A HISTORY INDIAN SHIPPING - Lucknow Digital Library

A HISTORY

OF

INDIAN SHIPPING

IN PREPARATION, • .

I. ' T h e Empire of Chandra Gupta," \^ tiie AUTHOR and'NAREMDRANATH LAW, MJi..

3i *'>ata 3f Indian •Economics," by, the AUTHOR and RADHAKAMAL MOOEERJI, M.A.

INDIAN SHIPPING A HISTORY OF THE SEA-BOK^Jl TRADE

AND MARITIME ACTIVITY OF ^ flE iNDiA^Nb

FROM THE EARLIEST I I vIES

RADHAEUMUD MOOKERJ , M.A. Premchand Royckand Scholar^ Catentta i^:hrntj

HenicJiandra Baszt Millik Professor cf Indian Jlir.r' -.i ih- Nai^-ml

Cctmdl of Education, Tmsj.''^

WITH AN

INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY

BRAJENDRANATH SEAL, M.A., .*H.D.

LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. 8, H'ORNBY ROAD, BOMBAY

303, BOWBAZAR STREET, CALCUITA

L01«)0I*i 'AND NEW YORK

1912

t v

0.

.6116/

LO!JLK)N :

PRlET-dl" DV WILLIAM CLOWES AfCj SONS L ; > n T H l l ,

D C K E B T K Z S r , ETiJl^POBD .STPEET, STB., ADD C t i A r U I X D M l U E T H E B T , "V.

" D o Thou Whose countenance is turned to a.1 '-<le:i rcr.<l jfT c adversaries, as if in a s.iip to the opposite shore: c' ihou const, us i a ship across the sea for our welfare." [£%'-ilJif, L, ( 7, 7 en J 8.]

' PREFACE.

ABOUT t-vo years ago I submitted a thf is vhich was app-roved by the Calcutta Univcr.sily fo' v\y Premchand Roych*nd Studentship. Ic was s'lb-sequently developed into the present work. As indicated by its title, it is an attempt to trace the history (»f the maritime activity of the Indi 'n"-- in all its farms from ihe earliest times. It deaK with what is undoubtedly one of the most iTTter sting, but at the same time often forgotten, chapter- of Indian aistory. The subject, so far as my informa-tion gees, has not been treated systematically by any writer, and has not received by ary me:;as ihf; attenticn it deserves.

T h s is my excuse for attempting this subject, but the attempt, from its vtry nature, i:- be:-cl. with difficulties. The field of work is ne\/ and almost unexpi^Jred, and one has to work zi it .-ingle-handc'J. I have had to--depend ,chiefiy on n}y pwii resources for tht discovery, coHection. :md arrapg^:-ment of the matr:rials.

I have indicated fully, both in the Intrjduct'oi-and in the footnotes, all the sources of information I have drawn upon. The evidences used have btcr

vii

PREFACE

botlvlilerary and monumental. For the icllection of literary evidences i have had to be at great pains in ransxckiag the vast field of Sanskrit literature as wel as Pali (especialy the Jdtakas) throughout which they are scattered, and then in piccmg tlie evidences together. The Sanskrit texts, as w- U as the Pali, I have studied both in the original and in tEinslatiofis. Besides Sanskrit and Pali, I have been able to gather some very vaiuaWe evidence from old Tamil literature \vita the help of a book by the- late Mr. Kanakasabhai Pilla^ , iKTw unfortunafeiy out of print, called TIu Tmmls Eighieefi Hundred Years Ago. I hav^

' had also to consider and use all the evidiinceB bearing on my subject tliat are contained in clansicaj literature, made accesible to iDdian students by the

,,transfetions of McCrinde. Old Bengali litexatture, ,too, has been laid unden contrfbation in connection with the arcouTit of Bengali maritime activity. Further, I Imve, with the help of translations, found out all the evidences' Eiearing on the histor-- of Indian maritime acfcivLty thafj, are furnished by Persian works, most oi which have been made

,/ accessible throi^h Sir Henry Elliot's Histor); in p^ • eight volumes/ Lastly, I have had to use the

material smpplied by 5uch Chinese and JapaiKse •works as. a*e' accessible through translations in giving an accomnt of Indian maritijTie intercourse with the Farther East/ " " • v i i i • •. '

PREFACE

I have had also to study MSS. of unpublished works, both Sanskrit and Bengah', in the original. Much labour was involved in the search for the:.-.i; Sani^krit MSS., especially those which beloni ^ to the class of Silpa S'astras, a good number of ivhic'i I fouled in the famous Tanjore Palace Library (c m taining some 18,000 Sanskrit works), in the AdivTa Library, Madras, and in the possession vi somi' old Indian artists at Kumbakonam. I have aLsc derived from local tradition and old folk-lore S( ni: ver)' valuable materials, for the histor/ of lb;.-once famous port ofGaur, the old cai)ital of Bengal.

Of the MSS. used, those specially ncticeblo are the Ytiktikalpataru, and the Arthaiastra c.f Kautilya which has been recently published. The;.: two important and interesting, but hitherto unkn^'Wi and unutilized, Sanskrit works have great value as sources of economic history. The former !:;ive= a-i account of ancient Indian shipbuilding, the like "f which cannot perhaps be found elsewhere in tbc entire range of SarifSkrit literature, while the Litt r throws' some new light on the economic condnicn of Maurya India which will, I trust, niatertal.y advance our knowledge of that brilliant period of Indian history. I may also refer in this connection to the Sanskrit work Bodhisattvdvadmm Kalpt^hxifi of Kshemendra, which is being published luidc- t^e auspices of the Asiatic Society of Bcn t al. This

ix

'gather all the

PREFACE

work-also throws light on some aspec:ts of economic life in the Maurya epoch.

i have also tried %o discover and evidence derivable from archaeology. Tke many representations of ships and boats, 'and of scenes of naval artivity, that are furnished by old Indian art have been bcoiaght, together and adduced as evidence indicating Indian maritime eiiterprise. Some of these representations I have myself dis­covered rn the course cf my travels, aod these have not, r think, been previously published. To the kindness of some of my artist friends I owe the sketches of several representations of ships and boats that occur in old Indian sculpture and painting, siEch as those of Ajanta, arid also on old Indian coins. " ^ ' \;

My thamks are due- to Messrs: Bejoy Kumar Sarkar and Narendranath ' Sen Gupta, my old pupils at die Beiigal National College, Calcutta, and now students of the Harvard University, U.S.A., for their kind assistance; and also to Mr. Ramananda Chatterji, M.A,, editor of the Modern Rexdew^ for the courtesy of his permission to reprint tkose portions of my work which appeared in his Review. Nor must I omit to express m)-obligation to my friend Mr. Benoy Kumar Sarkar, M.A., Lecturer, Bengal National College, Calcutta, whose constant hjdp in manifold wa s it s alike my pleasure and duty to gratefully acknowdedge.

PREFACE

I have also to express my gratitiK^c tt t\e Hon'ble Maharaja Manindrachandra Nyndy I>aha-dur of Cossimbazar, and Dr. Rashbehaiy (V'[v>.i\ M.A., D.L., C.S.I., CLE., for the gen^jous hcVj they have accorded me in preparing and pablishiri^ this work.

RADHAKUMXID MOOSCER I.

BERHAMPORE, MURSHEDABAD,

yu!ze, igio.

XI

AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE II

"1

i(By Principal BRAJENDR*.NATH SEAL, M.A., Ph.D.)

I

PROF. MOOKERJI'S monograph on Indian shipping and matitime activity, from the earliest times to the end of;| the Moghul perbd, gives a connected and comprehensive survey of a most fascinating' topic of Indian,! history. The character of the work as a learned and up-to-date compilation from the most authoritative sources, indigenous and foreign, must not bei allowed to throv into the background the originality and comprehensiveness of the conception. Here, for the first time, fragmentary and scattered records and evidences ar^ collated and compared in a systematic survey of the entire field ;. and one broad;historical generalization stands out clearly and convincingly, of which all histories of world culture will do well to take note, viz. the central ^. position of India in the Orient world, for well-nigh two thousand years, not merely in a social, a moral, a spiritual, or an artistic reference, but also and equally in respect of colonizing and maritime

I - xiii .

INTRDpUCTORY NOTE i:

activit^-j, 'kad of commercial and; manufactt^ring interest.i; A, muliitflde of facts of special signifi­cance ^Isb come out vividly, and. in several cases, for the Rrst time, in' the author's presentation^ e.g. the t un ing ports ;and harboursj- of IndiaJj the harbour and other maritime regulations pf i' the Maury^ziiiepoch, the indigenous-shipbuilding craft, tiie Inferi classification of vessels and their build, the- pa^mount part Splayed by indigenous Indian shipping in the expansion of Indian, commerce Sand colonizEfion from Ihe shores of Africa and Mada­gascar ai the farthest' reaches of Malaysia audi the EastermArchipekgo ; the auxiliary' character of 1 the foreign iatermediaries, whether Greek, Arabiam or Chinese; ijthe sources of India's i manufacturing supremsqyi for a fiousand years in her advances in a p p l ^ i chemistryi etc. In establishing tliese positions, the author, besides availing himself of !the

' archaectigical (including architectural and numis­matic) ^s iiwell as other historical, evidence, has drawn i»oh hitherto liinpublished manuscripts and other obscure sources, i But the siraal merit of the survey E that these faicts of history- are throughout accompanied by their I political, social, or economic interpretiion, so that 1 the monograph is not a m^re chroniclerof.facts, but a chapter of unwritten cultu're-history, Eori'ceived and; executed in a, philosophical spirit. The author's 'style combines lucidity with terseness^ compreses a large mass of facts inta a

•' I k i v

I N T R O D U C T O R Y N O T E

small compass, and is equal alike to the enumeration C'f details and the march and 5\veep of a rapid historical survey.

One characteristic cannot escape the most casual reader of this volume : Psof. Mookerji takes lis materials as he hnds them, ami does not clip and

pare them down, in the name of tiistorical criticism, •jr handle them after the accredited methods of speculative chronology. By confining himself to settled landmarks, and traversing his ground by rapid strides, proceeding from epoch to epoch, he is able to avoid the quicksands of Indian chronology. As for the critical methods of sititir^' evidence, there is a great deal of misconception in the air, and it is best to point out that the methods which are im­perative in testing an alleged fact or event are highly unsuitable in a review of the formative forces, agencies, movements, of a nattons history as pre­served fn the storehouse of naional tradition. To take an example from the so-caUed Higher Criticism, to explode the Mosaic authorship is not to explode Moses in culture-history. In fact, whether in Semitic, Chinese, or Indian philology, the destructive (and explosive) criticism of the seventies and eighties of the last century is now itsdf exploded, :and has been followed by a finer and more accurate sense of historic origins and national evolutions. For the rest, it must be recognized thatt, \yhile accurac)' and scientific criticism, in the measure in which they are

XV

• INTRODUCTORY NOTE

attaria-ble in the social sciences, must alwajs be essential to a right'historical method, a first sketck or mapping of an entire province, the \vork of scouts, pioneo's and conquerors, cannot usefully employ the meths^s of a trigonometrical or a cadastral survey.

