine

at a much higher temperature,pumped from a container

called the attemperator .” Specially designed valv es andheaders control the mixing of these brine currents and theirdistribution to the various parts of the installation .

Temperature Mea surement a nd Record ing—The carefulregistration of the temperatures of cold stores is an importantfeature, and an up

-to-date method is to have thermometricapparatus the indi cator of which is at a convenient pointoutside the chamber or chambers

,say

,in a lobby or office .

These distance thermometers are of great service in refri

gerated vessels where varying conditions of temperature havefrequently to be noted . Self-recording thermometers are inmany cases used in the refrigerated holds of vessels

,their te ll

tale charts being taken as a log or supplementary log of theranges of temperature experienced during a voyage . In thecase of the Canadian export produce trade the DominionGovernment has in force an admirable system in which it ispart of the cargo inspector’s duty at Montreal to place locked-upself-recording thermometers or thermographs in every coldstorage chamber where produce is stored . These records areremoved by the inspectors in Great Britain and at once mailedto Ottawa, while the instrument remains in the ship . Photographic copies are mad e of the thermograph records , one copy



1897 , and shortly afterwards it was destroyed in thebig fire whichbroke out in that quarter, despite its loud alarum !The Cold Stora ge Cha im—One of the chief hindrances to thecompletely successful application of refrigeration to the preservation of perishable food products is the difficulty, nay, theimpossibility, of having a complete cold storage chain from thetime that the food is started on its way to the consumer to thetime that it actually passes into consumption . In the case ofmeat there are many points at which this cold storage chain isbroken . From the freezing chamber at the meat works itmakes at least momentary acquaintance with the outeratmosphere on its being entrained , and even should the trainjourney to the ship be made under ideal condi tions , there isthe unloading and the putting either into the dock cold store

or the ship ’s refrigerated hold . On its disembarkation , theouter air is again reached before the meat can be safely housedin the land cold store, and then again before it reaches theconsumer the meat has several periods of exposure . Modernrefrigerating practice has in several ways mi tigated thedeleterious effect which these imperfections in the cold storagechain are apt to have . Air-locks or ante-chambers are acommon feature in cold store construction . When the produce

to be stored is taken into these ante-chambers , the outside door

is shut,and the outside air and heat are thus prevented from

rushing into the refrigerating chamber on its being opened .

A prominent example of the total avoidance of this contactof the produce with the outer atmosphere when the place ofstorage is changed is the use by the London Central MarketsCold Storage Co. , Ltd . ,

of patent portable refrigerators ,”or

large insulated boxes , into which meat or produce can bepacked and conv eyed either from ship to lighter, quay towagon

,or otherwise .

Ra ilw a y Refrigera tor Ca rs .—Itis probable that if there isimprovement needed in one stage of commercial refrigerationmore than in another it is in the means provided on the railwaysfor keeping frozen meat cool during transit . The modernrailway refrigerator car is at the best nothing more than aglorified ice-box , and its interior is all too frequently an insani

INSULATED MOTOR

THE enn ui-“

1mm AND ARGENTINE n an refs rw ix-scs sw nsrumsm r sn sm u t

Licsrsu El Za rate.

To I'

m-r p.



Argentina to British ports , is the El Za rate, a fine twin-screwvessel , 210 feet in length , . of whi ch an illustration is givenherewith . Her refrigerated capacity is cubic feet, andHaslam ’s refrigerating machinery , cooling on the brine circulation system

,is installed to maintain the vessel

’s cargo at eithera chilling or free zing temperature,It is universally accepted that the conditions of shipment

or di scharge of frozen meat cargoes are improved in ratio to theproximity of the cold store to the quayside and the amountof weather protection which the meat can obtain on thequayside itself . Where frozen meat out of a ship has to besorted to marks

,the best condi tions for this work are under

shelter. Sorting sheds are the ideal for this, and by and byrefrigerated sorting shed facilities will probably be availableat all the leading ports .The importance of affording ample protection for refrigerated

meat during its conveyance from ship to store, or store tomarket, etc . , is now universally recognized , and efficient insulatedvans, horse drawn or motor propelled, are in use in all quarters .Such wagons are , like other refrigerating apparatus , a subject ofLloyd’s registration ; a common pattern of horse-drawn vehiclebeing of about 2% tons tare . Insulating material is used forpacking the walls

,roof, and floor of these vans

,and air-tight

doors are provided , some of the vehicles being equipped withmeat runners and hooks . Experiments with motor traction forfrozen meat were first made about 1900, and now the uses ofthis form of conveyance are many and widespread , both fortown service and over comparatively long distances .Defrosting a nd Thawing .

—When frozen meat is being thawedout under ordinary conditions, the moisture from the air is aptto condense on the surface and thoroughly wet the meat, causingit to weep and become discoloured . Quarters of beef,with their great areas of exposed flesh , are particularly affected .

The unsightly appearance of the meat is the chief harm done .

Retailers have their own methods of dealing with this difficultyand they generally wipe off the moisture as it collects . Manymechanical means have been tried for artificially thawing ,or defrosting

,

” frozen beef,and in few sections of the

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 347

industry have the engineer and inventor been more activethan in this—the Patent Office records show a wealth of theirideas . Up to 1896 eight processes had been patented .

No . 1 subjected the meat to a continuous circulation of drya ir, formed by mixing cold air at a temperature of 19

° anddry air heated to the combined current at about in

creased to about being forced through the thawing chamberby a fan . Time required for thawing , two to five days .No . 2 provided for the circulation of air , dried by an arrange

ment of pipes containing cooling medium and suitably hea tedby steam pipes , passing over the meat by natural means , andby gradually increasing temperature abstracting the frostwithout depositing moisture . Time required for defrostingbeef four days , sheep two days . This process was in use inLondon for two-and-a -half years , and at Malta for mea t suppliedto troops .No . 3 .

—Heated air was passed over fused or crystallizedchlori de of calcium and , mixed with the waste cold from thefrozen meat, was drawn through the thawing chamber by anexhaust ventilator .No . 4 provided for circulation , by means of a fan or otherwise ,

of dry heated antiseptic gas , preferably ca rbonic acid (CO?)through a closed chamber in which the meat is hung , and whenpartly thawed

,a quantity of carbonic monoxide (CO ) , for the

purpose of giving the meat a good colour . Time required ,with a temperature 80° to mutton six to eight hours ,beef sixteen to twenty hours .

No. 5 consisted in a process for thawing meat by warm dry air ,and the treatment used for warming and drying , the moisturebeing abstracted by contact with a deliquescent salt such ascalcium chloride .

No . 6 .—Thawing was effected by placing the mea t in a closed

receptacle served with heated compressed air.

No . 7 was a process for hermetically sealing and protecting the

mea t from the atmosphere by immersion in boiling fat, orhighly refined

,taste less , colourless oil , so as to form an imper

meable coating on which the moisture of the atmosphere wasdeposited .


No. 8 was a process similar to No. 1, except that dry air wassaturated wi th a regulated amount of moisture before beingpropelled into the thawing room .

From 1897 to the present time the Nelson process has beenin limited use . Noticing the accumulation of snow on theammonia expansion pipes in the cold rooms at Nelson ’s Wharf

,

Lambeth , as the effect of freezing out the moisture from theair, it occurred to Sir Montague Nelson that it would be possibleboth to produce a dry atmosphere and one whi ch could bevaried in temperature while drying . This he accomplished byplacing steam pipes under a grating in the floor and ammoniaexpansion pipes on the side walls of the room

,having screens

in front of them open above and below for the circulation of

air. Eighteen rooms of this construction were fitted up forhanging quarters of beef or sheep , which meat is put into themin a hard frozen state direct from the cold rooms . On steambe ing let into the steam pipes , warm air rises from aroundthese to descend on each side of the room behind the screenedammonia pipes

,on which the moisture of the air is frozen

,and

retained whi lst the freezing pipes are at work . By regulatingthe steam and ammonia cocks, the temperature can be varied

from about 38° F . to 56 ° F . , gradually getting drier all thetime . Beef requires four and sheep two days to defrost underthis process . When frozen meat thaws under ordinary conditions it looks blue and wet, by reason of the moisture of theair condensing on the cold surface of the meat, but the effect ofSir Montague Nelson

’s defrosting process is to restore frozenmeat to its original bright colour and dry surface as when killed ,thus enhancing its value and at a comparativ ely small cost .In 1894 Mr . Jacob Atherton, of Liverpool , patented a process

for defrosting frozen meat by means of circulating an antiseptic gas round it in a dry and heated state . The Britishand Colonial Meat Defrosting Syndicate , capital wasformed to exploit Mr . Atherton

’s invention , and opened adefrosting chamber at 72, Cowcross Street, near Smithfield ,

doing a fair amoun t of business in thawing frozen meat forthe market salesmen, at a charge of 3s . per quarter of beef, and

18 . per sheep .



of air sterilization . The supply of air is regulated by anelectric motor, automatic inlet valves adjusting the air currentaccording to the weight of the carcass hung in the defrostingchamber . The process, the proprietors of which are theMacmeikan Defrosting Process Co . Proprietary

,Ltd ., is associ

ated with a freezing system, and in respect of both defrostingand freezing very striking claims are made by the proprietors .

A demonstration of the process took place in November, 19 11 ,at Plymouth, and some meat defrosted by the apparatus wasplaced on view at the London Central Markets .The chronicling of these various patents is interesting history ,

but the net result of all these attempts to solve the problem isthat defrosting has failed commercially . The Nelson processhas a limited scope in certain directions, but, speaking generally,mechanical thawing of frozen meat was not, and is not ,successful , because buyers decline to pay a small extra price fordefrosted meat frozen meat is an article that has to be sold atminimum rates , and a retailer will not pay the additional fid . or

id . per lb . that has to be charged to cov er the cost of the process ,and the New Zealand and other inventors in their patents didnot take thi s fact into consideration . In addition , few of theprocesses were mechanically effective .

CHAPTER XXVIII

m ums rs asos am'rms m rrrrc ram s

ANDERSON, GILBERT , has a connection with the frozenmeat trade which dates from 189 1 . Nine years had elapsedfrom the Dunedin ’

s pioneer voyage in the inte rests of NewZealand ’s meat shipments , and the enthusiasm which followedthat successful start having somewhat evaporated at the endof the first decade of the Colonial meat export industry, therewas a felt want for the application of more organized methodsin the business . In 189 1 the Christchurch Mea t Co . askedMr . Anderson to take up the position of managing director.Mr . Anderson had had a v aried mercantile career, and heapplied his commercial experience to the management of thecompany with such success that Dr . Symes , speaking at amee ting of shareholders on March 2

,1906 , said that Mr .

Anderson had given the company an assured position and hadconverted it into an institution of colonial importance . Mr .Anderson made a point of working up the by-products sothoroughly that they became one of the chief sources of theshareholders’ profits . He also developed the meat businesson c .i .f . lines with standard grades . The capital of the Christchurch Meat Co . was when Mr . Anderson took charge ,and when he resigned in 1906 the freezing capac ityof sheep per day had increased to and theexports of mutton and lamb from to ca rcassesper annum . These figures include the capital and capacity ,

respectively , of the New Zealand Refrigerating Co., and alsoof a previous amalgamation , namely, that of the South CanterburyFreezing Go .

,and the Wairau Freezing Co. ,a ll of which hadbeen amalgamated with the Christchurch Meat Co . In 1906

Mr. Anderson , having had a serious brea kdown in health ,resigned his position and went to London , where he now carries


on business under the style of Gilbert Anderson and Co. , colonialagents , frozen meat representing an important feature of thefirm

’

s operations.

BELL , JOHN, AND SONS, LONDON, LIVERPOOL AND GLASGOW ,

was a business started in 1827 by the late Mr . John Bell ,and was subsequently carried on by his two sons, Mr .Henry Bell (now Sir Henry Bell, and Mr. JamesBell (now Sir James Bell, Messrs . Bell turned theirbusiness in 1888 into a limited liability company

,which a year

later was taken over by Eastmans , Ltd .,a concern formed to

acquire this undertaking as well as the Eastman cattle andfresh meat business of New York . Messrs . John Bell and Sonsbegan to Open up meat shops in Great Britain about 1879 , andthe multiple shop company system may be credi ted fairly totheir: pioneering . When John Bell and Sons

,Ltd . , cea sed to

exist in 1889 , the company had 330 shops in the British Isles .

In another highly important matter is the name of Bell asso

ciated with the frozen meat industry . On p . 24 will be foundinformation respecting the Bell-Coleman refrigerator, by meansof which ma chine the first shipment of frozen meat was broughtfrom Australia in the s .s . Strathleven to London by Messrs .McIlwraith,

McEacharn and Co . in 1880.

BLANKLEY , WILLIAM .—Mr . William Blankley

’

s connectionwith the frozen meat industry goes back to 1886 . He left thebusiness of his father, who was a LeadenhallMarket salesman,in 1884, and after a year

’s sojourn in Australia returned to

England and associated himself with the fortunes of Smithfield Market, moving to the Japanese Village (then quite a“ Deserted Village ”) in 1890. Mr . Blankley was one of

the earliest supporters of the Frozen Meat Trade Association ,of which he was Preside nt in 1901, and Vice-President in 1906 ,1908, 19 10, and 19 11, and has throughout been an activ emember Of the Council . In the early days of the Associationthere was some little friction between buyers’ and sellers

’

inte rests, and Mr . Blankley was instrumental in forming the

Frozen Meat C.I .F . Buyers’ Association in 1907 . The


LEADING PERSONALITIES IN THE TRADE 358

difficulties alluded to were, however, of a temporary nature , andthe operations of the Buyers’ Association were soon suspended ,

though as a body it still exists . Mr. Blankley has always beena practical supporter of the c .i .f . method of conducting thefrozen meat trade

,without which he does not believe that the

industry could have reached its present proportions . He issatisfied with the development of the trade as a whole

,but.

deplores the obsolete and apathetic position in which thevarious insurance companies are content to remain .

" Mr .Blankley and other c .i .f . buyers are trying a new departure inconnection with insurance , the results of which , if not equalto their sanguine ideas , must prove a great improvement, theymainta in , upon existing conditions.

Bos rrrwrcx, Sm THOMAS, BAE'r ., was born in Edinburgh ,

and started at Liverpool and Manchester in 1863 as liv e stockagent . When the Strathleven ’

s cargo arrived in 1880, Mr .

Borthwick was much impressed with the possibilities of thenew trade

,and he quickly discovered that the live stock

business would be superseded by that in frozen meat . Foreseeing something of the enormous developments which awaiteddead meat import from Australasia and Argentina , Mr . Borthwick decided to take a hand in the trade , and Opened depotsat Liv erpool

,Manchester, Glasgow, and Birmingham, and in

1883 became selling agent for the New Zealand Loan andMercantile Agency Co. ,

Ltd . In 1892 he brought his head officeto London , where he secured a stall at Smithfield . Assistedby his sons—whom he took into pa rtnership—Mr. Borthwicktransacted a large wholesale business as importe r and distri butor . Not content wi th importing and distributing inGreat Britain

,the firm turned their attention to frozen meat

in Austra lasia, and opened freezing works at Waitara ( 1901)and Hastings New Zealand ; and at Portlandand Melbourne

,Victoria

,as well as at Brisbane , Queens~

land They also es tablished branch offices at Chri stchurch , New Zealand (where the company now have officesin five towns) , and in Sydney , Melbourne , and Brisbane ,Australia, and greatly extended their Smithfield Marketrun . A A


ofli ces and stalls . In 1904, when the volume and scopeof the firm’

s business had largely expanded, Thomas Borthwickand Sons

,Ltd . ,

capital was registered . Mr . ThomasBorthwick

,the eldest son , is managing director, and Sir

Thomas’s three other sons , Mr . Algernon , Mr . William , andMr . James

,have charge of the New Zealand

,Australian , and

Liverpool and Manchester businesses . This company’s operations , it will be seen , control at every point the frozen meat ithandles

,from live stock market in Australasia to the dead meat

market in Great Britain . Sir Thomas , who received his

baronetcy in 1907,is a Past President of the Cold Storage and

Ice Association . He has an estate at Whitburgh,Midlothian ,

where he farms about acres of land he is on the Midlothian County Council Licensing Bench

,and is interested in

technical education . Sir Thomas has had time to take aprominent interest in national and local poli tics , and is considered in the North a tower of strength to the Liberal Party .

CAMPBELL,GORDON.

—Mr. Gordon Campbell joined the firmofW .Weddel and CO. in 1895, having previ ously been associatedwith the Victorian Government Offices in London , where hereported upon and generally supervised Victorian produce .

Mr . Campbell first became connected with the produce businessthrough the late Hon . Robert Reid, of Victori a, with whom hetravelled to England in 1893 , when that gentleman was on hi smi ssion to find fresh markets for the sale of Australian productions in Europe

,and

,more particularly

,for those of Victoria,

for which State he was, at that time, the Minister for Defence .