BRAJEXDRAN-VTH SEAL.

XVI

CONTENTS.

INTHODUCTION. PAC:..

I, feolation and Intercourse . . . . . . i

II. Evidences . . . . . . . . 1>

III. Epochs . . . . . . . . . p

BOOK I.—HINDU PERIOD.

PAET I.—INDICATIONS OF MARITIME ACTIVITV IN INDIUJ

LITERATURE AND ART.

CHAPI'ER I.—Direct Evidences from Sanskrit and Pali Literature . rq

CHAPTER II.—Direct Evidences from Indian Sculpture, Painting, and Coins . . . . . . . 32

CHAPTER III.—Indirect Evidences: References and Allusions to Indiafl Maritime Activity in Sansltrit and PaJi Literature . 5 3

PART II .—THE HISTORY OF INDIAN MARITIME ACTUITV.

CHAPTER I.—The Pre-Mauryan Period . . . . . 8 1

CHAPTER II.—The Maurya Period . . . . . . TOO

CHAPTER III.—The Andhra-Kushan Period : Intercourse with Rome . 1 1 6

CHAPTER IV.—Tlie Period of Hindu Imperialism in Northern India under the Guptas and Harshavardhana— The Foundation of a Greater India : Intercourse with Farther India 142

xvii b

CONTEbrrs PAGE

CHAPTER. ~".—The Periol of Hindu ImperiaHsm in Northern Indii {^0fi/lnued): Tke Colon.zatioM o'Java . 14S

CHAPTER ^I.—The Period of Hinda Imperialism in Northern India {cor.ihiued) : Tloe Maritime Acti-iiy of the Bengahs 155

CHAPTER ~II.^—The PeriDd of Hindu Imperialism in Northern India (fontinued) -, The Intercourse mth China . 163

CHAPTER "III .—The Peiod of Hindu Imperialism in Northern India tcontinued) \ Maritime Actrrrt? on the West Coast. . . . . . . i65

CHAPIE* K . — T h e Period of Hindu Imperialism in Soathem India: The Rise of tlie Chaluliiras and the Cholas^ftom the Middle of ihe 7th Century to the Time of the Mahomecan Conquests in Northern India ., . . . . . 1 7 0

CHAPTER 1-—Retrospect 17S

BOOK II.—MAHOMEDAN PERIOD.

CHAPTER I.—The Pre-Mogul Period 185

CHAPTER I-—The Mogul Period: The Rsgn of Akbar . . 205

CHAPTER 11,—The Mogur Period {amtinueif}: From the Reign of Akbar to that of Aarangzeb . . . . 234

CHAPTER I"^.—Later Times

CONCLDSIO^ .

343

253

INDEXES :

I. S»%^ cts . , - - . . . . - 2 5 7

II. Prc^3r Names . . . . . . . . 269

xvni

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Indian Adventurers Sailing out to Colonize Java. (From the Sculptur'3 of Borobudur.) . . . . . . Frvntispiece

Fadng^age

33 Sculptures From the Sanchi Stupas

I'he Royal Barge on the Jagannath Temple, Puri .

A'aital Deul, Bhubaneshvara . . . .

A Sea-Going "Tessel. (From the Ajanta Paintmgs.)

The Koyal Pleisure-Boat. (From the Ajanta Paintings.)

landing of Vijaya in Ceylon, 543 B.C. (From the Ajanta Paintings.)

Indian Advertwrers Sailing out to Colonize Java. (From the Sculptiresof Borobudur.) No. i

Do. do. No. 2

Do. ' do. No. 3

Do. do. No. 4

Do. do. No. 5

Do. do. No. 6

Andhra Ship-Cdins of the 2nd Century A,D.

Sonie Indian Ships and Boats of the \ 7th Century

Mahratta Grabs and Gallivats Attacking an English Ship

Some Indian Ships and Boats of the Earlier Part of the 19th Century

Pinnace Bangls Grab -Pattooa Bony . Brick . View of Ballasore Roads

36

36

40

42

44

46

46

48

48

48

48

SI

^236

24Z

252

252

252

252

252

252

252

XIX

LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.

Abu\fetia.'—Remaud. Account of Shihab-ud-din Talish in MS, Bodleian 589. Al-Biladuri. Al-Binmi. AJ-Idrisi. Anabaas. Analysis of the Finances of Bengal (Fifth Report),—Grant. Ancient Egyptians.— Wilkinson, Ancien! India as Described in Qasskal Literature.—McCrindJe. Ancient Ships.—Toir. Anecdota Oxonicnsis. Archaeological Survey of India (New Imperial Series) xv. Artha^stra.—Kautilya. Asiatic Nations (Bohn's edition). Asoka Rock Edicts, 11. nnd XIIL Assam District Gazetteer, II. Ayeen-i-Akbari.—Abul-Fa/l.

Bhikshani Niduna, Bhilsa Topes, The.—Cunningham. BibiCj T h e .

Book of EzekieL Genesi'a. Kings.

• • Proverbs. Bodhisattvavadana Kalpalata.—Kshemendra. Bombay Gazetteer, Bombay Times (1839).

xxi ^ 2

JLIST OF AUTHOKITIES

Buddhist India.—Rhys Davids. Buddhist Records of the Western World.—Beal. i

Catalogue of fenskrit Manuscripts.—Aufiechr. i Cathay and the Way Thither.—Yule.

Ghach-oania. ; ] Chemical ThcDiies of the Hindus,—Dr. Brajendranath Seal. Chllappathikaram, " ) Chinese Buddhism.—Edkins. Christia.n Topography.-^Ccemas. ^ Chu-Fan-Chih.—Chaojukua, Coins of Souttem India.—Sir W. Elliot. ' Commerce of the Ancients.—Dr. Vincent. ConsideralioiB on the,Affairs oflndia.—Lt.-Col. Walkejr. Curtius. ;'

DafiakuEiaradiarita.—jDandin. I Das alte In&n. De Coutto. ' , De Vita Constant. 'i ;' Dharraa Sutra.

Bauihayana.'l !' Gauiama.

Diodoras Siaulus. Disquisitions concerning Ancient India,—Robertson.

I ! I '

Early History of the Deccan.—^Bhandarkat. • India.—Vincent Soiith. '

Early'Records of British India.—J. T. Wheeler. Economic Review. ' I Edicts of Ajofca.-~V. Smith. ,' Epigraphia Indica, TOI. iv. (i&96-g7). Epitome oHRoman History.—Flonis. Erukkaddur-Thayan-Kannanar-Akjan. '('

Fathiyyah-iibriyyah (Blochmann's translation). Foe-k(7ue-kL ; Fragments^—Orme. i

' xsit

LIST OF AlJTHORtTIES

Geographical Account of Countries round the BJ&- of Bengal, A.—Thomas Bo\yrey. (Hakluyt Society paiDlication.)

Geography.—Ptolemy, Geovgira.—VirgU. Ghatakakarika. Grammar of the Dravidian Languages.—^Dr. CaEwell. Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce.—Dr. Yeas. (jiijarat. —Bayley, Gujarat.—Bird.

Herodotus. Hist. Anc. Orient (English edition). History.—Qrosius. History of Bengali Literature,—5?inesh Chander Sen.

. Burma.—Sir A. Phayre. India.—Elphihstohe. India.—Sir H. Elliot.

• • Indian Navy.—Lt.-Col. C. R. Low. Java.—Raffles.

" • Konkan. Mahrattas.—Duff. Pegu.—Phayre.

• Plants.—^Theophrastus. Pari.—Brojokishore Ghosh.

Hist. Rorae.—Dion Cassius. Hitopadesa. Huang-hua-hsi-ta^chi.—Chia-Tau.

ideals of the East.—Okakura. Imperial Gazetteer (Kew Edition), vol. ii. Ind. Alt, vol. ii. India and Ihe Navy.—Sir C. Bridge. India iri the Fifteenth Century. (Hakluyt Societj^ublication.) Indian Antiquary.

Architecture.—Fergussoji. Literature.—Weber.

• Sculpture and Painting.—E. B. Havell. Indika.—Ctesias (McCrindle's translation). Industrial Competition of Asia.—C. Daniell.

xxiii

LIST OF AUtHORITiES

I-Tsing.—Taka-kiisu.

jatakas (Cowell's' Cambridge Edition). — Ajanna.

— Bavem, Bhojajanuya.

^ Tanaka. KMndaka-KucGhi-Siodhava. Maliajanaka. Samudda-Vanija.

• Sajycha., Siiianu. Siipparaka. Su^ondi. Tandulanali.

-^ -• Valahassa. Journal Aaatique, ',

— of the Asiatic Socfety of Bengal. Bangiya Sahitya Parishat. ' •

• Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Indo-Japaneae Association.

. — Royal Aaatic Society. ,

Kalinga Hirparahi. Kathasarit Sagara,—Somadeva. ICavikaidcaii Chandi. ; Koch Ehar and Assami—Blodimami. Kwai-Yuen Catalogue of tie Chinese Tripdtaka. ;

Les Himdciis.—F. Baitazar Solvyr^. Life in Ancient India.—Its. Spier. Life of Godama.—Bishop Bigandet.

Madras ReTiew (1902), y Mahabharafa. ,

• Adi parva., • ICarna parva, '1

—: • Santi parTa. SavS parva.

sxiv 'i

L i s t OF AUTHORITIES

Mahawa6sD,'—Tumour. Mai Fuzat-i-Timuri. ManasamuiDgala (an old Bengali manuscript).—Jagajiban. Manual c^ Bud<ihisni.—Hardy, M(fmoarga;,—Reinaud. Mission Life. MS. BoJleian 598 (translated by Mr. Jadunath Sarkar). MulUipaddu.

Natun^ History.—Pliny. NibonJco-ki. Niti^aiaka.—Vartrihari. Notions of Sanskrit Manuscripts, vol. i. Niimnsmata Orientalia.—^Sir Walter Elliot.

Oarsiara-Puram. Old Bengali Manuscripts. Ori^n and Growth of Religion among the Babylonians,-

Dr. Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, 1887, Origin of the Indian Brahma Alphabet.—Biihler. Orssa.—Hunter.

Paddinappalai. I^aintings in the Buddhist Cave-Temples of Ajarta.-

Griffiths. fenchasiddhantika. Papers relating to Shipping jn India.—Phipps. Parthia.—^Rawlinson, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Titakas. • Atiguttara.

— Digha Nikaya. - Saiyutta Nikaya. - Sutta. — Vinaya.

Portuguese Asia.—Stevenson. Portuguese in India.—-Danvers. Protapaditya.—Nikhilnath Roy.

XXV

LIST OF AUTHORITIES

Provinces of the Roman Empire.—^Mommsei. PuranEE. • Bhagavata.

Garada. • Markandeya.

• Padma. —• VaraEn.

Vayu. \ I

^a^uvarisam.—Kalidasa. 'Raja-Taraugini. S^javalliya. 2.araayana. i

Ayodhya kandam. EiskiEdhya kandam.

Eatnavali.—King Harsha. V ]Krgister of Ships Built on the Hiigli. , Report on the Old Records of the India Office.—Birdwood JS:-^Veda. Ri£:: of the Portuguese'Power in India.—AVhitewaj. Rciaan Empie.—Gibbon. RiEfokokushi.

Sacn^i Books of Cejflon,—Upham. SakBT'tala,—Kalidasa. Sanhiia, \ —-• Manu.

Vrihat.' '— Yajuavalkya, \

Sanchj audits Remains.—Maisley. i' SifiupS-^-isidha.—Magh. '" Si-yo-ld. Spectatfir. Statistics! Accountof Bengal.—Hunter. Strabo. Sung^ili_ Suyshoo, TakmiUa-L-Akbar-nama.

xxvi

LIST OF AUTHORITIES

Tamils Efgbteen Hundred Years Ago, The.—V. K. Fillay. Tarikh-i-Firoffihahi.—Bumi. Tarikh-i-Masumi. Technical History of Commerce,—Dr. Yeats. 'Iliirty Years in India.--Major Bevan, Fopftgrapby of Dacca.- -Taylor. Travels of De Barros.

• Hmen Tsang, • Maroj Polo (Marsden's traiiblation),

Varthema.~Badger.

Voyages.—Kerr, edited by Stevenson. '''''riksha-Ayurveda.

V/assaf. Western Origin of Chinese Civilization.

"\ atratattva.—^Raghuiiandan. 1 uktikalpataru (manuscript).

Z D. M. G.

xxvn

INDIAN SHIPPING.

INTRODUCTION.

Ir—ISOLATION AND INTERCOURSE.

RvEN a superficial view of the physical features of India cannot fail to show that there is hardlv anv part of th£ world better marked out by nature as a region by itself than India. It is a region, indeed, full of contrasts in physical features and climate, but the features that divide and isolate it as a whole from surrounding regions are too clear to be over­looked. In truth, the whole of India, in spite of assertions to the contrary made by some geographers, is easily perceived to be a single country endowed with a sharply defined individuality, and beneath her truly manifold and bewildering variety there is a fundamental geographical unity, a complete territorial synthesis.

Mountain-guarded, and sea-girt as she i. on the north and the south, India looks as if she had been meant by nature to remain aloof from the rest of the world and to develop her civilization in isolation, untouched by the currents that stir humanity abroad. And yet there is hardly any country in the u'orld

I B

INDIAN SHIPPING .

that presents such an eventful record of intercourse v. !th foreiga countries.^ The geography' of India p^xits to her natural isolation; but the history of ladia reveals other facts. And if we study .thE.t his­tory carefully from the earliest tin\es we shall easily re«3gnize thai contact or intercourse with other coTEitries has "been a no less potent factor in its maldng than isolation. Lt has been well said that none of the greatest moveaient? in the world which havcinfluencedlhe history of mankind have failed to tou(^ India and contribute to the development and richness of her extraordinarily varied culture and civilization. Above all comprehension and beyond all human insight is that mysterious impulse which gave Idrth to the momentous movement of Aryan migration and expansion, so big with consequences, and b}'~far the most important event in the world's history- And it fs a commonplace of history thai: one of Che main streams of this great migration of the pioEEers of the world's civilization entered India through her north-western mountain passes .to build uplier spiritual character, even as the Indus and the Ganges have broken through the Himalayas to create Tier physical character. For centuries these Indo-Aryans pushed on .their work of colonizing' India amkl struggles and conflicts with the original inhabitants of the-country; and-developed a civiliza-i;' tion that is reflected in the literature they have\, created. Then rose Buddhism, the first of world-1

I N T R O D U C T I O N

religions, <^ product of the Indian soil which exteided its influence beyond its liniits over all couutries lying east and north of India—from the stej'pes of the Mongols and the mountainous vvil ieniesses of Tibet, through Japan, and on thij so\ th ^nd east far vi\to the Indian Archipelago.' for centuries India stood out as the heart of the Old "World, mtjulding and dominating its thought ai:d life. Meanwhile there continued to beat upon Indian shores successive waves of foreign influence, such as the Iranian influence flovving-f:om the first ^'eritable empire of the ancient Orient, the empire of the Achaemenides, vdiich nnder Darius included within itself the whole of Sindh and a considerable portion of the Punjab east of the Indus, forming his twentieth satrapy and yielding- the enormous tribute of fully a million sterling, an influence that left some marks upon Indian ^t and architecture and methods of govern­ment aad administration ; the Hellenic influence beginnmg from Alexander's invasion and exercised by a succession of Greek rulers of the Punjab and neighbouring regions, but "which touched only the friage of Indian civilization "; and the Graeo -E.oman influence during the time of the Keshan or Indo-Scythian kings. Then, also, the two great ci i-lizing forces of the world that next arose did not fail to toi«:h India and contribute to her making, viz. the Islamic culture and civilization, and the European,

3 B 2

INDIAN SHIPPING 1

rtich, following in the wake of foreign invasions and osnimerGe, has continued to influence Indian thoaght sxsd life to this day, India, therefore, is a favoured caantry whese all the diversities cf human culture hasre met to builcLup an extraordinarilyIrich and sy^hetic culture. Thus intercourse is as' muck a ch:xacteristic of the history of India as isolation.'-"

Hardly less convincing than these facts cf the political intercourse of India are the facts, of her conanercial intercourse with foreign countries wiih which we are more directly concerned. We shall h a ^ ample evidence to show that for fuHi thirty cenmries India stood out as the very heart of the Old World, and maintained her position as ,one of the Wiremost maritime countries. She had colonies in Pegu, in Cambodia, in Java, in Sumatra, in Borns3, and even in the countries of the Farther East ^ far as Japan. She had trading settleriients in Scmthern China,,.'in the Malayan peninsula, in Arabia and in a l the chief cities of Persia and all over l*ie east coast of Africa. She cultivated trade relations not only with the countries of Asia, but'also with the whole of the then known world, including the countries under the dominion of the Roman Empire, and boti the East and the West became the theatre of Indian commercial activity and gave scope to her narvai energy and throbbing international life.

It. w3' thus be seen that instead of the rigid isolation apparently decreed, to her by nature, we

4 • - :•

INTRODUCTION

find a remarkably active intcrcouise with foreign countries e^ablished by the efforts of man, and a conquest achieved over the natiual environment The great and ahnost impregnabfe barriers on the north are pierced by mountain-jrasses which Ivixe been throi^hout used as the pathways of commerce ^nd comrrmnication with the external world. To-'>vards the south the ocean from its very nature proved a far more effective and fatal barrier to the cultivation of foreign relations, tLT the rapid devcloj)-ment of national shipping tnumphed O\XT that obstacle and converted the ocesn itself into a great highway of international interccoirse and commerce. The enrly growth of her shipping and ship­building, coupled with the gei^ius and energy of hei merchants, the skill and daring of her seamen, the enterprise of her colonists, and the zeal of her mis­sionaries, secured to India the command of the sea for ages, and helped her to attainand long maintain hei proud position as the mistress of the Eastern seas. There was no lack of energy-on the part of Indians of old in utilizing to the full the opportunities presented by nature for the development of Indian maritime activity—the fine geographical position of India in the heart of the Oitent, with Africa on the west and the Eastern Arclvpelago and Australia on the east, her connection with the vast mainland of Asia on the north, her pO£=;ession of a sea-board that extends over more than four thousand miles, anil

5

INDIAN SHIPPING

finsJly the network .cif rivers which opens up llit intaion In iact, iri'India there is to be found the conjunction or assemblage of most of those specific geographical conditions on which depends the com-mcnial development of a country.

[J.—EVIDENCES.

T^e sources and materials available for the con-stnicliDn of a history of Indian snipping and maritime activity naturally divide themselves into two liasses, Indian and foreign. The Indian evidenies are those derived from Indian literature and art. including sculpture and painting, besides the evidense of archaeology in its threefold branches, epigraphic, monumental, and numismatic. The evidencrrs of Indiam literature are based chiefly on Sanskn\ Pali, and Persian w^rks, and in some cases on works in the Inc5an vernaculars, Tamil. Marathi, and B e n ^ i . The foreign evidences consist of those writings Df foreign travellers and historians which contain f3»servations on Indian subjects, and also of archa^dogicaL remains such as those in Java. The forraci: are embedded mostly in classical litera-

'• ture, in Chinese, Arabic, and Persian, to which we .have access only through translations.

The WEY these various evidences, litcirary and monumental, Indian amd foreign, will be arranged, and the orto- in which they will be presented,

6

INTRODUCTION

require to be explained at the outset. Bearing in mind the well-known dictum that " the literature as well IS the art of a people tells its life," I hav(^ thought that the case for India's maritime activity cannot be held to be sufficiently made out until in the Jirst instance it is supported by the evidence supp'ied by her own native literature and art, great as they iire. The first proofs of Indian maritime activity, and of the existence and growth of an Indian shipping by which that activity realized itseK, must accordingly be sought in the domain of Indian literature and art, and the want or paucity of these can hasdly be compensated for by the abund­ance of evidences culled from foreign works. The evidences that will therefore be first presented will be zU Indiaji, being those supplied by IndJau litera­ture and art,3.nd after them will follow the evidences der'ved from foreign sources. Again, as the dates of most of the Indian literary works to which reference wSl be made are unhappily not yet a maUer of certainty, I could not make the evidences drrwn from them the basis of any historical treat­ment of the subject or regard them as any help to n chronoltigical arrangement of the facts regard ng the shipping, sea-borne trade, and maritime activity of India. Accordingly, the evidence from Indian lit:.M'ature t ta t will be first adduced will serve only as an introduction to the whole subject, preparing the ground and making out the case for it, so to

7

INDIAN SHIPPING

rf eak. The real historical narrative oi\ the naral srtivity of India will be built up of materiils aipplied by .such foreign and also Indian works .as iibour under no chronological difficulties.'

The passages from ancient Indian works will be pxsented, as far as possible, in the order determined tw tradition. In the opinion of the late Professor ffihler, the far-famed German orientalist, *' there as3 passages in ancient Indian works which pro^e fTE early existence of a navigation of the Indian O^Siii and the somewhat later occurrence of trading vcyages undErtaken by Hindu merchants to tbe sk>res of ther Persian Gulf and its rivers." The-e prriofs, however, will be found mostly to supply an ir»Jlrect kind of evidence; they contain ho direct htBrmation regarding the existence and develop-moit of a national shipping which is certainly insDlied in the existence, development, and corv tinuance of diat maritime trade to which they s*-» conclusively refer. For it is a commonplace d" hsxry, and quite stands to reason, that ho com-mexe can spring up, and much less thrive, especialh in ^rly times, unless it is fostered by a inadonai slB-q)ing. Accordingly, the direct proofs that are available regarding Indian shipping and naval activity will have precedence over the indirect ones^ and they will include illustrations of the typical ships and boats that are represented in old, Indian art, jn sculpture and painting, and on coins.'

8 \

INTRODUCTION

III.—EPOCHS.