Mr . Campbell acted under Mr . Reid in London , and later on ,

for a period of about eighteen months,under the Agent-General

Of Victoria, and it was through that source that he came intotouch with Mr . William Weddel

,who in 1895 Offered him a

position in his firm . The arrangement being mutually satisfactory, the agreement was from time to time renewed until1906 , when Mr . Campbell became a partner . Mr . Campbellwas born in Sydney, but has spent most of his time in England,although for fiv e years , from 1888 to 1892, he was on a sheepand cattle station in the north-west of New South Wales , so



that his practical experiences of stock matters ha ve been ofvalue to him in his work . Mr . Campbell has been from thefirst in close touch with all the sections of Smithfield Market,and at the present time is President of the Incorporated Societyof Mea t Importers , a position to which he has been four

times re-elected.

CAMERON,HENRY CHARLES, who is Produce Commissioner

in London for the New Zealand Government, comes of anold farming family, the Camerons of Balnakyle being wellknown in Scotch agricultural circles . Proceeding to NewZealand when a young man , Mr. Cameron became engaged inagri cultural and pastoral pursuits, and has been closely identified with the development of the frozen meat industry ev ersince its inception . Returning to England after several yea rs ’

experience in New Zealand, he , in 1894, opened a store inManchester for the high-class retail sale of New Zealand meat

,

as mentioned at p . 203 . Some years later, having worked upan extensive connection , be transferred his Manchester businessto Messrs . W . and R . Fletcher, Ltd . , by whom it is still carriedon, and joined the New Zealand Government as ProduceCommissioner for the Dominion in London . In thi s importantappointment Mr . Cameron had to take in hand much respon

sible work in connection with the importation and sale of NewZealand meat . Some of the work was far from agreeable,although very necessary . The prosecution on behalf of theNew Zealand Government of meat retailers charged with sellingas New Zealand meat that had never left the shores of theDominion , was successft carried through by Mr . Cameron ,although every difficulty that could be thrown in the way ofprosecutions of this nature had to be encountered . Probably,on account of the fact that meat from Australia and SouthAmerica has so much improved of late years , judicia l procedure of this kind may not again have to be inv oked .

Mr . Cameron has always been a strong adv ocate of adver

tisement by demonstration and of meat marking as a meansfor the development of the New Zealand meat trad e amongstthe bette r class of consumers in Great Britain . Possibly, if

A A 2


the pigeon-holes of the Government office at Wellington weresearched , many special reports by Mr . Cameron would be discovered dealing with practical issues and v exed questionsrelating to the frozen meat export trade of New Zealand . Inshaping the destinies Of the trade, as far as hand ling andmarketing in Great Bri ta in are concerned, and in the department of work which a representative of the Gov ernment mayproperly take, Mr . H . C . Cameron has not played an un

important part .

CHRI STI SON, ROBERT, now of Burwell Park , Lincolnshire ,who was one of the earliest pioneers Of meat freezing inAustralia, went to Australia in 1852 and took up pastoralpursuits in North Queensland in 186 5, acquiring LammermoorStation in the following year . Mr . Christison established apedigree herd of Hereford cattle, and it may be noted to hiscredit that he was kind to the aborigines on hi s property, andthat he trained them successq y as station hands . He alsowas one of the first squatters to sink artesian wells . In 1881

Mr . Christison, observing the success of the Strathleven shipment

,was instrumental in the erection of the Poole Island

(Bowen , Queensland) refrigerating and slaughtering worksfor the export of beef to England (see p .

COOK , THE LATE WILLIAM , was for many years generalmanager in Europe for the Compania Sansinena de CarnesCongeladas . He was born in Argentina in 1851

, and wasassociated with Messrs . Sansinena before they began freezing .

Mr . Cook went to England in 1885— 1886 mainly to fix up afreight contract

,which after some trouble was arranged with

Messrs . Houston . Messrs . Sansinena ’

s business was in 189 1

turned into a company under Argentine law . Mr . Cookmanaged the European interests with great ability and enterprise

,and was a highly esteemed personage in frozen meat

circles in London he had a clear perception of the problemsof the trade

,and had his own ways of settling them . He

used to surprise the market at times by raising his priceswhen large imports of Argentine meat came along and lowering



from New Zealand he determined to take a vigorous hand,

recognizing that it was the sole hope for permanently enhancingvalues Of rural lands and live stock . From 1880 until 1889 ,when he was transferred to the managership of the New Zea landLoan and Mercantile Co.

’

s Melbourne branch , he worked dayand night in promoting and extending the New Zealand frozenmeat trade , especially in Canterbury . The banquet giv en inhis honour in July, 1889, by the Canterbury Agricultural andPastoral Association and the Canterbury Chamber of Commercewas a unique compliment, attended as it was by most of theleading pastoralists and farmers in Canterbury

,and also by

the leading merchants of Christchurch . Mr . Cooke becamemanager in Australia in 1891 of the Australian MortgageLand and Finance Co . He was a leading spirit in resurrecting the Australian frozen meat export trade, which hadslackened Off and threatened to disappear . Mr. Cookehelped Sir Thomas McIlwraith in the formation of theQueensland Meat Export and Agency CO. In 1895, Mr .

Cooke retired from company management, and commencedbusiness on hi s own account , devoting himself chiefly to frozenmeat export ; he acquired the Newport (Melbourne) freezingworks from Mr . Hotson . The tide Of demand for meat andother frozen food products that beat on Australian shoresfrom South Africa during the war was taken at the flood byMr . Cooke, and doubtless led on to fortune he supplied about90per cent . of the Australian meat issued to the British troops .As beef was called for in that connection , Mr . Cooke erectedthe Redbank Freezing Works, on the Brisbane river, andacquired a large shareholding interest in the Burdekin worksin North Queensland ; he also acquired the output of otherworks in Queensland to build up his beef export trade tovarious parts of the world Mr . Cooke , in 1902, took over theSandown Works and other establishments owned by theAustral Freezing Works . It was in the early eighties thatMr . Cooke became intimately acquainted with Mr . WilliamWeddel

,then associated with the New Zealand Grain

Agency Co. , Ltd . , and Mr . Cooke professes pride in thefact that b e exercised some influence on Mr . Weddel in his


sub sequent dete rmination to devote his future energies to thefrozen meat trade . Some record of Mr . Cooke ’s work in

connection with the industry is to be found in the chapterson Australian and New Zealand freezing works .

Cox , E . OWEN, general manager in Australia of Birt and CoLtd . , originally entere d the Bank of Australa sia, New Zealand ,and was eleven years in that institution . When he left theBank to enter commercial life he was travelling manager .Very many men who now occupy important positions inAustralia in the mercan tile world learned their A .B .C . ofbusiness in the Australian Banks . Mr . Cox was one of thefirst men in Christchurch to set the c .i .f . meat sales going .

He came to England in 1895, and joined Birt , Potte r andHughes , Ltd . , and took charge of their frozen meat interests .

In 1897 , Mr . Cox went to Sydney in the interests of the firmand settled there as managing director of Birt and Co. , Ltd .

During the South African War , Mr . Cox had , on account ofhis firm , a large share of the conveyance of troops and horses ,and has been prominently connected right along with alldepartments of the frozen meat trade . Mr . Cox has a geniusfor details , which make him master of every department of themeat and meat shipping business, and what he does not knowabout it is not worth knowing .

COXON, FRANK , set sail from England'

for Dunedin , NewZealand

,on November 11, 1881, a time when refrigerating

engineers were not so numerous as they are now . He wentout to supervise the erection of the first meat freezing worksin the Colony, those of the New Zealand Refrigerating Cc . , andthis work

,which was successq y completed at Burnside in

1882, made Mr . Coxon one of the pioneers of the frozen mea ttrad e . Mr . Coxon prepared plans for the buildings of theBelfast works , Christchurch , Opened in 1883 , and had a handin the planning of most of the early meat freezing works . Mr .Coxon has been as sociated all along with the developmentof the meat freezing industry , and many of the Australa sianworks have been designed by him. It is interesting to


recall some of his pioneering experiences . One of his

early pieces of work was the di smantling and equippingof a wooden sailing ship the Jubilee, for use as a freezing hulkfor the Ge ar Meat reezing Co. , of Wellington . The vesselhad been in the slav e trade

,and large numbers of old hand

cuffs were found in the fore peak when clearing it out . Thecraft did many years’ good work in the freezing capacity

,and is

still in service as a coal bulk in Wellington Harbour . A considerable number Of sailing ships including the Opawa , Wellington ,

M a rlborough, Lady Jocelyn ,Northurnberla nd , Turakina ,

etc . ,

were installed with freezing machinery after the success ofthe pioneer voyages . The s .e. Fensta nton , whi ch was a newtramp steamer

,was chartered by the New Zealand Shipping

CO. in 1883 . The vessel was notfitted to carry meat,but she

was sent to Lyttelton , and, under Mr . Coxon’

s supervi sion , aHaslam freezing plant was installed . Gangs of labourersworking the whole twenty-four hours were employed , and thejob was finished in twenty-eight days ; that is to say, the

Fensta nton was fitted with machinery, insulated , docked ,cleaned

,and loaded with carcasses Ofmutton and general

cargo,and was Off to London within a calendar month . She

was the first vessel to enter Port Chalmers dry dock . Mr .Coxon mentions that after this time the meat carrying steamersarriving at New Zealand ports exceeded in capacity the output

of the works on shore, and that it was no unusual occurrenceto have mail steamers lying off the wharf freezing a portion Of

their own cargoes on board . Mr . Coxon was employed bythe New Zealand Shipping CO. to supervise the freezing arrangement of their vessels, and was cons tantly consulted by theShaw

,Savill and Albion Co . also . The first steamer of the

last-named company intended for the trade was the Triumph,she was wrecked under the lighthouse on Tiri Tiri Island,Auckland Harbour .

DALGETY AND Co. , LTD .,who have neglected no branch of

Australasian produce in the scope Of their all-embrac ingbusiness

,were

,of course , one Of the pioneer houses to help

forward the frozen meat trade in the days of experiment and



work in connection with Anglo-Australasian shipping , it maybe stated that Sir Edwyn Dawes in 1890 took over from SirWilliam Pearce his controlling interest in the New ZealandShipping Co. , which then owned fourteen sailing ships and fivesteamers . Sir Edwyn

’

s foresight suggested that the days ofsailing ships were numbered, and he accomplished what mightjustly be stated as the greatest triumph of his commercialcareer

,the complete reorganization of the New Zealand

Shipping Co. ,and the solidification of its position in the Colony .

He first disposed of a ll the sailing ships and subsequently ofthe five costly steamers , replacing them by powerful and wellequipped passenger and cargo steamers , and this raised thecompany in a short space of time to a foremost position inthe New Zealand trade , with a magnificent fleet . Sir EdwynDawes was a director of the Suez Canal, and one of the leadinglights generally Of the shipping communi ty in London .

His death in December, 1903, caused great grief to a widecircle of friends in England and the Colonies . In reviewinghis life, it may be said that Sir Edwyn Dawes was a pioneer,whose passion was for dev eloping the undeveloped

,bringing

order out of chaos, and breathing new life into Old bones hewas ready to hand ov er to others the carrying out of schemeswhich he had initiated , whilst himself turning to some freshtask . Concerning especially Sir Edwyn Dawes’s associationwith the frozen meat trade, both as to freezing worksand transit, the following information may be given

Poole Island , Queensland—This is referred to on p . 36 .

Austral Freezing works—This syndicate was formed in 1900 totake over the Sandown Freezing works , New South Wales ,and the Newport Freezing Works

,near Melbourne , from

Messrs . John Hotson and CO. Sir Edwyn was chairman ,

and Mr . William Weddel , Sir George Mackenzie, and Mr . JamesCaird , di rectors in London , Mr . John Cooke undertaking thelocal control . The company’s operations unfortunatelysynchronized with the great drought , and after incurring veryheavy losses , the company was liquidated . Central Queensland Meat CO.

—Sir Edwyn Dawes was indirectly connectedwith this concern , formed in London in 1901, along with Sir

THE LATE S I R EDWYS BANDYB DAWES,

To j am p . 36 2.


36 4 A HISTORY OF THE FROZEN MEAT TRADE

Charles Gunther, and Mr . (afterwards Sir) Joseph Pulley . Ofthis board only Mr . Davies survives . The beginning of the

great Argentine frozen meat export trade was the slaughter of350 sheep on October 15

,1883

,and carcasses Of frozen

mutton were shipped to London in November from the com

pleted works of the company in the s .s. M eath, which was fittedwith Haslam cold air refrigerating plant . The Campanaworks were on the smallest scale, their area being 200 by100 feet , and Haslam machinery being used . Shipping operations were harassing in the early days the companychartered the Zenobia Zephyrus, Zeta and Za rate

and these vessels proceeded direct to Campana fortheir meat loading . Mr. G . W . Drabble was a member ofthe municipality Of the city of Buenos Ai res was one of theoriginators Of the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway, andthe City Of Buenos Aires Tramways , and the first chairman ofthe Buenos Aires Western Railway, which post he held untilthe time of hi s death . Although not one of the originaldirectors of the London and River Plate Bank

,he was invited

to join the Board when he came to Great Britain in 186 8,

and remained its chairman up to the time of his death .

FITTER ,HENRY SHI PLEY, became interested in the frozen

meat trade on its initiation , as a member of the firm Of Messrs .Henry S . Fitter and Sons, of which he is now the head . Thebus iness was founded in 1856 , and was carried on in the Old

Leadenhall Market . Originally,Messrs . H . S . Fitter and Sons

occupied Nos . 192 and 193 in a side avenue at the Central Mea tMarket

,but soon moved to NO. 142 in the main Avenue, and

later added NO. 105. When the Old fish market was shut up ,Messrs . Fitter applied for space there , but the Corporation atfirst thought they would reserve it for provisions and pork .

Afterwards , however, the authority gave way, and Messrs .

Fitte r started at Nos . 358 and 36 4 in The Japanese Village,”

in which section of the London Central Markets such a largeproportion of the frozen meat business is transacted . The othermembers of the firm are Mr. Fitter’s two brothers , Messrs .

Percy and Lewis Fitter, and Mr . Fitter’s two sons, Messrs .

MR . HENRY SHIPLEY FITT I'IR.

To j a r-e p . 364.



Bristol , Newcastle , Hull, Sheffield , Southampton , and Leeds .They are also owners Of freezing works at Geelong , Victoria .

The managing directors are Mr . Samuel H . Fletcher (son ofMr. Robert Fletcher , founder of the company) , Mr. W . J .

Kempson , and Mr . William Blagburn—the manager of theretail shops . The two last named gentlemen have beenactively associated with the business since its inception . Thehead Office of the company is situated at 19 and 20

,King

Street, West Smithfield , London , E .C. In February, ,

19 12 , apublic company entitled the Proprietors of Fletcher’s (MeatImporters ) , Ltd .

, was formed to acquire the share capitalinterest Of Messrs . Fletcher’s business . It may be interestingto note ,

” write Messrs . Fletcher, that in the early days ofthe frozen meat trade, imports consisted solely of carcasses ofmutton, which , as everyone knows , have been augmented inlater years by heavy imports of frozen lamb and frozen beef .”

Notwithstanding the increased shipments Of chilled beef, theyare of opinion that frozen beef will still remain a permanentfeature of the frozen meat trade .

GEDDES, THE LATE J . H . , was prominently connected withthe trade for the last twenty years of his life . About 1890,Sir Patrick Jennings, the Hon . G . H . Cox, Mr . Henry White ,and others , were associated with Mr . Geddes in the establishment of the Pastoral Finance Association at Sydney, particularsof which are giv en elsewhere . In 1894 Mr . Geddes suggestedto Mr . Henry Whi te that he should try the experiment ofshipping a few of his fine cattle alive to London as an objectlesson for the Australian beef trade . Accordingly, 18 cattleand quarters Of beef were dispatched from Sydney onAugust 20

,1894

,in the s .s . PortPirie. Unfortunate ly, the

engineers in charge of the main meat cargo and of the experimental parcel Of chilled beef quarrelled (there were separaterefri gerators ) , bilge water was pumped into the pipes, and thechilled beef had to be frozen . Shortly after this Mr .Geddes experimented in Sydney with chilled beef, holdingbeef for seventy-two days at 32° F . A dinner to the membersof the Queensland Club

,Brisbane

,was given, at which some of

THE LATE MR . J. II . GEDDES.

To fmv I’° 366 .