The epochs of Indian history round which these \arious evidences regarding the shipping and maritime activity of India will be grouped, may be loughly indicated as follows :—

I. The Pre-Mauryan Epoch, extending from ihe earliest times to about the year B.C. 321.—For this period we shall discuss the evidences that can be gleaned from some of the oldest literary records of humanity like the Rig-Veda, the Bible, and some of the old Pali and Tamil works, as also from the finds of Egyptian and Assyrian archaeologists, regarding the early maritime intercourse of India with the West. Evidences for this period are also to be derived from the writings of the Greek authors Herodotus and Ctesias, in the 5th century B.C, containing references to India. ^^2.. The Mauryan Epoch (B.C. 321-184).—For

this period the available evidences are those pre­served in the works of many Greek and Roman authors who essayed to tell the story of Alexander's Indian campaign and recorded the obser\'ations made on India by the Greek ambassadors to thr courts of the Maurya emperors. These Gieck and Roman notices of India have been mostly made accessible to Indian students by the translations of Mr. McCrindle. More important and interesting than these foreign evidences is the evidence fur-

9

INDIAN SHIPPING

nished by a recently published Sanskrit work, the Artkasdstra of Kautilya, which ii. a mine of in-forrrution regarding the manifold aspects of a highly devdoped material civilization ••Adtnessed by Maurya India. Bearing on this period also is the evidence of tradidon preserved in that monumental work of the Kash-^irian poet Kshemendra called Bodhisattvd-vaddr^ Kal^akdd, which is nmv being published by th<: Asiatic Society of Bengal in die Bibliotheca Indies, series. The seventy-third/rt!//(2T£? or chapter of the work relates a story which throws some light on the sea-borne trade and maritime activity of India during the days of the Emperor Asoka.

3. The Kusiian Period in the ra>rth and the AndJ&^eL Period in tite south, extending roughly from file 2nd ceatury B.C. to the 3rd century A.'D.—

This was the pa*iod when Roman iniluence on India was at its height; in fact, the whole of the southern peninsula under the Andhra dynasty was in direct conmiunication with Rome, while the conquests in Northern India tended still further to open i ^ trade with the Roman Empire, so that Roman gold poured into all parts of India in pay­ment fcr her silks, spices, gems, and dye-stuffs. The evi<iences proving this are the remarkable finds of Romeji coins, more numerous in the south th:.n in the north, together with the references in the ancient Sanskrit amd Pali works to " Romaka," or the city tf Rome, and in ancient Tamil works to the

10

INTRODUCTION

" Yavanas " or Greeks and Romans, and to the im­portant South Indian ports like Muchirisand Pukar, of which full descriptions arc given in old Tamil poems. Besides evidences from ancient Indian Hterature bearing on Indian commerce with R( nie, there are also definite evidences from important foreign works. The chief of these are Pliiy's Natural History, the Periphts of the Erythraean Sea, and Ptolemy's Geography, besides the incidental allusions to Indian commerce and shipping throAvn out by writers like Agatharcides and Strabo.

4. The Period of Hindu Imperialism in Noyihern India under the Guptas and Harsha-vardhana, extending from the 4th century to the 7th cc itury A.D.^This was the period of the expansion of India and of much colonizing activity towards the farther East from Bengal, the Kalinga coast, and CcTomandel. Parts of Burma and Malacca were co'onized, chiefly from Kalinga and Bengal, as shown in Sir A. P. Phayre's History of Burma, i\nd teirtified to by Burmese sacred scriptures and coins. Tl e main evidences for the remarkable maritime activity of this period are supplied by the accounts of the numerous Chinese pilgrims to India, of whom F^L-FIien was the first and Iliuen Tsang the most famous. These accounts are now all accei^sible th'"ough translations. Among foreign works sup­plying valuable materials for the history of the period may be mentioned the Christian Topography

I i

INDIAM SHIPPING

of Cosmas. Some very valuable evidences 'regard­ing the early commerce between India and China are furnished by Chi'nese annals like the. Knfai-Vf/sjz Catala^ie of the Chinese Tripitaka. Yule's Cafhay mid the tVay Thither also has recorded mary facts relating to the Indian intercourse with China. ' For the reign of Harsha .the mtjst im-por^nt source of information is the Trmels of HiLcn Tsang, that " treasure-house of accurate infamiation, indispensable to every student of Indian antiquity, which has done more than any archaeological discovery to render possible the rernarkable rgsuscitation of lost Indian history whc:h has recently been effected." v^ 5. The Period of Hindu Imperialism in So^hern India and tite rise of the Cholas, extend­ing from the middle of the 7th century up to the Maiomedan conquests in Northern India.—During this period Indian maritime intercourse was equally active with both the West and the East. The cokmizatioH of Java was completed, and the great temple of Borobudur remained a standing monu-m^it 0/ the hold which Buddhism had on that island. The field of Indian maritime enterprise was extended as far as Japan,, which is testified to by Jajanese tradition and official annals made acces-sibfe throt^'k the efforts of Japanese scholars like Dr_ Taka-kusu. ^ h e record of I-Tsing, the famous Chinese traveller, contains many interesting details

12

INTRODUCTION

regarding Indian maritime activity in the Eastern watt-rs and intercourse with China in the latter half of the 7th century. Chinese annals also furnish evidences regarding the maritime intercourse of the Cholas with China, e.g. the Sting-shih.

6. The Musalman {pre-Mogul) Period, extending fpom the n th century to the 15th.—The sources of rvidence for this, and indeed the whole of the Musalman period, are mostly imbedded in Persian works which have been made accessible to scholars by the monumental History of India by Sir H. Elliot^ in eight volumes. For information regarding maritime enterprise and activity in Sindh our authorities are Al-Bildduri and Chach-nama, translated in Elliot, vol. i. The early Musalman travellers throw much light upon Indian affairs of this period. AI-Biruni is our authority for the n th century and Al-Idrisi for the 12th. In the 13th centur)'- a very valuable source of information regarding Indian shipping and commerce is fur­nished by a foreign traveller, the Venetian Marco Polo. Wassaf is our guide in the next century, as \vcll as Tdrikk-i-Firosshdhi. In the 15th centuiy we have, in tie Chinese account of Mahuan, the most important foreign notice of India after Marco Polo, which refetes the exchange of presents between the k'ngs of Bengal and the emperors of China. To the samer century also belong the foreign travellers Abd-er-Razzak, Nicolo Conti, and Hicro-

13

INDIAN SHIPPING

nino di Santo Stefano, who are also valuable soarces of information regarding the shipping and tr::de of the period. In the earlier part of the I a h century, when the Portuguese first appear ab a factor in Indian politics, details regarding Indiaa mantime activity are derivable from Portu-giese annals like De Cotttto, utilized in some of the sfendard works on the history of the Portuguese pswer in Imdia. About the same time the foreign tiaveller Varthema has left a very interesting axount of shipbuilding in Calient.

7. The Period of Mogul Afonarclty; from the 15th centttry to the i8th, i.e. from the reign of .^bar to that of Aurangzeb.—The evidence for the r^ign-of AJcbar is derived, firstly, from that mine of i iformation, Abul-Fa^I's Ayecn-i-Akbari, which aves a very valuable account of Akbar's Admiralty; aid, secondly, from the abstract of Ausii Toomar ^ttimna ^ven in Grant's Analysis (^tks Finances cf Bengal in the Fifth Report, in which are con-•ained nany interesting details regarding the wrganization and progress of the Imperial Nowwara i r shipping stationed at Dacca, the sources of avenue far its maintenance, the materials for ship-juilding, and the like. The ChacJi-ndma in Elliot, Tol. i., and Abul-Fazl's Ayeen-i-Akbari ,g\v^ some letails about the shipping and ports of Sindh. Some details regarding Hindu maritime activity, commerce, and shipping in Bengal are also derived

INTRODUCTION

from Tahnilla-i-Akharndma in Elliot, vol. ^n., from the Sanskrit work Ghataka-kdrikd, from the Portuguese accounts of De Barros and Souza, from the records of other foreign travellers like Varthena and Ralph Fitch, and lastly from some old Bengali poems and songs preserving local tradition. In tke reign of Aurangzeb the principal sources of our information regarding the maritime activities of the Perenghies and of the imperial fleet are the Fathiyyah'i-ibfiyyah, translated by Blochmann, and the coitemporary Persian Account of Shihab-tid-dt'd Talisn in MS. Bodleian 58c), Sacbau and Eth^', Catalogue, which is translated by Professor Jadunatl. Sarkai, M.A. Among foreigm travellers whosuppl) us with information for this period we may mention Thomas Bowrey, in whose account of the countries round the Bay of Bengal we have many interesting details regarding shipping aid commerce. Dr. Fryer is also another similar source of our informa­tion The same period also witnessed the develop­ment of Maratha shipping and maritime activity under Sivaji and the Peshwas, details regarding which may be derived from some of the standard works on Maratha history.

5

BOOK I. HINDU PERIOD.

PART I.

Indications of Alaritjme Activity in Indian Literature

and Art.

17

BOOK L—PART I.

CI-IAPTER I.

DIRECT EVIDENCES FROM SANSKRIT AND

PALI LITERATURE.

IT has been already pointed out that though San­skrit and Pali literature abounds in references to the trading voyages of Indians, they unfortunately furnish but few references having a direct bearing on the ships and shipbuilding of India which enabled her to keep up her international connections. I have, however, been able to find one Sanskrit work/ which is something like a treatise on the art of shipbuilding in ancient India, setting forth many interesting details about the various sizes and kinds of ships, the materials out of which they were built, .and the like ; and it sums up in a condensed form all the available information and knowledge about that truly ancient industry of India. The book requires a full notice, and its contents have to be explained.

^ It is not a printed book but a MS., to be found in the Calcutta Sanskrit College Library, called the yuktikalpatarii. Professor Aufreclit has noticed it In his Catalogue of Sanskrit M3S. Dr. Rajendralal Mitra has the follow­ing comment on it {Notices of Sanskrit MSS., vol. i., no. ccixxi.): " V2-kfi-kol^atam is a compilation by Bhoja Narapati. It treats of jewels, svrords, horses, elephants, ornaments. Bags, umbrellas, seats, ministers, iihips, etc., and frequently quotes from an author of the name of Bhoja, meaning' probably Bhoja Raja of Dhara."

19 C 2

INDIAN SHIPPING

The ancient shipbuilders had a good icnowledge of tlie materials as well as the vaiieties and prc?-pertfe of wood which went to the making of ships. Acccrding to the Friksha-Ayt'irveda, or the Science

' of Pl.int Life (Botany), four different kinds of wood ' • are U be distinguished: the first or the Brahman

class iomprises wood that is light and soft and can 'be ea::dly joined to any oth^ kind of wood'; the second or the Kshatriya class" of wood is light and hard but cannot be joined on to other classes; the wood tiat is soft and heavy belongs to the third or Vaisya class ; while the fourth or the Sudra class of wood is characterized by both hardness and heavi­ness. There may also be distinguished wood of

' the missd (Dvijati) class, in which are blended properties of two separate classes.

Acco®iing to Bhoja, an earlier authority on ship­buildings ship built of the Kshatriya class of wood brings -w ealth and happiness.^ It is thes^ ships that

• are to be: used as means of comn^unicstion where •• the,Gomnxmication is difficult owing to vast water.^

2 0

HINDU PERIOD

Ships, on the other hand, ivhich are made of tnnbers of different classes possessing contrary properties are of no good and not at all comfortable. They do not last for a long time, tliey soon rot in water and they arc liable to split at the slightest shock and to sink down/

Besides pointing out the class of wood which is best for ships, Bhoja also lays down a ver) im­portant direction for shipbuilders in the nature of a warning which is wort'j carefully roting/' He says that care should be iaken that no iron is used in holding or joining togd:her the planks of bottoms intended to be sea-going vessels, for the iron will inevitably expose them Ic the influence of mapictic rocks in the sea, or brin^ them within a magnetic field and so lead them to risks. Hence the planks of bottoms are to be fltt^d together or mortised by means of substances otha* than iron. This rather quaint direction was perhaps necessary in an age when Indian ships plied ia deep waters oa the irain.

Besides Bhoja's clasafication of the kinds of wood used in making shijs and boats, the Yukfikal-patani gives an elaborate classification oi the ships themselves, based on their size. The primar}'

^ r-ii fti a gfrnnrqq^rgrgnwr "r w § if^T i j ^ ^ ' n ^ i i

f^v^"^ " •sr "w^^ ^i^T JT-^^ " " j fsr niTT^ * i ^ : fi

21

INDIAN SHIPPING

division ^ is into Uvo classes : (a) Ordinary (Samanya) : ships that are used in ordinary river traffic or \^^erways fall under this class; (b) Special (Visc^), comprising only sea-going vesds . There are a ^ n enumerated ten different kinds of vessels under the Ordinary class which all differ in their lengthE, breadths, and depths or heights. Below are given their names and the measurements of the three dimensions -:—

-

T^JTTTfPl?

( i ) Kshii5ra

(2) Mad%ama (3) Bhmn: (4) ChfqT la, (5) P a ± ^ (6) BhayS (7) D i r ^ (8) PatrOQtS (9) Gatltjara

(10) Maniiara

{a) ORDINARY.

Length IB cubits.

16

24

4 0

48

64 72

88 96

1 1 2

1 2 0

Breadth in ciibits.

4 12

2 0

24

32

36

44 48

S6 60

Height in cubits.

4 8

2 0

24

32

z(^ 44 48

56 60-

^ '^rai^'g f i ^ T ^ "sfl frT T tjltdH 5«ji» 1

==I '<^1 j] d I ^NiT tj^fd Jlf Trr •ctx: I

T ^ *f1flT injT •^•^ JTOKT - -aS ra eT 1

22

HINDU PERIOD

Of the above ten different kinds of Ordinary ships the Bhima, Bhaya and Garbhara are liable to bring ill-luck, perhaps because their dimensions do not make them steady and well-balanced on the water.

Ships that fall under the class S-pccial are all sea-going.^ They are in the first instance divided into.,two sub-classes^: (i) Dirgha ( ^ ) , including ships which are probably noted for their length, and (2) Unnata ( -a-fn), comprising ships noted more for their height than their length or breadth. There are again distinguished ten varieties of ships of the Dirgha (<t^) class and five of the Unnata ('s-rm) class. Below are given their names and the measurements ^ of their respective lengths, breadths, and heights:—

{b) SPECIAL.

I. Dirgha, 42 (length), 5^ (breadth), 4^ (height): Namej.

(j) Dirghika (z) Tarani (3) Lola' (4) Gatvara (5) Gamini (6) Tari

Length.

32 48

64 80

96

112

Breadth,

4 6

8

10

12

H

Heijjht.

l\ 4} 65 8

9^

" ^

23

Breadth. l 6

24

32 40

.48

H « , ^ . it 24

3^ 4c 4f

Anurddhva h

INDIAN SHIPPING Nam~- Length. Ereulth. Height.

(7) JangJsala . 128 16 I 2 | (8) Haboi 144 iS 144 (9) DhSnni 160 20 16

(20) Begita 176 22 i7f

OY these ten varieties of Dirgha {^] ships, those that bring ill-luck^ are Lola (^tw), Gamini (^fti^), and Plabini ( nf ),. and also all ships that fall between these three 'classes and their next respective classes.

II. Unnata" (=33r-m*) : Name. Length,

(i) Urd&va 32 (2) Anuriidhva 48

" : (3) Svamanukhi 64 (4) Gartjiini 80 (5) Manthara 96

Of these five varieties, Anurddhva (^^V), GarbhinI (jif ft*), and Manthara {^^^j) bring on mis­fortune, and Crddhva much gain or profit to Icings.

- tepir *iH*in<>5 *jM^ Ptr 3raTT 1

Opnions of Sanscrit scholars Trhom I have consultEd differ as to the exact meaning of tliepassages abco-e quoted from l3ie MS. Yuktikalpataru. Accerding to some Ihe word ^JOTT means ^T^ = ij and T ^ = 2, so that "^^"^^ stands Tor the number 21. But according to others, 'jritK whom I agree, ?n^n = r6, for in the works on Astronomy or •^fir^, ' TT^^r^ * or ' XTSfr' is often used to indicate that mimber. 1 have made the caleiriatiions ven above cai the basis of the second interpretation.

-.• •-' 2 4

HINDU PERIOD

The Yuktikalpataru also gives elaborate direc­tions for decorating and furnishing ships so as to make them quite comfortable to passengers. Four kinds of metal are recommended for decorative purposes, viz. gold, silver, copper, and the compound of all three. Four kinds of colours are recommended respectively for four kifids of vessels: a vessel with four masts is to be painted white, that with three masts to be painted red, that with two masts is to be a yellow ship, and the one-masted ship must be painted blue. The prows of ships admit of a great variety of fanciful shapes or forms : these comprise the heads of lion, buffalo, serpent, elephant, tig"cr, birds such as the duck, peahen or parrot, the frog, and man, thus arguing a great development of the art of' the carpenter or the sculptor. Other elements of decoration are pearls and garlands of gold to be attached to and hung from the beautifully shaped prows.

^•^^ T(f? ^mt frt«et •'rrsr \'^ i

25

INMAN SHU^PING 'i 1.

There are also given interesting details aboutjj the cabins of ships. Three classes^ of ships are;i distinguished according to the lengtk and position;] of their cabms. Tkere are firstly the Sarbamandirai; ( slip Tr) vesels, which have the largest cabins |i extending fliom-one-end of the ship to the other/i These ships are leed for the transport of royal z treasure, h<iirses, and women. Secondly, there!; are; the Maaihyamandara (^wraf i) vessels,^ which; have their cabins just in the middle part These j| vessels are lEsed in pleasure trips Ty kings, and they . are also suited for the rainy season. Thirdly, ships | may have thjar cabins towards their.prows, in which i case they \\Jil be called Agraniandira ^ (= ??r' Tr). These, ships are used in the dry season after the rains have <2ased. They are eminently suited for long voyages and also to be used in naval 'warfare.^ It was probad ly in these vessels that the first naval

'fight recorcjrd in Indian literature was-fought, the vessel in which Tugra the Rishi king sent his son

• ^ - : • 2 6

HINDU PERIOD

Bhujyu against some of his enemies in the distant island, who, being afterwards shipwrecked with all his followers on the ocean, " where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon or cHng to," was rescued from a watery grave by the two Asvins in their hundred-oared galley.' It was in a similar ship that the righteous Pandava brothers escaped from the destruction planned for them, following the friendly advice of kind-hearted Vidiira, who kept a ship ready and constructed for the purpose, provided with all necessary machinery and weapons of war, able to defy hurricanes.^ Of the same description were also the five hundred ships mentioned in the Rdmdyana^ in which hundreds oi Kaivarta youn;.; men are asked to lie in wait and obstruct th.;

^ Tf-rr: ?Tf%fft IV Tsr (V xTir r^Ki i

^ "Wi^ iHTrirt "T'WT ^^^"iri trw "STFTW I

Ayodhya KdndaT.

27

INDIAN .-SHIPPING

enemy's passage. • And, further, it was in these' shipsjhat tfre Bengalis once made a stand against * the invirEibie/prowe^ of Raghai as described in ^\ Kalidasa's KagJmvansa, who retired after planting I. the piljare of liis Victory on the isles of the holy ^ Ganges.' • • The conclusions as to ancient Indian ships and shipping suggested by these evidences from San­skrit literature directly bearing on them are also confirmed.-.^J_similar evidences culled from the Pali literature^- './TThe Pali literature,, like the Sanskrit, also abounds with allusions to sea voyages and sea-boi-ne trade, and ft would appear that the • ships employed for these purposes were-Qf quite a-lai-ge size. Though indeed the Pali texts do not usually give;the actual measurements of the different dimen­sions of ships such as the- Sanskrit texts furnish, still they.'jfiake definite mention of the number

'of passengers-,which the ships carried, and thus, enable *s ih*"-a'fiothsr very conclusive Avay to have a precise idea of their size. Thus, according to the •RdjavalBytL, the .ship in which Prince Vijaya and his followers were sent a^vay by King Sihhaba (Sinhavahu) isf Bengal was so large as to accommodate full seven- hundred passengers, all

. 2a'

HINDU PERIOD

Vijaya's followers. Their wives and children, making up more than seven hundred, were aho cast adrift in similar ships>' The ship in which the hon-prince, Sihhala, sailed from some unliiown part of Jambudvipa to Ceylon contained five hundred mer­chants besides himself. The ship in which Vijaya's Pandyan bride was brought over to Ceylon \ 'as also of a very large size, for she is said to have carried no less than 800 passengers on board.* The Janaka-ydtaka mentions a ship that-was wrecked with all its crew and passengers to ;tfe favourite number of seven hundred, in addition to Buddha himself in an earlier incarnation.^ So also the ijhip in which ^Buddha in the Supparaka-Bodhisat incarnation made his voyages from Bharukaccha (Broach)- to " the Sea of the Seven Gems " carried seven hundred merchants besides himself. The wrecked ship of the Vdlahassa-yfitaka carried five hundred merchants.^ The ship which is mentioned in the Sumudda-Vanija-Jataka was so large as to accommodate also a whole village

^ XJpham's Sacred Bocksof Ceylon^ ii. 28, 168. Tumour's Ma/idid •!'•:(>,

A% 47-^ Tumour's Makawa'hso^ 46. ^ Si-ytc-ki, ii. 241. »

* Tumour's Mahawahso, 51. ^ Bishop Bigandet's Life of Godama, 415. ^ Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, 13. ' " Now it happened thai five hundred shipwreck<-d traders were cast

ashore near the city of these sea-goblins."