GOODSIR, GEORGE , director of Messrs . W . Weddel and Co .,

Ltd . , is one Of that comparatively small band which canclaim not only an active interest in the frozen meat industry ,but a connection with it which dates back to the v ery start ofthe trade , for his introduction to the frozen meat businesstook place when he wrote a report upon the outturn of thatfamous pioneer cargo of meat that arrived in the Strathleven inJanuary, 1880. He did this when attached to the producedepartment of the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile AgencyCo. , Ltd . , whose service he entered in 1878, when that companywas under the management of the late Mr . H . M . Paul . Thatearly trade report of Mr . Goodsir’s concerning frozen meatwas the parent of many, for the Market Circulars , and AnnualReviews Of the Frozen Meat Trade

,

” which have undoubtedlybeen an appreciable factor in the success of his present firm , aswell as informatory to the trade as a whole, have long beenunder his edi torship . Issued regularly for the past twentythree years

,these Reviews have been published in recent

years also in German and French , and they have attaineda world-wide reputation for fulness and accuracy of information .

Written from an impartial point of view, these Reviews,” it

is understood,are dependent for much of their value upon the

goodwill of some of the firm ’

s trade rivals, who are goodenough to furnish their quota of information in order that thestatistical records of the trade as a whole may be complete .

It was in 1884 that he left the service of the New Zealand Loanand Mercantile Agency Co . to take charge of the Londonproduce business of the National Mortgage and Agency CO.

of New Zealand,Ltd . ,

but returned to the former company inthe following year in order to take up a more responsiblepost . In 1888 he became a partner with Mr . WilliamWeddel , and his brother, the la te Mr . P . G . Weddel, withthe Object of developing their frozen meat and generalproduce business . From the outset the combination provedsuccessful , and the firm of W. Weddel and CO. forged aheadrapidly, extending its colonial and foreign connections untilit handled a large percentage of the meat imports of theUnited K ingdom . Mr . Goodsir recently visited almost all the



particulars from the log of the M ata ura , the first vessel ofthe line to bring frozen meat from New Zealand . CaptainGreenstreet is a most popular skipper on the Anglo-New Zealandline he is indeed a veteran , having made eighty roundtrips , and sailed or steamed over miles . November,1881 . Appointed master of the barque Mata ura ,

about 900

tons registe r . The barque was being insulated at the fore endand fitted with Haslam ’s dry air machinery . Mr . (now Sir )Alfred Haslam was accidentally shut up in a small refrigeratedchamber, and would have been frozen to death had he not beendiscovered in time . Left London December 15 . CrossedEquator January 15 . Caught albicore , 120 lbs . weight, 5 ft .1 in . in girth . Thi s fish, and birds shot in Southern Ocean ,were put in the chamber, and on arriv al at Lyttelton werepresented to Sir Julius Von Haast for the Christchurch Museum .

April 27,made fast to Port Chalmers wharf

,150 carcasses per

day were sent on board and frozen in ’tween decks for twentyfour hours, then bagged and stowed in lower hold . The meatcargo consisted of carcasses of mutton , 24 quarte rs beef,and 77 pigs total weight , lbs . , freight, Thevoyage home lasted 103 days , and great worry was experiencedas the boiler feed pumps would not act on one tack when theship heeled ov er . The voyage was a success

,and the meat was

delivered in excellent condi tion .

” Captain Greenstreet’

s

second voyage in the Mata ura with meat was not so successful .Whilst he was taking deliv ery at Auckland of sheep carcasses, av essel was discharging bone dust near

,causing a fearful stench ,

and , doubtless , distributing microbes, germs, and bacteriaabout of the carcasses turned out bad in consequence .

On the homeward passage a game of snowballing was indulgedin at the Equator . Ten years later Captain Greenstreetcommanded the s .s . Rua hine, with a carrying capacity of

carcasses .

Gc c , THE LATE JOHN, of Longbeach , New Zealand, canclaim a pioneer’s part in the frozen meat trade . A portion Ofthe cargo of the sailing ship Dunedin ,

which took New Zealand ’s

first frozen consignment to England, consisted of some half

CAPTAIN HERBERT E. GREENSTREET.

Tuf ar? y . 3 70.



lambs in the Ashburton County and ship them to London ev eryseason . In growing rape , turnips, and clover with Italian ryegrass , to top Off lambs after weaning , he was probably one ofthe leaders . In one season from December to the end of May

lambs were fattened on Longbeach and averaged wellover 40 lbs . each . One line of lambs , which were allsold on the same day

,averaged over 42 lbs . Mr . Grigg was a

strong adv ocate Of the principle that the freezing companiesshould not deal in meat . He advocated the open door for thefarmer and his stock , and the advantage of the consignmentprinciple . The Canterbury Frozen Meat CO. right throughoutits career has felt the good effect of the energy wi th whichMr . Grigg dev oted himself to the starting of the Canterburytrade .

HASLAM , SIR ALFRED SEALE , has played a part as pioneerin the introduction of refrigerating machinery best indicated ,

perhaps,by reference to the fact set forth in another

page in this book, that his dry air machine was introduced in 1880

, and that following this the Haslam Foundryand Engineering Co. , formed by Sir Alfred as early as1868, had what amoun ted practically to a monopoly of Britishmarine meat refrigeration for fourteen years during the lifeOf the patents concerned . In 1880, when the trade betweenAustralasia and Great Britain was opened for the carriage offrozen meat, Sir Alfred fitted ships to carry approximate ly150 tons of meat per cargo

,and this was considered a great

achiev ement . The fact that at the present time he is fitting upa number Of vessels to carry from to tons of meat ordairy produce gives an idea of the enormous development ofthe trade . Sir Alfred ’s early training as an engineer was atthe Midland Rai lway Works at Derby, and he was at worklater under Lord Armstrong ’s company. His first associationwith the manufacture of refrige rating machinery was in 1876 ,and that association , like his connection wi th Derby, has sinceseen no inte rruption . He received his knighthood when , as

Mayor of Derby, he receiv ed Queen Victoria on her visit to

Derby in 1891 . Like many other prominent engineers, Sir



were acquired by the Victorian Government ; Mr . Hotsonsubsequently leased the establishment

,and during his period Of

occupancy about frozen sheep and lambs wereexported to London . In 1896 Mr . Hotson passed over hisbusiness interests at Newport to Mr . John Cooke . Duringthe last few years Mr . Hotson has resided in England, atBournemouth .

JOHNSON, THE LATE E . L . , became associated with the frozenmea t trade as a surveyor in 1885 . Mr . Johnson was thepioneer of the surveying of frozen meat on defined lines

,and

his force of character and abili ty,combined with tact, made

him quite a figure in frozen meat circles . As he had to dealwith a new business, he had , naturally, to establish his ownprecedents, and only a strong man could do that . Manybattles over mea t and mouldy rabbits did he have withclaimants . Captain T . R . Mowat , who began surveyingfrozen meat in 1893 , joined in 1901 the firm of E . L . Johnson

’sSons and Mowat, the successors of the connection of thesubject of this brief memoir . Mr . Johns on was wont to usesome quaint and expressive phrases at Smithfield in the courseof his work . As sound as a bell of brass ,

” he would say whenfrozen meat was submi tted to him for damage allowance,which he disputed .

“ Stone fed was another of his expressionsin alluding to carcasses the poorness Of which , amounting to

emaciation , admitted of no dispute . Mr . Johnson died inDecember, 1900.

KE ELE , RICHMOND , who has been called the Grand OldMan of the Meat Trade, was for many years the frozen meatmanager for Nelson Brothers and the Colonial Consignmentand Distributing Cc . , Ltd . He was a well-known and highlyrespected figure at Smithfield ,

where , prior to his retirement,he was to be seen every morning . With good general knowledge of live stock , country born and country bred , Mr . Keelefinished his education by two years at an agri cultural college ,which had numbered the late John Tyndall and EdwardFrankland among its professors and Henry Fawcett among

THE LATE MR. 8 . L. JOHNSON.

To!am y . 374.



fifty-one years of age when he passed away . Mr . Martin

married a daughter of the late Sir Edwyn Dawes in 189 1 .

Had he lived, there can be no doubt that he would hav e takena keen interest and played an important part in the settlement of the many interesting problems accompanying the

growth of the frozen and chilled meat trade, occupying, as hedid during the last six years Of his life , the dual position of

shipowner and chairman Of a company interested very extensiv ely in handling refrigerated produce at producing andmarketing points . Mr . Martin had a wonderq y energetictemperament, and was pa rticularly good at attacking and

overcoming difl'

iculties .

MOILWRAI TH , MOEAOHARN AND Co. , LTD . ; is a firm ofwhich the two founders

,Mr . An drew McIlwraith and the late

Sir Malcolm McEacharn started business together in the year1874

, trading as McIlwraith, McEacharn and Co. , the wellknown mercantile and Anglo-Australian shipping house . Thefirm built a fleet of sailing ships, chiefly for the purposes Oftaking emigrants to the northern parts of Queensland . Thesevessels, after some years , became obsolete ,

and the companythen acquired a fine fleet Of steamers, which are now principally occupied in the Australian intercoastal trade . In 1879the firm created a sensation by chartering the s .s . Strathleven ,

and fitting her with refrigerating machinery for the purpose ofsending her to Australia to bring home to England a cargo of

frozen meat, which enterprise, as recorded elsewhere in thisbook , was eminently successful . McIlwra ith, McEacharn andCo., Ltd . , was formed in 189 1

,the company being registered

at Melbourne, Victoria, and there now exist, in additionto Offices in London and Melbourne

,branches at Adelaide,

Sydney and Newcastle (New S . Fremantle, Perth , andAlbany (West The head office is at Melbourne .

Messrs . McIlwra ith, McEacharn and Co. , Ltd . , act as agents inAustralia for several of the important lines of steamers carryingrefrigerated produce to Great Britain .

MARTINDALE ,COLONEL C . B . ,

as the general manager of theLondon and St . Katharine Docks Co. , had a great deal to do

SI R EDWARD MONTAGUE NELSON, D. L.

Trofa r’t' y . 376 .



1883, the prospectus of Nelson Brothers, Ltd . , was issued , an dmainly owing to the personality and influence of Mr . EdwardMontague Nelson (who was in charge of the business in London )the subscribed capital of was immediately raised .

The refrigerating works started under the management of

Mr . William Nelson , and the three shipments of frozen meatmade by the company in 1884 marked the first stage in abusiness which developed to v ery large proportions . Fromtime to time additional amounts of capital were raised andspent in dev elopments , and thi s expendi ture was a greatfactor in establishing the freezing trade on a strong and lastingbasis in New Zealand . Both in the Colony, and, as regardsdistribution at home, Nelson Brothers deservedly occupy th eposition of pioneers of the frozen meat trade . Selling themeat in Great Britain was just as important as freezingand shipping , and the system had to be initiated . For thefirst two years the cargoes were almost entirely sold atSmithfield

, but in 1885 the stores in Thames Street,under

Cannon Street Station,were opened by Nelson Brothers , and

the Opportunity was afforded of sending the meat fartherafield the country business was started

,and quickly attained

big proportions . England was mapped out into districts , anarmy of travellers being employed to push the trade

,notonly

in the cities but in the country towns and villages . In addi tionto butchers , other provision retailers were induced to give thenew commodi ty a trial , and were supplied in small quantities,ev en to a single carcass , the great end in view being to get themeat known throughout the country . To assist in this ObjectNelson Brothers purchased the barque Prince of Wa les , fittedher with refrigerating machinery

,and Sent her to Plymouth as a

distributing station for the West Of England . With theirup

-river store supplied by barges from the v essels at the docks ,and served as to deliveries by railway v ans, no diflEiculty wasexperienced in getting away the Colonial produce . SO muchprogress was made that before long there was hardly a town inEngland without its frozen meat shop . The system was to

send out price lists on Saturday to the vari ous customersOffering the different classes of meat, and the orders came

MR. W I LLIAM NELSON.

7b !a re p. 378.



London Office . Mr . W . A . Porter is secretary of NelsonBrothers , Ltd . ,

and of the Central Queens land Meat Export

Co. ,Ltd . ,

and Mr . P . B . Proctor is secretary Of the ColonialConsignment and Distributing CO Ltd . , and of the AustralianChilling and Freezing Co. , Ltd .

NELSON,EDWARD ,

started in 1879 in the live cattle business,

and when the frozen meat trade dev eloped he associated himselfwith it

,and had considerable experience with the trade up to

the time of the building of the Las Palmas works in Argentina,

connected with Messrs . James Nelson and Sons, Ltd . As regardsthat company, Mr . Edward Nelson was joint managing directorwith his brother William Nelson in its early days , an d continuedthe joint managing di rectorship with him after the death ofMr . Hugh Nelson in 1893 . Mr . William Nelson retired fromthat position in 1904, and some time afterwards Mr . ThomasNelson, another brother, at that time resident in Glasgow,

andengaged in the live stock trad e, joined Mr . Edward as jointmanaging director . Both have since continued to manage theaffairs of the company .

NEWMAN, J . N. , the London manager of the NationalMortgage and Agency CO. of New Zealand, Ltd . , joined hiscompany in 1885

,and at once got into close touch with the

frozen meat trade . The National Mortgage Co . was thenreceiving consignments , and, in fact, was more or less connectedwith the trade from its beginning , owing to its close relationwith the New Zealand and Australian Land CO. For eighteenyears , up to the end of 1909 , Mr . Newman represented hiscompany daily on Smithfield Market, the whole of the consignments receiv ed including the output of the company’s works atLongburn

,New Zealand , passing through his hands , the bulk

being actually sold by him to dealers and salesmen on themarket . Mr . Newman was a member of the Committee of theFrozen Meat Trade Association , and filled the part of presidentduring the years 1901 and 1902 . In these years some progresswas made in settling the terms and conditions of c .i .f . con

tracts,and in the better handling of meat at the selling end .


Mr. Newman is now a member of the council of the Incor

porated Society of Meat Importers , and continues to take anactive inte rest in everything connecte d with the trad e .

PASMAN, MILES A., managing director in Buenos Aires ofthe Compafiia Sansinena de Carnes Congelad as , was first connected with the firm as sindico , and was appointed managingdirector in 1899 . Mr . Pasman occupies a very influential position , and is one of the few men in the Republic to whoseenterprise and genius the tremendous growth of the Argentinefrozen meat trade may be attributed . He is president ofthe Estancia y Colonias Curamalan , a huge pastoral propertynow being broken up for settlement , is also president of theBristol Hote l at Mar del Plata , and is chairman of the localBoard of the Argentine Estates of Bovril .

PAUL , THE LATE HENRY MONCRErrr , was born at Glasgowin 1834 . He went to Melbourne when a young man , and laterhad a sheep station near Wagga Wagga, New South Wales .He joined the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Co .

’sservice in 187 1, and retired therefrom in 1899 ; he died in 1907 .

The first consignment of frozen mutton received by the companywas in 1881, and Mr . Paul specially interested himself in introducing it to the public , both through the trade and by personallybringing it under the notice of his fri ends and business acquaintances . In the matte r of the erection of refrigerated stores inLondon Mr . Paul was largely concerned , as well as in thecompilation and dissemination in Australia and New Zealand ofinformation regarding the selection and preparation of meatfor despatch to Great Britain . A shipment of frozen meat wasmad e to France under Mr . Paul ’s supervi sion in 1886 , andthough everything was done to establish the trade there upona satisfac tory footing , owing to the heavy duties imposed bythe French Government business with that country was foundto be impracticable . In all questions mis ting to frozen mea tand other Australasian inte rests Mr. Paul took a keen inte rest,and under the pseudonym of Pomingalarna he wrotenumerous letters to the Press , as well as frequently taking


part in discussions at the meetings of the Royal ColonialInstitute and elsewhere . The New Zealand Loan Co. hasplayed a very important part in the development of thenatural resources of New Zealand and Australia, especially thefrozen meat business . Mr. Paul was a prominent andpopular figure in Colonial circles .

PEARSE ,ALBERT WILLIAM , J .P. , editor and managing

director Of The Pastora lists’

Review, has taken a prominentpart in suggesting and introducing reforms in connection withthe systems under which the frozen meat trade in Australia

,

Sydney in particular, has been worked , and has written manypamphlets on this and other branches of the business

, e.g. ,

The Right and the Wrong Way,”

Letting in Daylight,”etc .

Mr . Pearse advocates an improvement in many di rections inmethods Of handling meat for export in Australia and NewZealand

,and urges the removal Of the Commonwealth 15

per cent . duty on meat wrappers, so that Australian Shippersmay be on equal terms with their competitors in New Zealandand South America in this respect . Sydney has an unenviablereputation regarding the conveyance of stock by the railways

,

the long di stance between sale yards and abattoirs , and generalhandling Of freezing stock , as well as regards the carting of themeat to the ship ’s side , and Mr . Pearse has been hammeringaway at these things for many years . He was the first manto di scuss in public the Argentine systems of running thefrozen meat trade, and in Our Great Rival

,

” published in19 10, he described these methods , and instituted a comparison—by no means flattering to Australian methods—between theArgentine and the Australasian ways of working .

ROSE , JOHN,AND CO. dates back in its provision and tea

business to 1822, and Mr . John Alexander, a pioneer frozenmeat retailer

,and the chief partner in this firm , saw early

in the nineties the possibilities of handling the retailing of

frozen meat in a new and special way . The daily Press hadin the early days of the frozen meat industry expressed anxiety

as to the food supply of the United Kingdom , and although for



Works were formed , and we carried out the design and erectionof the whole of this plant, fitting machinery to handle 100head per day. These works are situated about four or fivemiles from the Bowen Jetty, over on the other side of theBurdekin River, and during the erection of the works veryheavy rains came down , causing a flood , which washed awaythe railway bridge, and I remember well the difliculties we had

to carry out the erection of the plant, slinging a wire ropeacross from one tree to another on each side , fitting up atemporary cradle . All our men and ourselv es had to get

hauled across , at times the cradle dipping perilously near theriv er. A portion of the machinery weighing several tons hadto be taken across the river in this way.

” Some years late rMr . Sinclair ’s firm altered the Darling Harbour Meat Marketscold storage chambers (Sydney) , so as to fit them for exportpurposes . In 1895—1896 they considerably enlarged andmodernized the Lakes Creek Freezing Works, Rockhampton,and in 1896 fitted up the Charleville (Queensland) Meat Worksfor inland chilling . This establishment has never been incommission .

SPEAR INO AND WALDRON, of London , chartered the sailerHengistand shipped frozen mutton from San Carlos and PortHoward , ports in the Falkland Islands , to London from1890 to 1895

, shipping carcasses in six voyages .The Hengistwas wrecked in the Strai ts of Magellan . Messrs .Spearing and Waldron were largely interested in frozenmutton shipping from Patagonia to London from 1896 to 1899

(see p .

STEPHENSON, THE LATE R . MACDONALD ,became connected

with the frozen meat trade in 1881,when he joined the Austra

lian Co. , Ltd . , as secretary ; of this concern he was generalmanager in 1884 . The Australian CO. owned the meat exportworks at Poole Island, Bowen , Queensland . It was wound upin 1888, but prior to that Mr . Stephenson became managingdirector of the New Zealand and Colonial Consignment Co. ,

Ltd ., which took over the consignment business of the formerconcern in 1885. In 1886 Messrs . Nelson Brothers, Ltd


purchased the goodwill and business of the New Zealand andColonial Consignment Co. , Ltd . , and Mr . Stephenson wen tover and was appointed country manager . He visitedAustralia twice , and South Afri ca, and in 1897 took the positionof secretary to the Colonial Consignment and Distributing Cc . ,

Ltd . , on the retirement of Mr. V. S . Hervey. Mr . Stephensonvigorously tackled all the problems which presented themselves in the early days of the trade, when precedents werefew . He took a very active part in the promotion ofthe Australian Chilling and Freezing Co. , Ltd . (works atAberdeen, New South Wales) in 1890

, and his ambition wasto raise Australian meat to the standard of that from NewZealand . His sudden breakdown of health put a prematureend to a career of unflagging energy and enterprise . He diedin 1901.

SWI FT AND Co . is the great meat business which , witha gigantic capital of 75 million dollars , is now so closelyidentified with the frozen meat trade in all parts of the world,and had its foundations laid some fifty years ago by the lateMr . G . F . Swift, who started with the purchase of a heiferwith 20 dollars given him by his father, a farmer . In theinterval that separate s that day from this the great industryknown by the man in the street as Swift’s has become a hugeconcern

,possessing in about 400 cities in four continents

distributing houses employing over hands . As manyas cattle, sheep , and hogs havebeen transformed into dressed meat in a single day in thesev en great packing houses ‘

Of Swift’s . These figures aresuflicient to show the proportions of the great business , butthe direction in which it qualifies for mention in these pageshas chiefly been in the leading part it has played in the greatNorth American transatlantic chilled beef export trade, which ,although now dwindling because of the growing internal meatconsumption of the United States , has in the past suppliedGreat Britain with the class of refrigerated meat that by its

unfailing quality and good condition has always commandedin English markets top refrigerawd prices . This has beenR u . 0 c


achieved partly on account of the shorter trip from the UnitedState s as compared with the voyage from South Ameri ca andthe much longer journey from Australia and New Zealand .

This has permitted chilled transport, in which the surface Of

the meat is not hardened by frost ; but much of the trade’s

success has been due to its excellent organization and conduct .Mr . G . F . Swift’s first meat sale , that of the heifer alreadyreferred to, was transacted at Bam staple , Massachusetts , andb roughthim a profit of 50per cent . The

'

founderwas a born judgeof beasts

, and an early partnership with James A . Hathaway,who was in the dressed beef line at Boston , improved thefortunes of both of these men . At Buffalo , where the twowent, there were other starters,

” including Armour andHammond, and soon, with the centre of gravity Of the Americanlive stock business shifting westward, Swift ended his partnership with Hathaway and went to Chicago in 1875 . This wasthe beginning of the grea t dressed beef business Of Swift’s ,and the foundation of the establishment of the seven bigpacking-house centres of the same company at Chicago,Kansas City, Omaha, St . Louis, St . Joseph , St . Paul, andFort Worth

,Texas . Mr . Swift was in 1875 solely a cattle

buyer, the preparation and shipping of dressed beef fromChicago then being little more than an embryonic idea . In186 8 a refrigerator car was inv ented, and in 186 9 the firstconsignment of dressed beef was shipped from Chicago toBoston , but it was not a success . Personal supervisionon the part of Mr . G . F . Swift himself brought about thearrangements which made the transport successful , and thenlater came the great struggle with the railways and the eventualoperation by Swift’s Of its own private car lines, which hav ebeen an important feature Of the ramifications of the business .Following the refrigerator cars came the refrigerated steamshipsthat carried the meat across the Atlantic . Ten years after Mr .G . F . Swift arrived in Chicago the corporation of Swift and CO.

was registered with a capital of dollars in the Sta te ofIllinois . In the early days of Swift’s business only from56 to 58 per cent . of the beef animal was available for food ,the remainder being sheer waste . The refrigerator car was



the first means of avoiding the necessity of transporting thewaste remainder , and the by-products industries which camelate r have employed to the fullest extent that part of theanimals not transported with the meat. In the case of thepig

, only the squeal , we are told , remains to be utilized (eventhat was once utilized by Mr . Gilbert Anderson on a gramophone

,j ust to go one better than the Yankees) . The story of the

gradual climb of Swift’s and other American capitalist concernsin to the English markets has been the subject of much debate .

Regarding the first efforts of Mr . G . F . Swift in this direction,

it is said that he probably crossed the Atlantic twenty timesbefore he got his Chicago dressed beef firmly established onBritish soil. When in London he personally supervised theselling of his beef . These are the methods which have charac

terized the onward march of the Americans right through , andrelentless energy and untiring organization have been respon

sible not only for the strong position which they hold at West

Smithfield ,but also for their success in capturing an important

share of the Argentine export trade . It may be as well tomention here that the Swift Beef Co. , Ltd . , with oflices atWest Smithfield , is an English company, with a capitaland board of directors separate from those of the Americancompany known as Swift and Co .

TELLIER ,CHARLES, of Auteuil , Paris, who may claim to be

the pioneer of refrigeration as applied to the preservation andtransport of meat, is a civil engineer, who has been engagedfor the last fifty years on the problems connected with thechemical production of cold . He was born in 1828. Particularsappear in Chapter H . concerning M . Tellier

’

s early efforts toimport fresh meat from South America under refrigeratingconditions , and a few particulars may be added here , bas ed ona communication received by the authors from M . Tellier.In 1860 M . Tellier considered the matter of the public foodsupply ; be perceived that it was for the engineer to bringabout a balance between the over-production of meat in thenew countries and the under-consumption in the Old World .

His first idea of transport of fresh meat was by means of a ir0 o 2


tight chambers , but on proceeding to experiment in this direction he discovered that the elements of decay were present inthe meat itself from the earliest stages . Pasteur was teachingat that time the doctrine Of the pre-existent presence oforganic germs (l

’

existence pr é existantdes germes organiques ) .SO M . Tellier adopted the refrigerator and was faced with theproblem of fitting up plant on a steamer at a cost offrancs following on the necessary efforts came the Frigorifiqueenterprise . In considering future discoveries and dev elopments in refrigeration ,M . Tellier speaks of the possibility of

producing cold without combustion . Even in the year 19 11M . Tellier favours his Old desiccation method of handlingmeat for long transport , grocers’ meat , as he calls it, la

via nde d’

épiciers .

” Experience, he states , has taught thatwhen meat has been deprived of 15 to 20per cent . of its weightof water the following results occur : In appearance, no changepreparation can be effected in twelv e hours ; absence of

hygrometrical conditions ; taken out of the machine aftertwelve hours ’ treatment, meat can be kept in the Open airindefinitely . It must be noted that no cold is requi red forthis process . To accomplish these results , fresh meat has tobe dried in the Open air by means sufficiently rapid to allowthe operation to prevent either chemical action or fermentation setting in . Voila ce gue reserve l

’

a venir,

” concludesM . Tellier . In 19 10 was published a work entitled Histoired ’une Invention Modem e : le ‘Frigorifique,

’ written by M .

Tellier . It is given to few men at the age of 82 to possess theintellectual capacity to supplement their life’s labours bypenning a technical work of 450pages .

THOMSON,JAMES JOHN, chairman and managing director

of Eastmans,Ltd . , which company has about shops in

the British Isles retailing frozen and chilled meats, began hislong connection with the frozen meat trade when he joined thefirm of Messrs . John Bell and Sons in 1878, when they Opened atLiverpool , and was associated with them till they were formedinto a limited liability company . Mr . Thomson has presidedover the destinies of Eastmans, Ltd ., since the formation of



the company, and is one of the lead ing figures in the importedmeat trade of Grea t Britain . Mr . Thomson is well and favourably known in Smithfield Market and other business circles ,and is always to be found at gatherings and meetings connecte dwith the trade . He is equally at home presiding at an ordinarygeneral meeting or sharing in the convivialities of a festivegathering .

TWOPENY,RICHARD ERNEST NOWELL, was editor of The

Pastora lists’

Review from its establishment in 189 1 to 19 10.

He went to England in 1896 as the delegate of the AustralianMeat Export Trad e Association , and there was formed by hima committee of the London representa tives of the Australasianmeat shipping interests , and considerable work was done bythis body in endeavouring to establish reforms in the workingof the trade . Fuller reference to this matter will be found onp . 268 . A full report of his mission , containing much usefulinformation as to London methods in the frozen meat trade ,was written by Mr. Tw0peny on his return to Australia . Hewas instrumental in adding one of the most valuable functionsto the operations of the Frozen Meat Trade Association , when ,

in conference with the committee of that society, he suggestedthe despatch of a weekly cabled statement of the Smithfield

current prices to the Australasian Press (see p . Mr .

N openy is an o/ficier d’

Acad émie.

WAOSTArr , THE LATE CAPTAIN F. , who went as anapprentice in a sailing ship to Australia in 1853, will bepleasantly remembered in Smithfield circles as surveyorto the Australian and New Zealand Underwriters’ Association . In the nineties he was on most days to be metwith in the Central Markets . He issued a useful annuallist of vessels engaged in the refrigerated produce trade,and in 1897 devised a method for the discharge of frozenmeat direct into barges or trucks through small portholes18 inches square in the ’tween decks of vessels , for thepurpose of saving damage in the hoisting of carcasses up thehatchways .


WARD, JOHN J . ,

who was from 1904 to 19 10 generalmanager for Europe of the Compafiia Sansinena de CarnesCongeladas , first sold S . G . Sansinena and CO.

’

s sheep inBirmingham in 1886

,and in 1887 j oined the company as

its Liverpool manager . Developing the business, he heldthe position until 1904, when the Buenos Aires boardinvited him to assume the position of general manager forEurope, with residence in London , on the resignation Of

Mr . William Cook . Mr . Ward may \well be called one Of thetrade’s pioneers

,for it was he who introduced New Zealand

frozen sheep into Yorkshi re in 1884 and sold them on LeedsBridge . Prior to that date he sold frozen meat on the Birmingham wholesale market

,and introduced it into Staffordshire at

Hanley . In 189 1 Mr . Ward visited Chicago, and in 1895 hewent to the Argentine and dressed the cattle at La Negraworks to Show the Argentine what was wanted in England .

In the year 1896 he met with a very serious accident in thecourse of his duties . During di scharge of the s .s . Elstree

Grange, he was struck by the steamer’s coaling bucket and

knocked down the hold, sustaining such grav e injuries that hislife was despaired Of. He, howev er, recovered completely andresumed his duties after a long illness . After a life of strenuouswork, Mr . Ward retired at the end of 1910, being honoured witha complimentary banquet and presentation by the meat tradeof the United Kingdom

,with its banking, shipowning,

and marine insurance connections,at the Cafe Royal, on

November 29 of that year.

WEDDEL, WILLIAM, di rector of W . Weddel and Co.

,Ltd . ,

has been one of the most prominent figures in the frozen meattrade

,and there are few persons conn ected with this industry

who have grappled more vigorously and successfully with allthe difli cultieswhich hav e marked its growth from 1880onwards .Educated at the Edinburgh Institution , Mr . William Weddelcame to London in October, 1872, and in 1874 entered theservice of Messrs . Russell , Le Cren and Co. , of London, agentsfor Messrs . Russell , Ritchie and Co. , of New Zealand . Withhis brother the late Mr . P . G . Weddel , Mr . William Weddel


LEADING PERSONALITIES IN THE TRADE 39 1

established in 1887 the firm which bears his name,being joined

by Mr . George Goodsir in 1888, the partnership extending tothis day . Later , in 1904, Mr . D . J . Goodsir and Mr . GordonH . Campbell became partners , and in December

, 19 10, thefirm was registe red as W. Weddel and Cc . , Ltd . , under theCompanies Acts . Concerning the Operations of Messrs . W .

Weddel and Cc . , it is , perhaps, only necessary to say herethat the firm is one of the largest importers from Australiaand New Zealand . It is about twenty years since Mr.Weddel

’

s house initiated c .i .f. business , on which bas is,Of course, a very large proportion of the frozen meat trad efrom Australasia is now carried on, to the adv antage of bothbuyers and sellers . The firm in 1895 opened up a trade infrozen meat with Austria and Germany . These operations,though quickly brought to a close at that time, clearly markedthe first stage of that great fight for new markets on theContinent in which the frozen meat industry is now engaged .

Fair quantities of meat were sold during the campaign , butthe inspection and other regulations enforced by the authorities ,as well as the high import duties imposed , put a stop to thebusiness . In co-operation with the board in South Africa,and Mr . John Cooke, of Melbourne (a large shareholder) ,Messrs . W . Weddel and Co . organized and worked for someyears the La Plata Cold Storage Works in Argentina

,

an undertaking still boasting the most up-to-date equip

ment in that part of the world, but now owned by Swift’s .

Originally the principal shareholders in the La Plata Workswere South African meat importers , but when the importationof frozen meat into that colony fell off to small proportionsthese parties had not much inte rest in retaining the works , andso decided to sell their property, which they did at a fair profit.Mr . Weddel

’

s firm imports considerable quantities of meatfrom Uruguay and Patagonia . Mr . Weddel visited SouthAfrica several times during the war, and he did business sosatisfactorily for the War Office in Australasian produce thata v ery considerable portion of the orders for these commoditieswas placed with his firm, so far as imports from Australasiawere concerned . His firm also secured nearly a ll the orders


for shipments from Australia to China at the time of the Boxertrouble , and they also sent to Taku some frozen mea t for theUni ted States Government . Mr .Weddel and his partners havebeen prominent figures in connection with the settling ofthe problems arising as the frozen meat trade grew, andmany of the commercial methods applied to the industry asit now exists are on the lines of procedure established in theearly days by him and his partners . Mr . Weddel is amember of the Port of London Authority, and has always beena staunch supporter of the Royal Colonial Institute and otherAustralian and New Zealand social enterprises in Great

WOOD , JOHNA. , joined the service of the River Plate FreshMeat Co. , Ltd . , in 1882, on the formation of the company, assecreta ry, being the first official appointed in the service . He

Was made manager and secretary in 1888, general manager andsecretary in 1895, managing director in 1903, and the chairmanin 1904 . Mr. Wood had to initiate , supervise, and controlthe vari ous developments of the company’s business, and thesuccessful carrying out of the work has , of course, only beenpossible owing to the assistance of a most capable staff both inthe Plate and in Great Britain . Mr . Wood has paid manyvisits to the Argentine in connection with the business Of thecompany. It is fitting that Mr . Wood’s name should be

coupled with the system on whi ch the River Plate Fresh MeatCo . has been managed . This system has been as far as possiblefor the compan y to control an d work with their own men thewhole business from the buying of the live stock in the Plateun til delivery to the retailers or consumers on this side, theaim all through having been to meet as far as was possible theconsumers’ requirements, and the control of the company beingin the hands of those who were acquainted with what wasrequired on this side enabled that end to be fairly well attained .



needs of their own population so insistent that it is plain thatArgentina and/or Australia, instead of finding a competitorin that quarter, will ere long find a customer .

Refrigerated Meatthe ImportTrade of the Future .