29

INDIAN SHIPPING

of absconding carpenters numbering a thousand wlio faiied tQ deli\er the goods (furniture, etc.) for which thev had-..been paid in ad\'ance.^ The ship in whick tie Punna brothers, merchants of Suppa-raka, sailee to tihe. region of the red-sanders was so big that bsides accommodating three hundred mer­chants, tha-e was room left for the large cargo of theft tirmbo* which they carried Iwme. The two Burmese merchant-brothers Tapoosa and Palekat

.crossed the Bay of Bengal in a ship that conveyed full five Lundred cartloads of their own goods, 'besides whatever- other cargo there may have been in it.'' The * ship in which was rescued from a watery grrve the phila^jthropic Bjahman of the Sd^kha-y^taka was -Soo .c'ubics in length, 600 dibits in "Madth and' 2oJ^fathoms in depth, and had three masts: The "ship in which the prince of the M^hajimaE'a-'Jataka sailed with other traders from Cnainpai'^.raoflerA Bhagalpur) for Suvarnabhumi (probably ether "Bixma or th,e Golden Qhersonese, or the whd'e Farther-Indian" coast) had on board seven carrvans \\^h their beasts. Lastly, the \ Datha dhoiii watiSB, in relating the stor}r of the' conveyance" of the Tooth-relic from Dantapura to j Ceylon, gi es an interesting description of a ship. |

• "There stDod near Eenares a great town of Xarpentars containing, a thcaasand famiaes." (CamTa-idge translation oi 'yatakas^

^ 'B.axd.y^ MhMiial of BuiciJiism^ 57,260. ^ Bishop Bi^andet'sZi/^^Gi'^azart, 10 r.

30

HINDU PERIOD

The royal pair (Dantakumaro and his wife) reached the port of Tamralipta, and found there "a vessel bound for Ceylon, firmly constructed with planks sewed together with ropes, having a well-rigged, lofty mast, with a spacious sail, a;nd commanded by a skilful navigator, on the point of departure. Thereupon the two illustrious Brahmans (in dis­guise), in their anxiety to reach Sihhala, expe­ditiously made off to the vessel (in a canoe) and explained their wishes to the commander."

31

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER n .

DIRECT EVIDENCES FROM INDIAN SCULPTURE, \i

PAINTING, AND COINS.

• T H E cone iisions pointed to by these literal^ evw dences seon further to be supported by other kinds

^ of evicfence mainJy monurnental in their charactdrT They are 3erived^from old Indian art—from Indisin sculptureand painting—and also from Indian coins. These cadences, though meagre in comparison with the available literary evidences, nati -e and foreign a5ke, have, however, a compensating direct­ness and freshnes, riayVithe permanence which Art confers, creating thing^^pf beamty that remain a joy for 'ever. Indeed,. the light that is thrown \'on ancieat fe^^fan-shipping by old Indian art is not yet

' 'extinffuliiqcl^ thanks "to the durable character of old Indian monuiVien'ts, thanks also to the labours of the Ardiai&ological Department for their preserva­tion and. maintenance. i

Thece are several representations of ships aad boats ED old Indian art. The earliest of them,; are those ID be found among the Sandii SGuIpitires beloBgng to an age so far back as tiie- 2hd ',ceniury B.ci'- Gne of tlae sculptures on the Eastern Gatesway of Nij° 1 Sjtupa at Sanchi represents a canoe riiade up of rough planks rudely sewn together by li'emp

32 ^' i

SCULPTURES FROM THE SANCHI STUPAS, \To-facep. 32.

HINDU PERIOD

or string. " It represents a river or a sheet of fresh water with a canoe crossing it, and carrying three men in the ascetic priestly costume, two propelling and steering the boat, and the central figure, with hands jesting on the gunwale, facing towards four ascetics, who are standing in reverential attitude at- the water's edge below." ^ According to Sir A. Cunningham," the figures in the boat represent Sakya Buddha and his two principal followers; and Biiddha himself has been compared in many Buddhist writings to "a boat and oar in the vast ocean of life and death." ^ But General F. C. Maisleyis inclined to view this sculpture "as repre­senting merely the departure on some expedition or mission of an ascetic, or priest, of rank amid the reverential farewells of his followers."* His main reasons for supporting this view are, firstly, that no representations of Buddha in human shape were resorted to until several centuries later than the date of j;hese sculptures ; and, secondly, because the representation is that of a common thong-bound canoe and not of a sacred barge suiting the great Buddha. There is another sculpture to be found on the Western Gateway of No. i Stapa at Sanchi which "represents a piece of water, with a barge

' ^ General F. C. Maisley, Sanchi and its Remains^ p. 42. 2 The Bhilsa Topes, 27.

^ ^ Foe-kme-ki, ch. xxiv., note 11. ^ Sanchi and its Remains, p. 43.

33 ^

INDIAN SHIPP'ilS'G

^floating, on it whose prow is fornxed. by a winged ^-.giyphon sid-stern by a fish's tail. ' The barge

contains a pavilion overshadowing a vacant throne,' . . oVer which a male attendant holds a chatta, while ••.another man has a diaor'i; a.third man is steering or propelling ;the vessel with a large paddle. In the water are frcshf-water-flovvers anH bnds and a la'tge shell; an.d there are-five m-eti..floating about, holding on by spars and inflatbd-Skins,>while a.sixth appears to be-asking- the ogcupint of the stern^of the vessel for help out of the water."» This sculpture appears simply t6"represent^theroyaLstate^barge, w hich quite anticipates its modern successors used -by Indiaij. noble at the present day;-and the scene is that^^f the king and some of his' courtiers disporting tHem-selves in an :ai-tificial piece of\vate'r; but- it is also capable of a^oribolica:} meaning, especialjyv.when we consider that the'shape of (the barge her< "'shcm n is that of the sacxed Makara^-^^ fish avatara or Ja±aka of tlie Buddhist, ^ just as the Hindu .scriptures make the Matsya, oir feh, the first of the avatars of Vishrm, • vvhtBe latest incarnation was Buddha. According is Lieutenant Massey^ however, titis •sculpture represents the conveyance of relief'from India to Ceyl^ijvvhichjs intercepted by Nagas?

in passirtg it' may be noted that the grotesque

Simchi aiiH i/s Reinains, p. 59.

Mis. Spier's Zife in Andmt India, p. 320.

34.

rflNDU PERIOD

and fancifirl shapes given to the prow herein represented are not the invention or innovation c . an ingenious sculptor trying his wit in original design ; they are strictly traditional, and conform to established standards/ and are therefore identical with one or other of those possible forms of tKe prow of a ship which have been ^reser\^ed for us in the slqkas of the San'sk'rit work Ytiktikalpaiarii quoted and referred to above.

•'Next to Sanchi sculptilres in point of time we may mention the sculptures in the caves of Kanhcry •in the small island of Salsette near Bombay, belonging, according to the unerring testimony of their inscriptions, to the 2nd centuiy A.D., the time of the Andhrabhritya or"^'atakarni king Vashi-shthiputra (A.D. 133-162) and of Gotamiputra 11. (A.D. i77^^J96). Among these sculptures there is a representation of a scene of shipwreck on the sea and two persons helplessly praying for rescue to god Padmapani who sends two messengers for the purpose. This is perhaps the oldest representation of a sea voyage in Indian sculpture.'''

• I have come across other representations of ships and bdats in Indian sculpture and painting.

^ The identity of the form of the prow of the Sanchi barge with that given in the Yuktikalpafaj-n may incline one to hazard tbe co»iectyrG that the work may be compiletl from works at least as old as the Sanchi monument, or at any rate the portions treating of prows.

^ See Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xiv., p. 165,

35 D 2

INDIAN SntllPPrNG

In the couEs of a journey I made through Orissa and South India I noticed among the sculptures of thg Tempk qf Jagannath at Puri a fine, well-.pjeserved ii^resentafdon of a royal barge shown in

• relief,on strme, of whach Igot a sketch made. The representatinn^ appears on that portion of the great Temple of Jagannath whkh is said to Iiave been ^ once a pstt of the Black PagoSa of Kanaraka belonging tJ3 the i2tli century A.D. Th'e sculpture shows in splendid" relief a "stately barge propelled •by lusty oarsmen with all their might, and one almost helfe the very splash of their oars ; the water through wiiich it cuts its way is thrown intQ ripples, and waves indicated by. a few simple and yet;' masterly touches;- ard-'the entire scene is one' of' dash and Imrry indicative of the'desperate speed of a flight or scape from danger. The b ^ i t y of the cabin and the simpicity of its design are particu­larly noticeable ; the xocking-seat within is quite an innovation,3)r6bably" meant to be effective against sea-sicknes, while an equally ingenious idea is that of the rope DT chain which hangs from the top and is grasped ,by the hand by the master of the vessel to steady himself on the rolling ^A ters. It is diffijiult to ascertain what particular scene from our Shastras % here represented. It is very probably not a rner^ secular picture meant as an ornament.

" TJte i;itfer]Hstation pmt upon it by one of th'e many •prie"stsbf whom, I inquired, and which seems most

36

THE ROYAL UARGE OX THE JAGANNATII TK.MI'LF, PURT.

.\ ^

VAITAL DEUL. {T^/:••/.

t l lNDU PERIOD

likely, being suggested by tlie surrouncJing sculp­tures, was that the scene -represented S'ri Krishna being secretly and hurriedly tiarried away beyond the destructive reach oT King- Kansa. It will also be remembered that the vessel herein represented is that of the Madhyamandira f^pe as defined in the Ytiktikalpatarn.

In Bhubaneshwara there is an,old':temple on the west side of the tank of Vindusarovara which re­quires to be noticed in this cennection. The temple is called Vciitcil Deitl after tiie peculiar form of its roof resembling a ship or boat capsized, the word vaitara denoting a ship. The roof is more in the style of some of the Dravidian temples of Southern India, notably the raths of Mahavellipore, than of Orissan architecture.

There are a few very fine representations of old Indian ships and boats among the far-famed paintings of the Buddhist cave-temples at Ajanta, whither the devotees of Buddhism, nineteen cen­turies or more ago, retreated from the distracting cares of the world to gi-w themselves up to con­templation. There for centuries the wild ravine and the basaltic rocks wepc the scene .of an applica­tion of labour, skill, peeseverance, and endurance that went to the excavation of these painted palaces, standing-to this day as TDonnments of a boldness of conception and a defianre of difificulty as possible, we believe, to the modern as to the ancient Indian

37

- • •- •; INDIAN SHIPPING

^cKaracto. The worth of the adiievement will, be further evident, from the fact that "much of the work hj3B iDeen ca'rried on'-with the help of artificial light'- aa«d. no great strd;ch of imagination ds neces- . sary to picture all that this involves in4:hE Indian -climate aid in situations where,thorough ventilation is impo^ble.'* ^ About: the truth and precision ;of the work, which are no less admirable than its bolii-ness a « r extent,' Mr. Griffiths has the following glowing testimony:—

During my loog and carefhrstutfy of the caves I have not bien able4o detect a. single instance ^Yhere a mfetake has been made by cutting awiy too much stone.; for if once a slip oCthis kind occurredj it couldxmly have . been repaired tby the insertion of a piece whick Tvoald hme been a Blemish.^

According to the best information, the executioE of these works is suppossl to have extended from' the 2nd cenlury B.C. to t te 7th or the 8th century A.D., covering a period of more than a thousand years. The earliest caves, namely the numbers 13,; 12, 10, 9, 8,. arranged ra the order of their age,, were made under the Andhrabhrityas or S'atakarni • kings in the 2nd and i ^ centuries B,C., and the date of the late^. ones, '.namely .the numbers 1-5, is • placed between 525-650 A.p.- By the, t ins of" Hiuen Tsai^'s visit their execution w ^ conipleted. ' Hiuen Tsanj^'s 15 tlie earEest recorded reference

^ <U-^ J. Griffiths, 2 ^ Paintings in the Biddhist C^iG-Tern^Iet-^ Ajmda, ^ Ibid. '^^ Z'K ,

3 8 -, '•

HINDU PERIOb^

we have to these caves; The Chinese pilgrim did not himself visit Ajanta, but he was at the capital of Pulakcshi II., King of Maharastra, where he heard that " on the eastern frontier of the country is a great-mountain with towering crags and ' a continuous stretch of piled-up rocks and scarped precipice. In this there is a Sangharam (monas­tery) constructed in a dark valley. . . . On the four sides of the Vihara, on the stone walls, are painted different scenes in the life of the Tathagata's preparatory life as a Bodhisattva. . . . These scenes have been cut out with the greatest accuracy and

-finish."^

The representations of ships and boats furnished by Ajanta paintings are mostly in Cave No. 2, of which the date is, as we have seen, placed between 525-650 A.D. These were the closing years of the age which witnessed the expansion of India and the spread of Indian thought and cultiire over the greater part of the Asiatic continent. The vitality and individuality of Indian civilization were already fully developed during the spacious times of Gupta iraperialism, which about jthe end of the 7th century even transplanted itself to the farther East, aiding in the:-'civiligation of Java, Cambodia, Siam, China, and even Japan. After the passing away of the Gupta.Empire, the government of India was in the

5"-^

-^'(&alj Buddhisf^icords of the Western World, vol. ii., p. 357.