We may, perhaps, reasonably di smiss, as a negligible factor,one important avenue Of competition in the past with frozenmeat, the liv e cattle trade . The transit Of live stock forslaughter has become obsolete with the erection and virtualperfection of the vast system of plant belonging to the frozenand chilled meat trade . The di stance between the producing and consuming points of frozen and chilled meats, withthe cheapening of freights , is no stumbling block to the industry,and no disadvantage to the consumer . The struggle forexistence as the population of the world increases will ofnecessity be so keen that a stimulating meat di et will beessential ; a world-wide demand is certa in . Whence aresupplies to come 2 Notfrom the consumers ’ countries therewill hardly be elbow-room by

-and-by for men and women inthese hiv es Of industry, let alone pastures spacious enough tofeed cattle and Sheep . The 251 vessels that now ply acrossthe ocean from the South freighted with meat supplies will ,when that peri od comes , hav e doubled—trebled—who can say lVessels with chilled and frozen South American beef nowarriv e at English ports as regular as clockwork, and importsof New Zealand lambs and Australian mutton and beefwill be so arranged and systematized that the periods of“ famine and feast,

” and various shortcomings and irregu

larities in transport , whi ch hav e weakened the frozen meattrade during its thirty yea rs , will be swept away .

Underwriting will play a less prominent part, and insurancemay become a question of cov er against total loss, as greaterskill and care are exercised in all departments . In The

Pastora lists’

Review, the question was recently asked Whyshould there be any damage in the transit and handling offrozen meat 7 This sounds academic , but it is a healthyideal to work up to . At any rate , vast improvement is certain

THE FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY 395

to take place in this respect, as the progress mad e in the pastten yea rs indicates , and we may confidently look forward tothe time when the condition of a ll Australasian and SouthAmerican meats on being marketed will be as sound as theirintrinsic quality .

British capital , already heavily invested in the industry, willbe likely to be embarked still further in Australia, New Zealand ,and the mea t shipping countries of South America. Not onlywill it be sunk in plant, but there will be floating capital orcredit on a large scale made available by British merchantsat the point of meat production

,for the purchase on the spot

of produce for refrigerated shipment to Europe . As thesystem of retail trade combination spreads in the great centresof population in England , in the form of multiple provisionshop companies

,the necessity for buyers to cover their

requirements ahead will become more pressing . All along theline we may expect the wholesale purchasing and importingof frozen meat to be conducted on more systematized lines , asthe demand grows larger and the competition keener . Dependence in a casual way upon farmers ’ consignments will notdo for this . The proprietors of these companies , knowingprecisely their requirements

,will

,by agent or cable, arrange

their contrac ts in a precise manner for quality, grade, andtime of shipment .

New Zealand Lamb .

New Zealand may be expected to show a gradual increasein her meat export trade, unless her flourishing dairyingindustry should present obstacles to the further developmentof meat freezing . It is not expected that the increa se willbe in beef . One may fairly anticipate that New Zealand willin the future maintain and improve the supreme position sheholds in the export of lambs . The capacity for expansion ofthe frozen meat business in the aggregate in the Dominion islimited , but it is difiicultto place a limit upon the productionof the fine meaty lamb exported . From 1887 , when the shipment of New Zealand lambs exceeded a million , the yea rly


despatches have steadily expanded to 19 11, when aboutwere landed at English ports . The excellent quality

of the New Zealand frozen lamb , so widely acknowledged thatit freely enters houses where other descriptions of frozen meatare tabooed , has been well maintained , although the numbershave increased so rapidly. There is nothing in the figures ofmutton exports from New Zealand of late years to encouragethe idea that any considerable expansion will take place inthat direction ; and there is much in the fact that the NewZealand standard of quality in mutton has fallen and is falling ,and that Argentine is taking its place, to confirm the suggestionthat the New Zealand freezing works will in the future cate rfor an increased output of lamb rather than mutton .

Australia’s Possibilities .

Australia will , probably, in periods of abundant rains, holda lead in mutton ; it may be that in the future it wi ll bea long lead . But it would be difficult to speak withmuch confidence when forecasting Australia’s future in thefrozen meat industry, on account of climatic fluctuations andthe influence of wool values . Taking Australia as a whole ,when one considers that the yearly income from wool wasestimated in 19 10 at it is easy to see that frozenmutton is a secondary product to the sheep farmer . It isquite possible that the meat shipping Sta tes of the Commonwealth may play a very leading part in years to come . Withher small population, and huge unopened grazing territoriesonly waiting for railways to make them Operative, the possib ilities of Australia, giv en good seasons, in the way Of supplying meats to the Old World

,and , helped by her geographical

position,to the East, can only be guessed at . The Gulf

country of Queensland, north-western Western Australia,and parts of the Northern Territory coastal country, whenexploited by capital and furnished with mean s of free zing andshipping beef

,should add in no small way to the Common

wealth’s power of supplementing the roast beef of Old England .

And what limit can be placed on Austra lia’s possibilities in



Though , on the average, the financial results to the Argentineshippers of chilled beef in 19 11 were probably unsatisfactoryOwing to English markets being swamped wi th excessiv equantities—there can be no doubt thatthe part which Argentina will play in the future in the meat export trade will involv eincreased attention to the shipment of this article . Notwithstanding the steady improvement in the quality Of Argentinefrozen mutton , one

’s attention in this chapter is drawn to thegreat preponderance in beef shipments, which in 19 10, referringto imports into Great Britain from South America

,totalled

over tons, frozen and chilled, 40 per cent . of the totalimport of frozen and chi lled beef and mutton imported in thatyear . The decline of sheep stocks in Argentina Of late yearscannot escape attention . In 1895 there were inthe Republic

,and thi s number had sunk to in 1908 .

At the present day, says the R eview of the R iver Pla te, it isdoubtful if there are sheep in Argentina, as a largenumber perished in the drought of the last two years .In treating such a subject as the future of the industry, one

cannot neglect allusion to the possibilities of further expansionin the Americas . The two existing works in Chi lian Patagoniaare a useful means of handling the surplus of fat mutton andlamb in the bleak regions round Punta Arenas . Not muchdevelopment of thi s trade is expected . Sheep are not availablein sufficient numbers in Argentine Patagonia from BahiaBlanca southwards to tempt the exploitation Of this part ofSouth America for the freezing industry—and the generalcircumstances and lack of settlement in the country are discouraging. The freezing works at Rio Ga llegos are on thepoint of commencing operations . Much is being said aboutadditional freezing establishments to be erected in Uruguay,but so far the Frigorifica Uruguaya alone represents theindustry in La Banda Oriental . The proprietors of thefreezing works in Venezuela, in tackling the industry in thetropics

,probably had in view the supplying of a special demand

in England for a certain grade Of beef. The cattle available

for their purposes are small . It is not the idea of the mostexperienced men in the frozen meat trade that much is to be

THE FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY 399

done in planting freezing works for export in such countries asMexico,

Paraguay , Braz il, etc . When the cattle of thesecountries have been improved , we may see Great Britain and

other parts of Europe drawing supplies of beef thence . Still,there is little doubt that one of the developments of the future ,possibly, when Argentina

’s fat cattle run short, wi ll be thetapping of the more northern parts of South America , andMexico in North America , for beef supplies for Europe . Again

,

South Africa has sent some little lots of frozen meat to Englishmarkets , and although the results were discouraging, there needbe no doubt that frozen meat supplies will some day beavailable from the Union of South Africa . Pedigree stock arebeing imported there , and the ranching business is Openingup well in Rhodesia .

Looking Forward .

As bearing upon this subj ect , there may be given the lastparagraph in the paper, The Meat Supply of the Uni tedKingdom

,

” read on May 18, 1909 , before the Royal Statistica lSociety , by Mr . R . H . Hooker, M .A . In the future ourdependence on North America will steadily diminish , and Ilook to the Southern Hemisphere for our extraneous meatsupply mainly to South America for our beef and to Australasia for our mutton , the latter probably exhibiting greatfluctuations .

”Mr . John Clay

,of Chicago

,an undoubted

authority, recently stated that he did not believe that theUnited States would be able to send much more beef to theUnited Kingdom . But when the South American supply hasceased to grow, there seems every probability that populationwill increase faster than live stock , and the next generationwill have to pay dear for its meat unless some radical changeis made either in the method of producing meat or in the dietof the United Kingdom .

”

A Comparison .

In an Appendix to this book will be found some ta bularstatistics of the freezing works of Australia, New Zealand , andSouth America . The Australasian system , with its numerous


works scattered all over the place , compares unfavourably withthe centralization which marks the Argentine freezing industry

,

as in the former there must be great waste in the variousprocesses , both in the erection and management of works , andin shipment , etc . Looking at the total capacity of the Australasian freezing works and of those in Argentina

,in relation to

the total Shipments for a given peri od from the two sources,

we see how, relatively, much more economical is the Argentinethan the Australasian plan and as the meat from both has to besold in the same market, it is easy to perceive that the producerin Australasia must necessarily get a lower net return thanmust be secured by his rival in Argentina . But it is difficultto see how things could have been different in Australiaand New Zealand—where the farmers have shown an inclination to take a hand in the work of distribution . The frozenmeat trade was established, and has since been carriedon

,commercially in the Argentine Republic . A handful

of business people, English , Scotch , Argentines , experiencedin trade and industry, worked out the whole freezingcycle without being hampered by a multitude of counsellers swayed by conflicting interests . Buenos Aires was aready-made centre for the business in all its branches

,helped

by a fin e railway and ocean shipping system , and no otherchoice was possible . And the South American freezingindustry

,as to the modern part of it, has had the shoals upon

which it might have grounded well buoyed by the mistakesmade by some of the pioneers in Australasia, both in preparingthe meat at one end and disposing of it at the other.The producer in Argentina, that is, the grower, has no

direct concern in the frozen meat trade . He sells his fatstock to the frigorificos, and there is an end of it . But inAustralia and New Zealand the grower

,whether he consigns or

sells on the spot, takes a keen and personal interest in allthe stages through which the meat passes . He followsthe frozen carcass from meat works to market and hastried to ma ster the technique of the trade . The closeseason for the operations of the Australian and New Zealand freezing works has no parallel in Argentina, where



management than it pos sesses at present, so that the wholebusiness may be worked in the most economi cal and scientificway.

And, whilst combination and concentration are desirable andindeed necessary, continuity of supply is equally vital . Cannotthe farmers of Australia and New Zealand modify their presentsystem of breeding and feeding so that a continuous instead Ofthe present sea sonal supply of fat stock for fre ezing can besecured ? This has been brought about in the Argentine

Republic by an intelligent system of breeding and feeding ,and it is clear that , before the Australasian shippers of mea tunder refrigerated condi tions can put their business in athoroughly fit shape to compete with South America for themarkets of Great Britain , the farmers of New Zealand andAustralia must concentrate their energy upon this problem .

APPENDIX I

CATTLE AND SHEEP IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN FOR FOOD

RI SE AND FALL OF THE TRADE

AN important collateral subject is that of the supplies of

live cattle and sheep brought into Great Britain to supplementhome-grown beef and mutton . One has to go back to prestatistica l days for the beginnings of this business . Cattleplagues occurred in 809—10, 1348—49 , and 1480

, but there islack of evidence to Show that these attacks were rinderpest .In 1715 there was a limited outbreak , and again in 1745 a more

extensive one, of the veritable plague , which continued to 1757 .

This was brought into the country either by two white ca lv esfrom Holland, or in a parcel of distempered hides . Even soearly as 1348, when the attack of cattle disease alluded tooccurred , the stamping-out system was understood in England .

The diseased cattle were slaughte red, and infected herds andthe herdsmen attending them were kept from coming intocontact with sound animals . In 1770 an ordinance was issued

prohibiting imports of cattle and sheep , and also of hides ,

horns , etc . Great Britain long continued to be free from all

kinds of contagious cattle disease ; rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia, and foot-and-mouth di sease were unknown , thoughevery country in Europe had been constantly ravaged by thesescourges . In the Napoleonic wa rs rinderpest followed thetrack of the various armies, especially those coming fromRussia . or those having been in contac t with Russian troopsFrance, Italy, Spain , and Portuga l all suffered , while Ge rmany ,Austria , and all South-Eastern Europe were never free . Theonly immune countries were the British Isles . And this happystate of things continued until the change took place in thenationa l system of Grea t Brita in in the ea rly forties , and import

D D 2

404 APPENDIX I

regulations were relaxed . From that time onwards cattle

diseases prevailed for pretty well fifty years, during whichperiod theUniwd Kingdom was nev er free from disease , ,pleurofoot-and-mouth di sea se , etc . , and in 1865 rinderpest, ravagedthe herds and caused irreparable losses . This awful attack ofrinderpest was introduced by 33 1 cattle from Revel , landed atHull . The tota l number of cattle attacked in Great Britainwas The di sease spread till an Order in Council madeit compulsory to slaughter and bury all disea sed animals . Aslight attack in 1872 and a still more local one in 1877 or 1878

were quickly suppressed , and with that Great Britain saidgood-bye to rinderpest . The b eneficent Order of 1892

prohibited the importation of cattle, sheep , and goats fromnearly all the Continental countries , Malta, and Morocco, butcattle were permitted to be landed for slaughter from theUnited States and Canada . Sheep were allowed to be landedfrom these two countri es without being subject to slaughter.This Order was made under the Contagious Diseases (Animals)Acts of 1878 to 1892 . In 1896 another Act was passedconsolidating these Acts and making it compulsory that allcattle and sheep imported be slaughtered within ten days ofbeing landed . Thi s Cattle Diseases Act of 1896 has enabledGreat Britain to keep free from the serious forms of stockdisease ; a few attacks of foot-and-mouth di sease have beenpromptly suppressed , and England and Scotland hav e becomethe nursery of pure-bred cattle

,sheep

,and pigs ; and breeders

have been enabled to supply the world, under the protectionof the Act . These foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks causedmuch loss to farmers . Some of the visitations were veryserious, and ruined many herds of dairy cattle by injuringtheir udders : £20 fat cattle ran down to £15 in value . Themortality was small, but the loss of income was large .

Prior to Strathleven days and for twenty-fiv e yearsafter, Great Britain was greatly dependent upon live animalsimported from Continental countries and North America forimmed iate slaughter at port of landing to supplement the

insufficient home supply of fresh meat . Holland , Denmark ,and Germany, before dead meat came along , and, in fact,


406 APPENDIX I

the position regarding imports of live cattle and sheep in that

Cattle.

Denma rk

Holla ndSouth Holstein

Totals

The rise and fall will be observed in the followingfigures of importations into Great Britain . As the Continentaltrade was stopped in the early nineties, only the imports fromNorth and South America are given in detail

United States of America

Totals

APPENDIX I 407

Sheep. Oettle.

United States of America

653

The high-water marks of imports were as follow

Ca ttle.

(1890) ( 1895)

Imports from Ca nada .

Argentina 1898

;5

Continent 1876

408 APPENDIX I

Australasia’s Abortiv e Experiment.

In 1894 shipments of live cattle and sheep to London weremad e from Australia and New Zealand

,the promoters of

which enterprise had great hopes that they would be able tosecure a higher range of values than those prevailing for frozenmeat . Messrs . Bergl and Brabb in entered largely into thistrade and inv ested a considerable amount of capital in it .As far back as 1872 two live bullocks were imported fromAdelaide

,but the commercial mov ement began with the

despatch of 20 head of cattle, of whi ch five were in store condition , by the M aori King from Sydn ey : thi s experiment wasmade on account of the owners , and the vessel sailed round theHorn . After being sixty-sev en days on board

,the cattle were

landed at Deptford on September 12, 1894, in fair condition ,one having died on the voyage . Though thi s pioneeringventure showed that live stock could be taken from Australiato England

,the financial result was a heavy loss the bullocks

cost,landed, about £19 , including insurance, and the sales

av eraged out at £13 148 . 6d . , gross . The shippers wished tofini sh the store animals on the English pastures, but theAgricultural Department refused to allow this privilegepossessed by the American store stock shippers—to theAustralian cattle . The next shipment from Australia was thatmade on the PortPirie, 18 cattle and 48 sheep : the vessel

’scourse was through the Red Sea, and during the voyageone ox and six sheep died . The cattle were Shorthorns andDevons, and arrived in excellent order, making £21 108 . perhead

,and the sheep made £1 43 . 9d . each . The shipments of

stock continued to November, 1895 . Amongst the mostsuccessful was that of 250 sheep per Banfishz

’

re from Dunedin

only one animal died on the way . The sheep were landedfresh and healthy, ready for slaughter, and they were sold atfrom £1 188 . to £2 the average per head was £1 193 . 5d . ,

and the sheep cost £1 17s . 1d . with all charges added, the freightbeing 108 . The freight charged on cattle shipped was £6per head .

As the shipments continued to be made in 1895, there were


410 APPENDIX I

Carrying Vessel.