'^'' 39

INDIAN SHIPPING

opening of tie 7th century A.D. divided between Harshavardhiiia of Kanauj and Pulakeshi II. of ihe Deccan, botk oi[ whom carried on extensive inter­course with fannign countries. The fame of Piia-keshi. spread heyond the Limits of India and *' reached the ears of I^usru II., King of Persia, who in the tiiii*ty-six-li year .of his reign, 625-6 A.D., even received a ccHcplimentary embassy from Pulakeshi. The courtesy ivas reciprocated by a return embassy sent from Persia, which was recem ed in the Indian court with dae honour." ^ There is a large fresco pamting in the Cave No. i.at Ajanta which is still easily recognizable as a vivid representation of the cereaionial attending the' presentation of their credentials b j the Persian envoys.

As might fee naturally expected, it was also the golden age of India's maritime activity which is reiected, theiigh dimly, in the national art of the period. The imperial fleet ^vas thoroughly organized, ccnsisting of hundreds of ships ; aid a naval invasion of Pulakeshi II. reduced P\iri, "which was the mistress of the Western seas." ^ About this time, as has been, already hinted at, swarms of csiing adventurers from Gujarat ports, anticipating tlie enterprise of the Drakes and Frcfoishers, cr more properly of the Pilgrim Fathers,

1 Vinceit A. Smith, \Ear/y History of Tadia, pp. 3S4, 38^. =* See Dr. Btandarkar's Ed^y Itistory ajtlfe Deccan^ ch. x. -

40 ' « ^

A SEA-GOING VESSEL. {From the Ajanta Paintings.)

Vrofate f- •-

HINDU PERIOD

sailed in search of plenty till the shores of Java arrested their progress and gave scope to their colonizing ambition.

The representations of ships and boats in the Ajanta paintings are therefore rightly interpreted by Griffiths as only a "vivid testimony to the •ancient foreign trade of India/.' Of the two repre­sentations herein reproduced, the first shows " a sea-going vessel with high stem and stern, with three oblong sails attached to as many upright masts. Each ijiast is surmoijfflted by a truck, and there is carried d. lug-sail. The jib is well filled Avith wind. A sort of bowsprit, projectftg from a kind of gallows on deck, is indicated with the out-flying jib, square in forra.Jv-'Iikc 'Htte't borne till recent times by European vessSs;' ^'he ship appears to be decked and has ports. Steering-oars hang in sockets or rowlocks on the quarter, and. eyes are painted on the bows. There is also an oar behind ; and under the awning are a number of jars, while two small platforms project fore and aft.' The vessel is of the Agramandira type as defined in the Ytiktikalpataru, our Sanskrit treatise on ships.

The second representation is that of the emperor's pleasure^oat, which is "like the heraldic lymphad, with painted eyes at stem and stern, a pillared canopy amidships, and an umbrella forward,

* Griffiths, TM Paintings in the Buddhist Cave-Temples of Ajanta^ p. 17.

41

INDIAN SHIPPING - -

the- steersman being accommodated on a sort of ladder which remotely suggests the steersman's chair in the modefn Burmese row-boats ; while a

^ rower is in tfe bows." The vessel is cf the Ma-. dhyamandira. :ype, and corresponds exactly to ihe

form of those vessels which; according to the Ytikti-kalpatant, ais to be used in jjleasure trips .- by

, kings. • V ^ The thir4 representation firom the Ajanta paintings repjoduced here/s that of the scene of the landing xif Vijaya in Ceylen/with his army

: • and fleet, an^ his instalktion. The circumstances ' of Vijaya^ Icanishment from Bengal with all his

followers and thfeir families are-rfiilly set forth in the •', Pali works, MaJtawdnsp^ RajavaJliya, and the like.

The fleet oT' 'Vijayav carried no less than' 1,500 passengers. After touching at ^veral places which,

.according to some authorities, lay on ,the western-coast of th^-Deccan, the fleet reached the shores of; Ceylon, app::oaching the jsland from the southern ' "fide.- Ther date of Vijaya's landing in CQJ\DTL is said to ha-AS been the very d ^ on which another very importmt event happened in the far-off father-\ land of Vipya, for it "\vas the day on which the Buddha atained the Nirvana .i, Vijava was next*

.. installed asldng, and he b"ecanie°the|/bunder of the ^ ^ " Great IHaasty." . • : - "f

• " • ' I .

^ GriiBths, T^J'aiiiiings in the-BuMhisi Cimt-Teviples of^anta^ p. 17.

• 4 2 • • . ' ; • ;

'J, •

• ,

AJ/>i'^' i^^'^.

THE ROVAL PLEASURE-BOAT. (From the Ajanta Paintings.)

\l'o/ac^p. iz

HINDU PERIOD

The conquest of Ceylon, laying as it did the foundation of a Greater India, was a national achievement that was calculated to stir deeply the popular mind, and was naturally seized by the imagination of the artist as a fit theme for the exercise of his powers. It is thus that we can explain its place in our national gallery at Ajanta as we can explain that of another similar representa­tion- suggestive of India's position in the Asiatic political system of old—I mean the representation of Pulakeshi II. receiving the Persian embassy. Truly, Ajanta unfolds some of the forgotten chapters of Indian history.

The explanation of the complex picture before us can best be given after Mr. Griffiths, than whom np one is more competent to speak on the subject t)n the left of the' picture, issuing from a gateway, is a chief op his great white elephant, with a bow in- his hand; and two minor chiefs, likewise on elephants, each shSdowed by an umbrella. They are accompanied by a retinue of foot-soldiers, some of w hom bear banners and spears and others swords and shi^ds. The drivers of the elephants, with goads in their Viands, are seated, in the usual manner, on the necks of the animals. Sheaves of arrows are attached to the sides of the howdahs. The men ar dressed in tighjiy-fitting short-sleeved jackets, and loin-cloths with long ends hanging behind in folds. Below, four soldierf on hgrsaback with spiers are

INDIAN SHIPPING

- in a boat, aed to the riglit.are represented again the group on "their elephants, also in boats, engaged ; in battle, as-tlie principal figures have just dis- . ^charged ' their bows. The elephants sway their .

- trunks aboui, as is their wont when excited. The near one is ^own, in the act of trumpeting, and the . swing of hfe bell indicates motion. "These may '. be thought open to. the. criticism on Rapkael's ' cartoon of fc Draught of Fishes, viz. that his. boat ' is too small to carry his figures. The Indian artist has used Rzyhacrs treatment for Raphael's reason ; preferring, by reduced and conventional indication of the inaiimate and merely accessory vessds, to'

• fin-d space for expression, intelligible to his public, of the elephants and horses .and their riders' necessary tn his story." '". ,.

Vijaya Snha, according tO' legend,went (B.c.543)" to Ceylon -nath a large following. The:rRakshasis ©j**; female deaioos inhabiting it c^tivated them 1^ tkeir charms; but Vijaya, \rarhed in a dream, escaped ore a wonderful horse.^^ He collected an army, gave-eack soldie-|=a magicWrse {mmi^ra), and returned. Palling .upon the .demons witk great

• impetuosity, he totally irouted them, some fleeing ^ • tke island- and others being drowned in the sea. He ^^-Kdestroyed their town, and established" liimselfas Icing

j_..m the island, to which he-gave the "name of Sinhala.;^

^^ ' TTT !" •c^f ^ See Tumour's Ji&c/tawaSso, els. 6-8. I

^ * , B , ; . -••

•^\ ', r.,_}/

LANDING OF VIJAYA IN CEVLON (AllOax 543 IJ.C ).

[. ' 'c/l iTt A 4-,.

HINDU PERIOD

I shall now present a. very inipOrtant and in-•teresting series of representations of ships Which are found not in India but far away from her, among the mag'nificent sculptures of tHS Temple c^ BorbbndUr in Java, where Indian art reached fts highest ex­pression amid the I n d i ^ environment and civiliza­tion transplanted there.

Most of the sculptt(res show .in splendid relief ships in full sail and scenes recalling the history of the colonization of Java by Indians in the earlier centuries of the Christian era. Of one of them Mr. Havell * thus speaks in appreciation: " The ship, magnificent in design and movement, is a masterpiece in itself. It tells more plainly than words the perils^ which the Prince of Gujarat and his companion^ encountered on the long and difficult voyages from the west coast of India. But these are over now. The sailors are hastening to furl the sails and bring the ship to anchor." There are other ships which appear to be sailing tempest-tossed on the ocean, fully trying the pluck and dexterity of the oarsmen, sailors, and pilots, who, however, in their movements and looks impress us with the idea that they are quite equal to the occasion. These sculptured types of a 6th or 7th century Indian ship—and it is the characteristic of Indian art to represent conventional forms or

^ E, B. Ha veil's Indian Sculpture and Paintings p. 124.

45

J _ •• • INDIAN SHIPPING

types ratha- than . individual things—carry our ibind back m th& b'^inning of the 5th century A,'D.,

wken" a- sicitlar vessel also touched the shores of jarva after a.more than three months* continuous sail from (jeylon with. 200 passengers on board including tie famous Chinese-pilgrim Fa-Hren. It is":notewor&y that "astern of the great ship was 'a -smaller one as a proviapn in case -.of-the^ •larger vessd being injurey or wrecked durmg the

; voyage.. -- - - . ^ • , - The form-'of t h s e ships closely resembles that of a catamaran, and somewhai answers to the fol­lowing des3-iption of sonie Indian ships "given by Nicolo' Conti in the earlier part of the 15th century: "The nativs of India build sbni#;ships larger than

-ours, capaffi: of cantainihg .s,o6o.J3utts, and with 'five sails aad as many masts. Tiie*" lower part is canstructed"WTth triple planks, in order to withstand -the force of the tempestsi to .whidi they are much

'--exposed. Emt some ships are so biiilt'in compart-- ments that should one -part be shattered the other portion' remaining • entire rnay' accomf^ish the

^yoyageT"'- • ] '• These s^nps will be found'to present two types Of vessels. To the'first type belong Nos. 1,3, 5, 6.