120, lost 3

Gulf of Siam lost11

Tekoa

Southern CrossUrmston Gra nge

Gulf of Lions

Gulf of BothniaPortChalmers

Cattle shipped losses 607 sheep shippedlosses 377 and horses shipped 152

,losses 57 .

APPENDIX II

BY-PRODUCTS OF THE SLAUGHTER-HOUSE

EARLY in the history of the frozen meat trad e it occurred topractical men that there might be a market in Great Britainfor clean offal . In a lette r written on March 14 , 1884 , by thelate Mr . Henry Moncreiff Paul, manager in London for theNewZealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Cc . , to the New Zealandoffices of the company, information was given as to the methodsof preparing “ lamb kidneys ,

” sheep tongues ,” throat and

heart sweetbreads,” and running gut,

”for export in a frozen

state to England . This was the first suggestion of working upthe slaughter-house by-products in the frozen trade . Littlemate rial as to this department of the industry is available, nostatistics being published ; it is not considered a high-classbusiness

,and there has been trouble at times wi th the inspectors

when these oddments have not arrived in good condition .

Some of the exporters in Australia, New Zealand , and SouthAmerica make a feature of preparing and shipping slaughte rhouse by-products , and prior to the regulations put in forcein 1909 in Great Britain the imports of these articles rose toa considerable volume .

But the industry in the countries named is trifling comparedwith the by-products trade in the United States of America,especially pork products . Imports thence of meat sundriesinto England , chilled and frozen , were formerly enormous .

The condition of the ofial from the United States of America onarrival in Great Britain at times left much to be desired , andocca sionally kidneys , etc . , from Australasia and Argentinawent bad

,so the sanitary authorities were not in love with

the trade . Some of the New Zealand freezing works ship toEngland joints of mutton in bags , a special trad e of limiteddimensions, useful , possibly, where it is not convenient for

411 APPENDIX II

the whole carcass to be exported ; also useful sometimes forthe English butcher, who, at certain seasons of the year, likesto supplement carcasses with extra joints . Meat ofials mostcommonly shipped from Australasia and South America toGreat Britain are ox and sheep tongues , kidneys, hearts, andliv ers ; ox tails , skirts , ox cheeks , tripes , sweetbreads, andtrotters .Sheep kidneys have been exported from New Zea land and

Australia formany years past, but owing to the faulty conditionofmuch of the goods on reaching the English market this department of the trade has not been so satisfactory to exportersas it should have been ; kidneys have always been troublesome .

An estimate has it that kidneys from stock frozen in Australasia exported to Great Brita in would, if properly prepared ,be worth from to annually .

It was in the packing house of the beef trust firms,Chicago, Kansas , and now in Argentina, that meat by-productswere first handled on a thorough and scientific scale . Whenthe export of chi lled beef to the United Kingdom grew to verylarge proportions, the offal was too much for local consumption,so that also was shipped : the trade followed the improvementin the refrigerating processes , as the freezing and shipment ofoffal could not be carried on with freezing apparatus in itsearlier stages .In Argentina the trade in meat oddments was started in a

small way when meat was first shipped, and the business isregarded as a necessary adjunct to the main trade . Inrecent years it has developed v ery largely, but not muchdependence is placed upon thi s department . The chief ofialsshipped from South America are , (cattle) tongues, tails, hearts ,kidneys, and liv ers and (sheep ) tongues , hearts , and kidneys .Owing to the decrease in the slaughter of pigs in England,

and the gradual reduction of all sorts ofmeat products from theUnited States , the prospects for exporters of offal from Australiaand New Zealand would have been bright but for the regulations under the Public Health Act, 1907, which inflicted asevere blow upon the trade in these articles , and upon frozenpork a lso, boxed or carcasses (see p . These regulation s


414

Pork hams , hock ofi.

sausa ge mea t.Skinned hams.

Pork shoulders.hams, boneless.

Minced hams.

Green hams.

APPENDIX II

Mfitton necks.

Ca lf tongues.

sweetbreads .

heads and fee t.

Suet.Trotters.Frozen poultry and game.

hmh

APPENDIX

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APPENDIX V

COLD STORES AT THE CHIEF PORTS OF GREAT BR ITAIN

of sheepLONDON. See map, AppendixVI .

LI VER POOL.Union Cold Storage Co., Ltd . , Canada DockUnion Cold Storage Co., Ltd ., Banestre Stree tUnion Cold Storage Co., Ltd., Williamson SquareUnion Cold Storage Co. , Ltd . , Albert DockEa stmans, Ltd . , Derby Road .

Lancashire Cold Storage Co., Ltd. Brunswick

Bootle Cold Storage and Ice Co., Ltd., Canada Dock (New)JamesNelson Sons, Ltd .

Imperia l Cold Stores (London CentralMarketsCold StorageCo. , Ltd.

NorthWestern Co-opera tive Cold StorageCo Ltd Redfem

Stree t, Bankhall.Centra l Cold Storage Co., Ltd. HoodStreetCompafiia Sansinena de Carnes Congeladas, Sandon DockBootle Cold Storage and I ce Co., Ltd . , Miller’s Bridge (Old )Trent Cold Storage Co. , Ltd . , Sa ndhill’s LaneCanadian Pacific R a ilway Co., Sandon Dock tons )Cumberland Cold Storage Co.

Eastmans, Ltd ., Daulby StreetGLASGOW .

William Milne, Ltd . Old WyndUnion Cold Storage Cc . , Ltd . , George Stree tEastmans, Ltd . , Chea pside Stree tW. McLa chlan Co., Logan and Bilbao StreetsSawers, Ltd., Rutherford La ne

SOUTHAMPTON.

Interna tional Cold Storage and I ce Co., Ltd . , The Docks

R iver Pla te Fresh Mea t Co., Ltd. , High Stree tMANCHESTER .

Union Cold Storage Co Ltd. , Wea ste

Manchester Corpora tion Cold Stores, Elm Stree t, a nd Smith

Union Cold Storage Co Ltd. , Miller Street

APPENDIX V 419

of eheep. Totals.

CAaDm , Bum , Nrwroar , AND Sww su .

Cardifl Pure Ioe and Cold Storage Co Ltd.

H. Woodley & 0o , Boath Dock Stores

H. Woodley & Co. , Godfrey StreetCardifl Ra ilway Co. (chill room accommoda tingof beef) .

BAa sr .

Cardifi Pure Ice and Cold Storage Co Ltd .

Cardiff Pure Ice and Cold Storage Cc., Ltd.

Cambrie Cold Storage and Ice, Ltd.

HULL.

Union Cold Storage Cc . , Ltd SirWilliamWright DockOompafiia Sansinena de Ca rnes Congeladas, Alexandra DockUnion Cold Sto rage Co. , Ltd ., Alexandra DockUnion Cold Storage Co., Ltd ., Blackfriargate

Northern Counties Ice Making and Cold Stores Co. , Ltd

Compu'

iia Sansinena de Ca rnes Congeladas, The CloseThomas Brown (Newcastle ), Ltd .,Newga te Street

e on

BristolCorpora tion Cold Stores (three stores ), Avonmouth

Eastmans, Ltd Ba rton HillBenjamin Perry dz Sons, Ltd . T, emple Stree tBenjamin Perry &Sons, Ltd . , Redclifi Street. (This atora isma inly used in connection with ice making and storage oi

provisions. )

Mem e. Spea r Brothers and Cla rk. Broad Pla in, and

Messrs. Pullin, Thomas and Slade , Temple Stree t, ha vesmallcooling plants for da iry produce.

Total cold storage ca pacity in 56-lb.carcasms of mutton

gn

ome-O:

M

Cb

“

APPENDIX VI

COLD STORAGE MAP OF LONDON

(Map References.)

Name and Address of Stores .

London Central Markets Cold Storage Cc., Ltd ., W . Smithfield , E .C.

London Central Markets Cold Storage Cc ., Ltd. , Charterhouse Street,E C

Port of London Authori ty, St. John Street, Smithfield , E .C.

Palmer’s Cold Air Stores, Charterhouse Street, E.C.

Times Cold Storage Cc., Ltd ., Long Lane, E .C.

Compafiia Sansinena de Carnes Congeladas (priva te stores) , LongLane, E .C.

JamesNelson Sons, Ltd . ( priva te stores) ,W. Smithfield ,E.C.

Colonial Consignment and Distributing Co., Ltd Nelson’s WharfUpper Ground Street, S.E.

Union Cold Storage Co., Ltd ., Upper Ground Street, S.E.

Blackfriars Cold Storage Co. , Ltd ., Purdeet Wharf, Upper Thames

Street, E .C.

Towers dz Co.,Ltd . ( priva te stores) , St. Paul’s Pier Wharf, Upper

Thames Street, E .C.

Towers Co., Ltd. (priva te stores) , Sinok’a Wharf, Upper ThamesStreet, E .C.

Thames Cold Storage Co Ltd.

, Kennet Wha rf, Upper Thames Street,E .C.

Crown Wharf Cold Storage Co.,Park Street, Borough, S.E .

Union Cold Storage Cc., Ltd , Cannon Street Sta tion, E .C. .

Union Cold Storage Co., Ltd., Redbull Wha rf, Upper Thames Street,E .C.

R iver Pla te Fresh Mea t Co. Ltd . (priva te stores) , Commercial Wharf,Upper Thames Street, E .C.

The Cold Store, Ltd., Leadenhall Market, E .C.

The Proprietors of.

Hay

’

sWharf, Ltd .,New Hibernia Whaif , LondonBridge, S.E

The Proprietors Hay ’

sWharf, Ltd ., Cotton’sWharf,Tooley Street, 8.E .

Tooley Street Cold Storage Co Ltd ., Tooley Street, 8.E .

Anglo-American Cold Storage Cc., Ltd., Greenba nk and Stoney Lane,Tooley Street, S.E.

J . J. Lonsdale, Ltd. ( private stores) , St. Ka tharine’s Dock, E.

Johnson, Cole, Brier Cordrey, Ltd ., Bermondsey, S.E .

Port ofE

London Authority,WestWarehouse, Surrey Commercial8

Port of London Authority, Eas tWarehouse,Surrey CommercialS.E.

Port of London Authority, West India Dock, E .

Port of London Authori ty, SouthWest India Dock, E. (Dismantled) .

Deptford Foreign Ca ttle Market (Chill Rooms)London Central Markets Cold Storage Co., Ltd ., Poplar, EPort of London Authority, Royal Victoria Dock, E.

Total cold storage ca pac ity in 56-lb . carcasses of mutton


IXAPPENDIX422

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APPENDIX XI

IMPORTS OF FRESH BEEF (FROZEN AND CHILLED ) INTOTHE UNITED KINGDOM FROM 1874 TO 19 10

United BumAustra lia. South America .

Chilled been.

t a. cm Cu te.

Grand totals from all sources, tons .

424 APPENDIX XI

All the fresh beef from the United States of America arrived in achilled cond ition (29° F. to 30

°excepting some small quantities

hard frozen b y ice and salt mixtures at the sta rt.

All the fresh bee f from Australia and New Zealand arrived in a frozencondition , say 10° F . to 15

°F . ( frequently much lower) , excepting fiv e

experimental shipments in 1909—19 11 in the s .e. M arathon under theLinley process . Sev eral early experiments in bringing bee f fromAustralasia in a chilled state are alluded to in the earlier partof thisbook.

All the fresh beef from Argentina prior to 1900was brought frozen .

Column 6 in the table shows the progress of the South American chilledbee f trade from 1900 onwards.


426 APPENDIX XII

1850.

July 3 (No. KINGSPOBD , J.—Refrigera tion by different processes ,

vacuum and also compression, us ing a ir or any gas.

Aug. 22 (No. NEWTON, W. E.—Refrigera tion by air compression

1852.

Oct. 6 (No. Games, J—Refrigera tion by a ir compression process.

Dec. 24 (NO. NESMOND, P. C.—Refrigera tion by air compression process.

1853.

Jan. 15 (No. VION, H. C.—Refrigera tion by evapora tion of liquids or

liquefied gas.

Jan. 20 (No. WI LLIAMS, W.—Refrigeration by a ir compression process.

1855.

Nov . 14 (No. TOLBAUSEN, A.—Icemanufacture by evapora tion of wa ter

by air currents.

1856 .

March 28 (NO. HARRISON, JAMES.—Pr0d 110tlon of cold by evapora tion of

vola t ile liquids in v acuo.

June 28 (No. SLOPER , B. G.—R efrigera tion by expansion of air.

Oct. 13 (NO. PIATTI , G. B .—Refrigera tion by expansion of compressed

a ir, ether, or carbonic acid gas.

1857.

July 29 (No. SIEMENS, C. W.-Refrigera tion by expansion of a ir or

elastic flu ids.

Sept. 10 (No. HARRISON, JAMPS—I ce making by evapora t ion of vola tileliquids an appa ra tus requiring a motive power of ten horses,” and conta iningone hundred ice moulds.

1860.

Oct. 15 (No. DAVIES. G, (communica tion from F. P. E . Ca rré ).—Refrigeration by absorption of liquefied gases or condensed va pours.

186 1.

July 4 (No. MEN’NONS. M. A. F. (communica tion from E. Blé e ) .

Refrigera tion by expansion and compression of vola tile liquid.

Nov . 28 (No. B 11: LABAUME, J. D’

A. (communica tion from E. Blé e ) .

Re frigera tion by ether, evapora tion, and compression.

1862.

March 21 (No. Sums, D. E.—Refrigera tion by ether, evapora tion, and

compression.

April 25 (No. KIRK, A. C.—Air compression refrigera ting machine.

APPENDIX XII 427

June 17 (No. Cam anoa o, A.—Refrigeration by cooling effect of air

current induced by furnace dra ught.Oct. 15 (No. BROONAN, R . A. (communica tion from D. J. W elly).

Refrigera tion by eva pora tion of vola tile liquid .

1864.

Feb . 15 (No. FON'rAINnMORRAU, P. A. (communica tion fromC. Tellier) .Manufacture of methylic ether and its applica tion to production of artificia l 100.

Oct. 28 (No. LAIDLAW, D., and ROBERTSON, J .—Refrigera tion by air

compremion promos.Dec. 8 (No. BROONAN, R . A. (communica tion fromMercer Beylih’g) .

Refrigera tion by vaporiza tion of vola tile fluid.

1865.

Sept. 6 (No. PARKES, A. W.—Arrangement of 100 houses, ska ting rinks,

etc., where ice is produced by evapora tion of ether, ca rbonic acid , etc.

Sept. 28 (No. R amos , R .—Refrigera tion by the evapora tion of liquid

sulphurous acid (absorption system).

1866 .

Jan. 27 (No. MsNNONs, M. A. F. (communication fromN. de Teleschefi) .

Air compression refrigera ting machine .

Feb . 21 (No. R ICHARDSON, B . W.—Portable appa ra tus for freez ing small

quantities of liquid by direct action of pulverized spray of vola tile liquid.

1867.

March 30 (No. NEWTON, W. E. (communica tion from T. S. C. Lowe ).Refrigera tion or ice making by expans ion of carbonic acid gas compressed intoliquid sta te . La tent hea t evolved during compression removed by wa te r cooling.

May 31 (No. R ance , R .—Refrigera tion by the evapora tion of liquid

sulphurous acid .

Aug. 10 (No. CLARK, A. M. (communica tion from J. B. Toselli ).Refrigera tion or ice making by evapora tion of liquid or gas (absorption system) .Sept. 9 (No. Wm , E. J. C.

—Ice making by evapora tion of ether orsome other hydro-ca rbon, and its subsequent condensa tion.

Nov . 23 (No. Monr , WILLIAM (communica tion from Thomas SutclifieMort ).—Re frigera tion by evapora tion of ammonia (absorption system) . The mea treceivers are mad e with a double casing to form a compartment ha v ing its wallsperfectly tight to conta in the liquefied gas supplied fromthe liquefied gas receivereach is surrounded with non-conducting substance enclosed in a pa inted or

varnished wooden covering.

1868.

Jan. 4 (No. Sm e lt, P. , and Sui-rs , W. A.

—Mea t storage for transport,cooled by compression or by the ammonia or other processes.”March 25 (No. e ru :, R . (communica tion from D. Little).—Mea trefrigeration on board ship by dry air compression process.July 29 (No. J Im u s, J .

—Refrigera tion by ether expansion.

428 APPENDIX XII

Sept . 3 (No. Km , A. 0. (communica tion from J. Kyle).—Ice blockforma tion by hydraulic or other pressure in moulds .

Oct. 26 (No. MOM , W. (communica tion from T. S. Mort and E . D .

Nicolle ) .—Refrigera tion by expansion of air or other permanent gases, also the

manufacture of ice .

1869.

Jan. 20 (No. 178) Smnm r , J. , and MACKAY , F. N.—Refrigera tion and ice

making by ev apora tion of vola tile liquid in vacuo.

Feb . 6 (No. Duran te, H. A. (communica tion from C. Tellier).—Icemanufacture by methylic ether or ammonia compression.March 5 (NO. WINDHAUSEN, F.

—Refrigera tion and ice making by a ir

compression .

March 27 (NO. HUGH , E . H.—Mea t refrigera tion on boa rd ship by ad a p

tation of Windhausen’

s air compression machine.

July 21 (No. KIRK, A. C.—Refrigera tion by compression and expansion

of air wi th two cylinders.July 24 (No. PIc'rE'

r, R .—Specialconstruction of pumps for refrigera ting

machine.

1870.

Jan. 29 (No. WEST, H. J -Refrigera tion by evapora tion of ether or othervola tile liquid.

May 30 (NO. MI GNOT, L.—Air compression refrigera ting machine.

July 1 (No. CLARK, A. M.—Chloride of ethyl refrigera ting machine.

Aug. 29 (No. HUGHES, E . T. (communica tion from C. Parker) .Vacuum freezing a ppa ra tus.

Nov . 2 (NO. R EECE, R .-Ammonia absorption refrigera ting machine .

Dec. 6 (No. MOBT, W. (communica tion from E . D. Nicolle and T. S.

Mort ).—Ammonia a bsorption refrigera ting machine.

Dec. 16 (No. GAMGEE, J—u m refrigerating machine.

1871.

Feb . 25 (No. PAGE’I‘, F. A., and ASHEB , J. W.

—Air compression te

frigerating machine.

April 14 (No. MURDOCH , H. H. (communica tion from E . Roettger).Air compression refrigera ting machine.

April 20 (No. NORMANDY , A. L.—Air compression refrigera tingmachine .

May 3 (NO. l,189 ) .—Refrigera ting machine employing certain specified vola tileents.afiJune 5 (No. Mam m , R . ISL—Multiple stage air compression re

July 8 (No. KAEUFFEB , P. E.—Air compression refrigera ting machine.

Aug. 18 (No. NORMAN, J.—Air compression refrigera ting machine .

Aug. 25 (No. PAGET, F. A., and Asm , J. W.-Air compression re.

Oct. 11 (No. MUBDOCH, H. E.—Air compression refrigera ting machine .

Dec. 22 (No. HUG-s , E. T. (communica tion from A. C. Twining).Compression refrigera ting machine.


430 APPENDIX XII

June 17 (No. Wa rm er , C. P. 16 .—Refrigera tingmachine employing

compression of air and also a vola tile agent.June 22 (No. Hm , B. (communica tion from A. F. C. Reynoso) .

July 4 (No. Wm , H. J.—Ice manufacture.

July 14 (No. BENSON, M. (communica tion from J . M. G. BeathL—Icemanufacture on the ammonia compression system.

July 27 (No. Gu i ana , J. , and PUnxrs , R . A—Ether refrigera tingmachine.

Aug. 10 (No. Mom , W. (communica tionmom E. D. Nicolle and T. S.

Mort ).—Ice manufa cture.

Sept. 22 (No. KYLE, J .—I ce manufacture.

Oct. 7 (No. Sumn er, J . , and Mam r , F. N.—Ethes ice-making

Oct. 17 (No. Nam ) , H. W.—Ammonia a bmrption refrigerafingmachine.

Oct. 22 (No. Low, R—Appara tus for condensing steam and re

Dec. 3 (No. BENSON, M—Ammonia ahmrption refrigera ting machine.

Dec. 16 (No. Rmx, A. C. , and e , G. T.—Ammonia a bsorpfion

refrigerating machine.

1875.

Jan. 29 (No. Wu m asr , C. P. N.- Air compression refrigera ting

machine.

Ma rch 24 (No. Ma cxar , F. N and Bu s, D.—Artificia l ice rink.

May 10 (No. SIDDELEY, J ., and Ma ck ar , F. N.—I ce manufacture.

June 4 (No. CLARK, A. M. (communica tion from P. Gifiafi ) .—Doubleacting air compress ion refrigera ting machine.June 18 (No. WEST, H. J. , and DB JAOOBI DU VALLON, G. C. J.

Artificial ice rinks.

July 3 (N0. COUGHLIN, D.—Ammonia a bsorption refrigera ting machine.

Aug. 3 (No. PICTET, R . P.—Sulphurous acid refrigera ting machine.

Oct. 23 (No. Gu ess , J.-Clee.r ice manufacture.

Nov . 10 (No. STANLEY , H. F.-Ammonia absorption refrigerating

Nov . 22 (No. Wsm sa , E. G. (communica tion from D. Coughl’

m).

Ammonia absorption ice-making machine.

Dec. 20 (No. GAHGEB, J .—Artificia1 ice rink.

Dec. 29 (No. Gw en , J.—Ether ice-making machine.

187 6 .

Feb . 2 (No. Gu i ana , J.—Artificia l ice rink.

Feb . 3 (No. STOKES, G. E—Arfificia l ice rink.

Feb . 16 (No. Ross , T.—Artificia l ice rink.

Feb . 24 (No. Ma cxu r, F. N.—Artificia l ice rink.

Feb . 26 (No. Nrsmcawa, T. M—Ammonia absorption refrigera tingmachine.March 4 (No. Cnn roxn, G—Artificial ice rink.

Ma rch 21 (No. Mom , W. (communica tion from E. D. Nicolle and T. S.

Mort).—Improvements in refrigera ting, especially a pplica ble for mea t ca rgoes.

APPENDIX XII 43 1

Ma rch 29 (No. incu r , F. N.—Artificial ice rink.

April 5 (No. h am , Cm . vos .—Ica making machine.

May 26 (No. Ma rmara , R. M.—Be1rigerating compre-ors.

June 28 (No. e u, F. (communica tion from F. Wicker).—Ammoniaa bsorption ice-makingmachine.

Aug. 31 (No. Nmmoawa , T. BL. and HILL.F. B.—Ammon1a absorption

refrigera ting machine.

Sept. 13 (No. Hum . B. (communica tion from A. F. C.

Refrigera ting of alimenta ry matte rs.Sept. 13 (No. Cums . F. P. Enocaan, and q m . E.

—Ammoniaabsorption refrigera ting machine.

Oct. 4 (No. ADAMS, A. W.—Ice manufacture.

Oct. 26 (No. Cu nx, A. M. (communica tion from Edmond Cami).Vacuum refrigera ting machine.

Oct. 28 (No. Gasman, J.-Artificia1 ice rink.

Nov . 17 (No. Knor r, K.—Reirigeration of animal and vegetable

substances.Nov . 21 (No. Mam m , R . td.—Refrigerating compressors.

Dec. 1 (No. TONGUE, J. G. (communica tion from C. L. Biker).—Aircompression refrigera ting machine.Dec. 8 (No. Wmnm nsm , F.

—Air compression refrigera ting machine.

Dec. 12 (No. 81mm, R .—Refrigera ting and ice~making a ppa ra tus.

Dec. 15 (No. DU VALLON, G., and Cam , J.—Ice manufacture.


434

Bartram, J and Sons , 58Ba the and frozen mea t, Sir Henry de,815

Beefports for chilled , 213reta iling of, 207Steak Club on frozen mea t, 316

Begg, A. C., 26 7

Belgium,trade with, 226

Bell, Sir Henry, 24, 77 , 352Bell, Sir James, 25, 352Bell, Juo., and Sons, Ltd . , 209 , 265, 352

Bell-Coleman Mechanica l RefrigerationCo. , 25

Bell-Colema n,refrigera tingmachine, 24,

Berges. Dr. Pierre, 29 , 76 , 79Bergl, Austra lia , Ltd .

,37, 49

Birt and Co.

’

s freezing works, 50, 71, 87Birt, Potter and Hughes, 50, 143Bisul

éihide preserv ing process, Medlock

an Ba iley ’

s, 5

Black and Stimpson , 879Blackfriars Cold Storage Co Ltd .,

115

Blackwood and Australian pioneering,James, 33Blackwood, R ichard, 361Blanca , La , Soc. Anon . de Viandes Congelé es, 83, 345

Blankley,W i lliam, 332, 352Boer War and cold storage, 237Boiling down works, 8Bone ta in t, 256Boned beef trade, 123, 259Borthwick, Sir Thomas, Bart 353Borthwick, A., J . ,

T., and W ., 354

Borthwick, Thomas, and Sons , Ltd 51,

Bosanquet, B . T., 37

Bovril Australian Esta tes, Ltd .,59

Bowen Freezing Works, 49Bowen Mea t Export and Agency 49Boyle , Da vid , 339Boys, F. T., 65

Brady, mea t extract process of, 10Brands,New Zealand , 109Bristol as a frozen mea t port, 218British India SteamNav iga tion Co., 38,363

BritishNew Zeala nd Mea t and ProduceCo. , Ltd . ,

203Brydone Hall

, Christchurch, 44Brydone, Thomas, pioneer work of, 83 ,Brydone

’

s forecast, 44Bucha nan , Bea rdmore, 30Burdekin R iver Freezing Works, 50Bi

gr

fi

G

and and frozen mea t,Sir Francis,

Butchers, different classesof, 200

INDEX

Butchers in the U. K., number of, 208By

-products in New Zealand freezingworks, 67

Byron Bay Co-opera tive Canning and

Freezing Co.,56

CAI RD ,James, 36

Cameron , H . C. ,203, 270, 355

Campbell, Gordon , 354Campbell,James, and the Strathleven,30Campbell

, Robe rt, 375Campbell, R ., jun .

, 37

Canned mea t,beginn ing of, 4, 299Australian sta tistics

,11

New Zea land trade, 12v i tality of trade, 262

Canterbury Frozen Mea t and Da iryProduce Co. , 6 1 , 6 7, 107

Canterbury lambcustom for, 201more profitable than mutton, 97

Canterbury mutton at Lord Mayor’sShow, 279

Cape Colony’s import duty, 257Ca rdiff a s a frozen mea t port , 217Cargo in coffins, a , 285Ca rré , pioneering work of, 28, 336

Central Markets ( see Smithfield)Central Markets Cold Air Stores, Ltd.,

167

Central Markets Committee , 192Central Queensland Mea t Export Co.,

Chamberla in and Colonial mea t, Joseph,318

Chapman ’s defrosting process, 849Charges, trade, 109Chargeurs Ré unis, 143Chemicalr . cold a ir systems of refrigeration, 840

Chicago Congress of Refrigera tion , 276Chilled beefand frozen beef, compara tivemeri ts of,247

first shipment from Argentina , 249Australia , 247New Zea land, 248

industry, the start of the, 246 , 26 1introduction into England, 25ports for

,218

trade,North American, 261, 273Chilled mutton, 247, 264Chilling process. the Nelson-DicksTyser, 252

ChristchurchMea t Co.,Ltd ., 6 1, 64, 107,

Christison, Robert, 36 , 356C.i.f. trade, 68, 102, 103, 106 , 198transaction, the first 108

INDEX

s.s.,

pieneer installa tion in, 25

01

3,of Riode aneiro, pioneer shipment27

Cla ims, surveys, and allowances, insurance, 148

Clause, frozen most, 147Cockburn, Sir John, 58Coffins, a cargo in, 285

2mm , T. A., 284, 974

storagecapacity atports, 178cha in 8449

combine, 177genera l lien , 179management ra te,ravea 116responsibilities and risks, 178

Cold Storage and Ice Associa tion , 179Cold Storage Trust, 238Cold storediv idends, 177first atLondon Docks, 164first in London, 164reaching the, 174surveys in, 181

Coleman, J. J., 25, 835

Collingridge, Dr. W., 297

CollinaW . and R., and the Ski-athlete s , 80

Colonial Consignment and DistributingCo. ,Ltd. , 115, 170, 216 , 879

Combrinck and Co.,287

Comiskey, P., 265

Commisfionon combina tions in themea t trade, 192salesmen , 197

Commission Smithfield salesmen’

s, 102

Commonw th Sea Carriage of GoodsAct, 158

Compafiia de Ca rnes Congeladas, 79Compafiia Frigorifica de Patagonia , 87,

26

Compax'

xia Sansinena de Carnes Congeladss (see Sansinena )

Compara ti ve development of Austrao

lian and New Zealand trades, 46Conferencesproducers’, 265two London , 267

Congeladora Argentina , La, 80Congresses of refrigera t ion, interna tional, 274

Consignment system, 101, 197

Consolidated ra te, 109

in United Kingdom, 816

in United States, 816Continent and frozen mea t (m Europe)Contracts, Argentine shipping. 144

Cook, William, 82. 285,Cooke, John, 54, 6 1, 64, 285, 299 , 857Cooke and Co“ John, 84Cooking recipe, a

Mfrozen meat, 285

Cooking tests,Cord ingley, Harold, 10Cord i ley, Thomas, 10Corri shes 94, 97Cotton, Sir Bic mond , M P 87Cox, Hon. G. R ., 866

Cox, E. Owen, 50, 859Coxon, Frank, 285, 859Cua treros (Bahia Blanca ) Works, 82, 88Cullen, pioneering work of Dr., 886Cuningham, Hastings, 81, 88Cunningham, Peter, 6 5

s.s., pioneer shipment by, 84Dancer: and Cc., Ltd ., 55, 360

Damage, classification of, 155, 161Damaged

Hca rgoes,first rac

practical tinning by, 8

Darling Harbour reezingWorka 19Da v idson , W. S.

, 89

Dawes, Sir Edwin Sandys, 36 1De

la Peyrouse, mea t preserv ing process

0 5

De la Vergne, J. C., 888

Dead Mea t Storage Co., Ltd. , 166

Deane, canning process of, 9Defrosting systems, 846 , 847Deniliquin freezing works, 54Dietetics of frozen mea t, 290Discha rging mea t, 112Distribution, provincial, 211-225, 378Decker, Hon. J., 19

Dory/M a’

s, s.s . , pioneer Queensland shipment, 36

Douglas , J. R ., and Australian pioneering 88

Doxat, E . T., 268

Drabble, George W ilkinson, 76 , 868Drabble Broa , 809

Drought, effect of the grea t Australian ,255, 800

Ducal Line, 88, 863Du

ggan Broa , 278

f Westminster, s.s . 88

Damed in‘

a pioneer shipment, 88 , 89, 48Duties on frozen mea t, 229, 282 , 241, 248Duty, Cape Colony 's import, 257EARLY welcome to frozen mea t, 282East a nd West India Docks Co., 164, 16 6

East London Cold Storage and SupplyCo., Ltd. , 288

East, trade wi th the, 285Eastman , Joseph, 209Eastman , T. C. 24, 26 , 190, 209

Eastmans, Ltd 209 , 852

436

Economy of frozen mea t diet, 817Egypt , trade with, 240Elder, James

,45

Eleva tor, Capta in Noakes’s, 113Esquimauxpioneers of refrigera tion , 276Europa , s.s. , pioneer shipment of, 33Europe and frozen mea t, 226 -235, 243Ewing on principles of refrigera tion,Si r J. A.

, 334

Ewing and Cc.,Wm., 40

FAI RBAI RN, George, 31 , 33, 35Fa lkland I slands, shipments from, 85-7

Falkland I slands Co., 85

Fa lse trad e descriptions, 270Farmer’s position , the British, 320-328Farming, capital in British, 327Federa l Line, first fitted vessel of the,129

Federal-B oulder-Shire Line, 220Fernandez, Don Juan N. , 15

Fetherstonhaugh, Cuthbert , 55F iad o

,s.s. , 35, 38

F i tter,Henry Shipley , 364

F itter and Sons, Henry S.,265, 315

Fleet , the refrigera tedAustralian lines

,128

ca pacity of , 127cost of fitting machinery of, 128

New Zealand lines, 129number of vessels in , 127 , 264sa ilers used in early days, 131, 132South American lines, 140

Fletcher, W . and R ., Ltd .,

108,

Forwa rd buying,102

Forward selling, 100, 102

Franceestablishes import regula tions, 263Sansinena exports to, 82 , 245trade with, 228, 245

Freezing works in the world,first , 19

Freight charges, 109Freight contracts , Argentine, 101Freight problem, ea rly New Zealand, 6 6Argentine, 136Australian

,137

New Zea land, 136Frere

,Dr. 131111110, 92

Frigid messa ge , a , 286Frigorifica Uruguaya , 83, 88Frigon ficoArgentine , 84

Frigorifico Montev ideo, 89F‘rzgori/igzw, s.e., 27, 28, 76

Frozen beef, compara tive merits ofchi lled and , 247

Frozen mea t carrier, evolution of the,132

Frozen Mea t C.I .F . Buyers'Association ,352

INDEX

Frozen Mea t Trade Association (see a haIncorporated Society of Mea t Importers) , 194, 267 , 329-333

Frozen mea t and British farmers,325

Fuller, Martin, 26

urlonge’

s defrosting process, 349urness, W ithy and Co.,

143

Future of the industry, 393-402

HAL L , Sir John, 315Hall

,J. and E ., Ltd .,

338, 343

GALBRAITH , James, 89Galloway, Robert, 65, 369Gamgee , Professor, mea t preserv ingprocess of, 5

Gav in , Birt and Co. , J., 367

Gear Mea t Preserving and Freezing Co. ,

63 , 265

Geddes, J. H ., 53, 54, 168, 247, 86 6

Geddes, J. H ., and Co., 49

Geddes, J . Robertson, 367Geddes

,Birt and Cc.,

Ltd. , J. H 367

Gee, Alban , 10General lien , cold stores, 179General Produce Cc. , Ltd. , 367

Genera l Steam Nav iga tion Cc.,231

Genesis of export under refrigerat ion,Germany, trade with, 229

Germany’s advance of duty,263

Gib ra ltar, trade with, 240Gibson , Herbert, 14, 306Gifia rd

’

s refrigera ting machine, 33, 338Gillette,Mn , chilled meat shipment of,25

Gisborne Sheepfarmers’Frozen Mea t

Co., 70

Gladstone Mea t Works, 49Glasgow as a frozen mea t port, 219Gla sgow and Co.

’

s 1851 refrigera ting iastella tion , 22

Goldsb rough, Mort and Cc .,Ltd., 19 ,

54

Goodsir, George, 368Gordon , D. J . , 58

Gordon, Woodroife and Co. , 369

GradingArgentine

,108

Austra lian, 102, 111New Zea land , 105, 111

Gra in and frozen mea t, Mr. Corney ,316

Graziers’ Mea t Export Cc. ,55

Greenstreet, Capta in H . E . , 130, 369

Grigg, John , 6 1, 282, 815, 370Grigg

,J . C. N on mutton sheep svolu

tion, 94


4423

Lichtenburg and Washington’s defrosting process, 349Liebig, Baron , 7

L ieb ig’

s Extract of Mea t Co. , 8Lightfoot , T. B ., 165, 338Linde, Dr. Carl von,337

Linde British Refrigera tion Cc., Ltd .,

338

Link, J. D. , 26 , 31

Linley’

s sterilizing system, 250Lithgow Valley Works , 19Little, refrigera ting pioneer,24Liverpoola s a frozen mea t port

,214

cold storage capacity at, 214methods of discharge at

,215

ra ilway ra tes from, 215

Li

gerpoolCold Storage and I ce Co Ltd .,

0

Liverpool Refrigera tion Co., Ltd.,342

Live stockArgentine sta tistics, 16 , 307, 398Austra lian sta tistics, 9, 300brought to London , 187Mulhall

’

s sta tistics of British,2,3

New Zealand sta tistics, 12, 93, 98, 283North American sta tistics

,273

Queensland sta tistics, 47U K. sta tistics, 320-322

Liv ing, John , 35Lloyd , Samson , 37Lloyd ’

s Register , 150Lloyd’s

, 150, 346Londonand Australasian shipping serv ices,212

cold stores blocked, 263cold stores

,total capacity of

,164, 264

conferences , 267Corpora tion’s market by-laws, 193discharge at, 112docks, first cold store at

,164

shipping serv ices, 212London and India Docks Co., 164

London and St. Ka tharine Docks Co. ,

164, 165London Central Markets (see Smithfield)London Central Markets Cold StorageCo.,Ltd

,115, 167, 344London Centra l Mea t Co. , Ltd .,

209

London Mea t Importa tion and StorageCc .,

28

London ’s share of U. K . imports, 211,2 12

Longburn Freezing Co., 6 9Long’s tests, Professor James,296

Lord Mayor’s show,Canterbury mutton

at, 279

Loverdo, the la te J. de, 274

MACANDREW , R ., 28

MacDonald , C. A . , 339

Mackenzie,George, 36 , 37

Mackenzie on frozen mea t trade, John ,324

Mackenzie on frozen mea t, Sir Morell,316

Macmeikan’s defrosting process

,350

Mad agascar’s chances as an exporter,243

Malta , trade with, 240Management ra te, cold storage, 116 ,

Manchester as a frozen mea t port,215,

223

Manchester Ship Canal, 215Manila

,trade W ith

,239

Marketing frozen mea tArgentine methods , 100, 400Australa sian methods, 101, 400

Ma rking mea t, 269Marksmultiplicity of, 139, 175stripes on mea t wraps, 139

Ma rtin , Edwa rd, 375Ma rtindale, Colonel C. B .,

376

M ata ura,s.s.,

130, 133 , 370

McCa ll canned mea t process, 4McCall, J . , and Co., 10

McCulloch, Sir James, and Australianpioneering, 33McEacha rn

,the la te Sir Malcolm, 31,

376

McI lwra ith, Andrew,21, 30, 31, 376

McI lwra ith,McEacharn and Cc.,352, 376

McI lwra ith, Sir Thoma s, 30, 31 , 47Mechanical refrigera tion, 334-350Medical officers of health and frozenmea t, 297

Medlock and Ba iley, preserv ing processof, 5

Melbourne I ce Ska ting and Refrigerating Co. ,

58Melbourne Mea t Preserv ing Co., 10

Merinda Mea t Works, 49Mexia

, Don Exequiel Ramos, 91M iles Bros. and Co 265

M illman , H . W . G 189

M ilne , W i lliam,Ltd .

,219

Morehead , B. D.

,and the Strathlerm ,

30

Morris, Augustus, 19Morris Beef Co., 192

Mort, La idley, 37Mort, Thomas Sutclifi'

e, 18-21 , 51, 339

Moses,mea t canning by H . E . and M . , 8Mould on chilled beef, 250Mulhall

live-stock sta tistics of, 2, 3prophecy of, 314quinquennial mea t prices of, 314

INDEX

Multiple shop pioneers in GreatBrita in,210

Multiple shops, 100, 102, 106 , 183, 208209 , 383

Mu‘garrie Freezing Works, Queensland,

Murray, Roberts and Co 45

Musgrave Wharf Works, Brisbane, 50Mutton , lamb a . 205

Mutton , reason for unpopula rity of,Mutton sheep, evolution of, 98

gu ru s , J. D., 266

Cational Mortgage o.

'

s re rt on

Duned in shipment. 44pa

N La , Fwezing Works , 81Nm, Sir E. Montague, 86 , 52, 169,268, 348

Nelson, Sir William, Bart, 80Nelson , Bros , Ltd ., 37, 56 , 63 , 64, 168,221, 226 , 265, 377

Nelson, Dale and Cc ., 877

Nelson-Dicks-‘I‘yser chilling process,252

Nelson, Edward, 80, 380Nelson, Hugh, 80Nelson, H. and W Ltd 142, 343Nelson, James, 80Nelson, James a Sons, Ltd 80-81, 82,100, 142, 309Nelson, T. C. , 81

Nelson,William, 64, 377Nelson Freezing Co., 71Nelson Line, 142Nelson ’s defrosting process, 348

‘

s (gew) R iver Pla te Mea t Cc ., 80

Nelson‘s iver Pla te Mea t Cc. , 80, 144Nelson's wharf cold stores, 16 9Newman , J.N., 380New Pa nia Mea t and Cold Storage

L 88NevvportFreezingWorks, 56New SouthWales Freezing Co.

’sAssocia

tion's scheme, 149Neg;South Wales Fresh Food and Ice19, 51 389

New Zealandconferences ofmeat men, 265early difficulties in, 371flocks and herds, sta tistics of, 12, 89,98, 98, 283

freezing works, 60, 804mums, rices rea lised by, 304b in e future, 395mea t works, opera tions at, 72pioneer shipment from, 89 , 803progress of, 257 , 259, 804, 805sale system in Grea t Brita in, 265Ne:Zealand and Australian Land Co

9, 97

Cc ., 87

New Zealand Loan and Mercantile$ 35

00.

31; q

New Zea land Mea t Preserving Co., 12

New Zea land Refrigera ting Co., 60, 106 ,248, 26 7, 270, 272, 351

New Zealand Shipping Cc ., Ltd., 130,265

New Zeala nd’s gain from frozen meat.308-305

Nicolle, E. D. , pioneering work of. 1922

Nielson. C., preserved mea t procem of.5

Noakes‘s elevator. 113Norfolk, Harrison's shipment by a.s..

23

North American chilled beef trade, 19 1,261 , 273 , 386

North America n chilled mutton, 264North Bri tish and Hawke'

s Bay Freesing Co. , 71

North Queensland Mea t Export Co10

Nutritive value of frozen mea t, 293

00mm BeachWorks, 710

‘

Doherty’s defrostin g process , 849Officer , C. M , and Australian pioneering , 33

Olivera . Don Eduardo, 90

Onslow'

s imcnt , Lord , 315Orbell, M. 266

Orient Line , 341880, res ectus of, 128

Orient is) N. Co., Ltd first fitted

vessels of the, 129

Outports, 212

PALERMO,record stock sales at, 278

Pa ragua y , a.s. pioneer shipmen t by,16 , 28-30, 76

Paris Congrem of Refrigeration, 274,295

Parkes, Sir Henry , 19Pasman, Miles , 82, 381Pastoral F inance Associa tion . 53Pa tagon ia Freezing Works , 87Patagonian Mea t PreservingCc ., 88

Pa tea Fa rmers’ Cc-operative Fi'ecsingCo., 71

Pa terson , A. S., and

Paul, Henry Moncrieif, 38 1Pearse, Capta in A. W ,

Peck’s defrosting process , 84Pedigree stock exports, Bri tish, 98, 824

440

Pellier. introduction of soldered mea ttins by , 7

Peninsular and Oriental 8. N.

129

Perkins, refrigera ting pioneer, 24,

336

Pictet, R ., refrigerating pioneer 24Pietermaritzburg Cold Storage andSupply Co., Ltd 238

Pi tt , A . E . ,52 , 57

Pla ta Cold Storage Co., La , 83, 278Pla ta freezing works, La , 391Poole I sland, 36Pork , frozen , 262Port Adela ide freezing works, 58Port Elizabeth Cold Storage and SupplyCo.

, Ltd . , 238

Port of London Authority , 166Port of London cold stores, 115, 16416 6 , 174

Porta ble refrigerators, 344Porter, W . A. , 380

Portland and Western District FreezingCo. ,

57

Portland freezing works , 56Postle, J. D refrigera ting pioneer , 24,349

Potter, J. A.,134

Potter , J. , and Co. , J., 367Pottinger

,A. W ., 65

Pre-cooling, 357Preserving mea tea rly processes ,first ja r process , 7first practical tinning, 8first soldered tins, 7

Price, Hon. Thomas, 58Priceof home mea t supplies, 322statistics (quinquennial) of mea t,Mulhall

’

s, 314

Pricesfor the day atSmithfield , 198progress of Argentine, 26 1progre ss of Australian, 255, 256progress of New Zealand , 258, 259,260, 304

supporting, scheme for, 265weekly ca ble of , 330Privy Council and na tional supplies,4

Proctor, P. B., on frozen mea t consumption , 316Producers and reta il schemes, 202, 266Producers ’

conferences, 265Production of mea t, home, 2 , 3Prospects of Europea n trade, 243Protos, s.s., shipment by, 33Provmcial distribution , 211-225, 378Public health regula tions, 122

INDEX

Puerto Cabello Freezing Works, 89Punta Arenas freezing works, 87

QUAL I TY of frozen mea t, 290Queensland beef,Hamburg shops openedfor, 231Queensland Freezing and Food ExportCo. , 36

Queensland Mea t Export and Agency338

Queensla nd’s pioneer shipment, 36Queensland freezing works, 47 , 51

RAI LWAY ra tes, 215, 222Ra ilway refrigera tor ca rs , 344Rand Cold Storage and Supply Co., Ltd.,

238

Randall, John A 65

Reba tes, 104Redbank Freezing Works , Queensland,50

Redwood, paraffin preserv ing process ofProfessor, 5

Refrigerants , 340Refrigera ting installa tions in NewZealand , 72

Refrigera tion , systems of, 334-350Regula tion of supplies and trade,schemes for, 265-269

Reid, of Elderslie, John , 131Renard and Co., Jules, 227frozen mea t shops, 208-9schemes, producers and , 202trade, 200

Reta ilers in the U. R .,number of, 208

Reta iling of beef, 207Reynolds, mea t extract process of, 10R ichards, B., and Sons, 52R icha rdson , W. D. , on dietetics, 295R ideal on dietetics, Dr. Samuel, 292R io Seco freezing works, 87R itchie, S. S. , 10

R iverina Frozen Mea t Co., Ltd. , 54, 340R iver Pla te Co.

’

s best yea r, 262R iver Pla te Fresh Mea t Co.,

Ltd .,17

,

76-79, 108, 140, 209, 217, 220, 228,249, 264, 280, 309

R iverstone Mea t Co., 52

Roberts, John , 60Robertson, Sir John , 19Robinson , E . H ., 369

Robison Bros., ea rly refrigera tingmachines of, 33

Rose and Co., John , 210, 382Rosebery and frozen mea t, Lord, 315Rowan , Andrew, 35


442

Taylor, Colonel, 31Tellier, Cha rles, 16 , 26 -28, 275, 308 , 387Tellier

’

s system of desicca tion , 28, 388Tempera ture measurement, 342Tierra del Fuega works, 88Terrasson, Eugenio, 79 , 309Tests with frozen mea t, scientific, 292Thames Cold Storage Co. , Ltd . , 115

Thermometers, self-recording, 343Thermosta t, Dr . Shiels

’

, 247

Thomson, J . J. , 210, 388

Thomsen , M . C., 35

Tinda l, C. G., 4, 9

Tinned mea t export, 7Tinn ing. first practical, 8Tinning works at Honeysuckle Point,N 8

Tofiee Bros. , 26

Tokoma ru Sheep Fa rmers‘ Freezing Co.,

71

Tooth, R ., 4, 9

Tooth’

s Extract of Mea t 9Torrens , Sir B. R., 31

Townsv ille freezing works, 48Turnbull, onmea t supply

,B. E .,

320

Turnbull, Ma rtin and Co., 131, 338, 363Turner, Brightman and Cc .

, 140

Tw0peny , B . E . N.,268, 330, 389

Tyser,W . H ., 67, 129

Tyser Line, 129, 168

Unns swsrrsns ’ risk, the , 145Union Cold Storage Co., Ltd ., 115, 168Union Cold Storage Co.

’

s cold stores,Up-country chilling, Australian, 53Urugua y plant of River Pla te FreshMea t Co., 77

VALUE , Early, ofNew Zealand mutton,93

Van de Velde, A. , 37

Vans, refrigera tor , 345Venezuela n Mea t and Products Syndica te, Ltd .

, 89 , 144, 264Victoria , approval of Queen , 26 , 191Victoria an Strut/ileum lamb

,Queen , 31

Vi

giorian Butter Facton es'

Co-opera tive58

Victorian Government cool stores, 57Victoria n freezing works, 56Vienna Congress of Refrigera tion, 276Vladivostock, trade with, 239

WADDINGTON, and frozen mea t, M., 316Wagstafi, Captain F ., 389

Wa irau Freezing Co., 351

INDEX

Wa i tara Freez ing Works, 70Wales and Strathleven sheep , Prince of,31

Wallace, E. Alford , 31Wallace , Professor Robert, 238, 323Wanganui Mea t Freezing Co.

,Ltd .

, 6 9

W ar Office and frozen mea t, 256 , 318Wa rd , Sir Joseph, 303Ward, John J 390

Wa rd and Stimpson , 279Wars and frozen mea t

,236 , 255, 297

Wa tt,James, 64

Weddel, W illiam, 390

Weddel, W ., and Cc.,47, 108, 230, 23 1,

232, 248, 252, 354, 368, 390

Weight allowances, 104Weights, va ria tion in popula r, 107Wellington Fa rmers‘ Mea t 71

WellingtonMea t Export Co., 68, 107 ,West, H . J 23

Western Australian freezing works, 59West Coast serv ice, 212, 213West Smithfield (see Smithfield)Western Freezing Co., 57

Western Fresh Food and Ice Co., 59

Westgarth, W.,31

Westray, J . B . and Co., 38, 363

Whi te, Henry, 36 6White Sta r Co.

, first fitted vessels of the,129

Whi tehead and Cc., 34

Whi tson , Capta in, 41Wholesale markets outside Smithfield,184

W igram, W . A 369

W ildri dge and Sincla ir, 53, 383W illiams, H . W .

,377

Williams, Dr. Herbert, 297W ills and Co Ltd. , 240Wilson and Australian pioneering, SirSamuel, 33Wimmera Coo pera tive FreezingWorks,57

Wood, J. A 77, 392

Woodley, H .,202

Woods, A. R . T., 343

Woolgrowers and frozen mea t, 301Woodrofie, G . W . P.. 36 9

Worms, Baron Henry de, 315Wynter, Dr. Andrew, on SmithfieldMarket, 186

YU I L L, G. S., and Cc., 48

Yuills , Ltd . ,48

Z LINE, 140Za ra te freezing works, 80, 84, 309

BRADBURY, A033" , 00. L!) PR INTERS , LONDON AND TONBR IDOI

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