'They are goierally longer and broader than the

^ Beal, BwSImt Rtcords^ vol. ii., p. 269. , 2 jjidia in ^ Fifteenth Century, in th£ Hakluyt Sodety publications,

»•» P- 27- . ,' ' . -

-46 -4'

. * •

INDIAX ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLOXI/.E JAVA. No. I, (licproduced from ihc ScuIpUires of ISornbidiu.)

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONI/E JAVA. No. 1. (Reproduced from tlK Sculptures of Borobudur.)

\To fi:: p

HINDU PERIOD

vessels of the second type, have more than one mast, are many-ribbed, the ribs being curved, not straight. These vessels are built so narrow and top-heavy that it is necessary to fit outriggers for safety. An outrigger is a series of planks or logs joined to the boat with long poles or smrs as shown in Fig. i. It is customar}^ when a large amount of sail is being carrieH for the crew to gS out and stand on the out­rigger as shown in Fig. 5.

No. I has got two *iTiasts and one piQBg sail. No. 3 has got square sails and one stay-sail in front. In No. 5 the crew appear to be setting sail or taking sail down. No. 6 has been interpreted by Mr. Havell as representjuig sailors "hastening to furl the sails and bring t^t ship to anchor," but tliis sugges­tion seems to be "contradicted by the sea-gulls or albatrbssQ3 of the sculpture flying around the vessel, which\ *?fi;hout doubt indicate that the ship is in mid-ocean, If r away from land.

ISfo. I shows probably a woodeA- figure-head ^ d not.a.man; so also do JSfos. 3, 5, 6. Trhere is also a soft^^f cabin in eadiS Df the vessels of the first type. Again, in No. i the figure aft appears to hcy compass.^

^ This is the suggestion of a European exgert, Mr. J. L. Reid, member of Vhe Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders) England, at present Superintendent of the Hugli Docks, Salkea (Howrah). In connection with Wr. Reid's suggestion, the following extract from the Bcmbay Gazedeer, voL xiii,. Part ii.. Appendix A, will be interesting: " Xie early Hindu

47 '^- -

'•,j5;:/!.^'-l-"ENRIAN SHIPPING • • ,/ _ ' ' 1 • • ' • .

.-r ['No. 5 axftars to be "in .collision with some other •'• yessel, or perhaps'".it .shoW's a-smaller vessel which

•"-liiseid to "be carried as z provision against damages "-or injury.,ta the larger one from the perils of naviga-•tion., ..Thisrwas, as already pointed, out, true of .the ;m£rcTiantmln in which Fa-Hien took passage from . Qeyion to Java. No. 5 iilustnates^ also, the u§e of " streamers ta indicate tke'direction of \Vijids.

There E ano{her' type ..of ships represeated in Nos. 2 an'd^.' The fronts are less cairved• than in

•the first type; there is also only one mast. No. 2 shows a gj^ne of rescue, a drowning man being lielped out of the water; by 1MS tomrade. No.,4

• represents 3. merrier "scene, the -^kM*- disporting themselves dn catcniiig fish. ^

Some of the favourite.device^'^bf-Indian sculpture to indicate Tvater may be here noticed. 'Fre^h and sea waters^are invariably and ummistakabl5^-iixiicated fcy fishes, IrtEses^, aquatic leavs, and tlie^ke. The

, makara, or alligaior,, showing its* feSrrful rc w of teeth in Hg. 2, is used tO;inBdicate the ocean; "so also are the albatrosses or'Vea-gulls ©f Fig.r,^. * The

-'curved lines are used k> indicate waves:

astrologers are saii'to have used the magnet as they still use fe rnodern c»mp^ , in fisiig the North and East in -laying; fouriHations, and athe^.^' religious cerenioiifi^-. Theljindu compass a-as an iron fish that Boated in a vessel of oil and iwinted to the North. The feet of this olifer Hindu c ^ ^ s seems piaced beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word maaha^yantra^ or fish machine, which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's cempass." , •

INDIAN' A m ' E X T U R E U S SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE J.W'A.

No, 3. (Rcpiortiiced from the Sculptures of Eorobudur.)

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA. No, 4. (Reproduced fiom the Sculplures of Bfiobudur.)

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA.

No. 5. (RcprodLiced from the Sculptures of Borobudur.)

INDIAN ADVENTURERS SAILING OUT TO COLONIZE JAVA. No. 6. (Reproduced from the Sculptures of Borobudiir.)

ITo/.-.-• p ^

•-V"

: :The tm^ kn^ piUSfs ^J5i>ear profebl}^ to de­marcate @4 'sG ie frarA^lbitlaier fo'tKe sculpture. .•

•" • er !H||| | |I^B^^.;J^^ there is/a .nioiit itl'aftistir^•f'ISibf£•iC3^^^&^ of thL\se.

Lett

JB the •(Hftrigger ^essential for safety. j f|. Reproduced from the frieze of the grat.Bittidljisf-^rople at Borobuciur, jf va, which, dates probably from the i4h century A.E. Abbsitj^^ A.E , there was a great migration from Guzarswiu toci^utJrw^ seaiHfee aft6*i^ ' of the Indus ta ^ e island of Java,- du4' p « l i ^ ^ ^ ' me: devsjjB tion of Upper India by Scythian tribes and to tfe,e,:dryingAip of^

Lastly, it may be-imife|^t:d t l i^- i t f^e 'Great ^emple at" Madura,^am0i:ii; the fipgi!:Q .paia^3ps t^af \

• •do L r the walls of the corrrtlors i^aii*-"tife ^S i' ar-napushkarini tank, there is " fine repr^at^toon of t{i'a..^ea ^ and of a ship in full" s%ii' on ' tbe main'as; large as those, am*^ng the sculptures of Borobudur. ":

We shall now refer to the available qtimismatic evidence bearing oq Indfen shippings; for besides the representations p | ships and bc^ts in Indian

^ The Javanese cliropicles rdate taS^ afout A.B. 603 a ruler of Gujarat, forewarned of the coming destruction of.his: kingdom, started his ison with 5,000 IbUowerSj among whom "were cultivatcSj artisans, warriors, physicians, and- wnters^ in 6 large and 100 small vessel, for Java, where they laid tbe foundation of a civilization that hag given to the world the Sculptxires of Borobudur.

49 E

INDIAN SHIPPING '

.V;:sculpture and painting, there ans a few interesting represisritatiqns on spme'old Jndian. coitts wliich -

'>poi£it unmiseakably to the development of Indian -^•shippiug and'naval aotivity.. Thus there has been • a reiiiarkaV)le find of some Atidhra coins en the east

coast, beloTi^ng to the 2nd and 3rd century A.D., on " . \7hich is tci be detected the device of a .two-masted

s3iif ,; '- 'eyitotly of large size." Wkh regard" to the /Vmearfmg caf the device ]\'Ir. Vincent Smith i i s thus , *§mai:,ked,: ','Some pieces -bearing the figmre of a • ship' s u g ^ l - ' t h e inference that Yajna S'rl's J' .(A.-D- 184-213) poWer was not confined t( .±Eieiand." ^ • *' 'Again: "The 'ship-coins, p'eriiaps struck f^ Yajna

" •, ;S'ri, testifii tq the Existence of a sea-borne tr^Se on - -' the /Coromandel ..coast! in the ist centuty of the Y' 'Ciibristiari EO,.";' ' This inference, is, of course, amply /.- Supported by what we; kng V: of the history of'iiie-.' "' ; Aad^ras, 'iiiiWhose tinies,/accorSi«g to R. Sevvell, ' V there Tuas trade^-.both .by-'s^-and^qverlaii^ with .' Western "Asia, Greecej- Rprae, an i "l^yptt^sAvelL. , ' '

;- /as 'Chin^and th6 East./'" ;^, ""' ."' '' ' "^i:.

V' ' ' I n . \i\s ^Soiitli'fydimi'- Buddhist'. AittiquiHes^ ~'V; ^ AlexandeflRea gives illustrations and descriptions. --^ '

; of three of these ship-boins of • the.Andhras. They 1 ^

y Rarh 'Blstory of India, j). 302,.. ; ' ' - . ' • 1 • Z.D-.M'.G., p. <J[3. (On Andlira.Coinage.) ^•Imprzial Gazetkei\ New Edition, rql. ii.,.p. S25. ' ' -* Afcf^i^ogtcdl,Survey.ef'India, NewJmpenai Series, •i.t,» pC ag.

^O. I . No. 2,

^ . 3 . No. 4.

ANDKIiA SniP-tdlKS OF THE SECONl) CENTURT A.D. I

[Tif/iue f. St.-

HINDU PERIOD

are all of lead, weighing respectively loi grains, 65 grains, and 29 grains. The obverse of the first SITDWS a ship resembling the Indian dhom, with bow to the right. The vessel is pointed in vertical section at each end. On the point of the stem is a round ball. The rudder, in the shape of a post with spoon on end, projects below. The deck is straight, and on it are two round objects from which rise two masts, each with a cross-tree at the top. Traces of rigging can be faintiy seen. The obver se of the second shows a ship to the right. The device resembles that of the first, but the features are not quite distinct. The deck in the specimen is gurved.-The obverse of the third represents a device similar to the preceding, showing even more distinctly than the Srst. The rigging is crossed between the masts. On the right of the vessel appear three balls, and undo* the side are two spoon-shaped oars. Ko. 45 in the plate of Sir Walter Elliot's Coins of Sotdhern India is also a coin of lead with a tw«-mastcd ship on the obverse.

Besides these Andhra coins, there have been discovered some Kurumbar or Pad^ava coins on the Xjpromandel coast, on the reverse of wliich there is a figi-ire of a " two-masted ship-^lilce the modern coasting vessel or d7wjti, steered Joy njeans of oars" from the stern." The Kurumbar^ wesie a pastoral tribe living in assGg:jated communities and inhabiting for some-hundred years before the 7th century "the

5J E 2 '

INDIAN SHIPPING

country frcm the base of the t^leland to the Palar and Pennia: IRivers. . . . They are stated to have been eng2^d in trade, and to have owiied ships and carried oi" a considerable Gommerce by sea." ^

1 Sir WaliixElliot in theNumismafa Odenialia, vol. Si., Partii., pp. 36, 37. (Coins atSsuthern India.) '

"52

HINDU PERIOD

CHAPTER III.

INDIRECT EVIDENCES : REFERENCES AND

AxLUsioNS TO INDIAN MARITIME ACTIVITY IN

SANSKRIT AND PALI LITERATURE.

I HAVE already said that though ancient Indian literature furnishes rather meagre evidences directly bearing on Indian shipping and shipbuilding, it abounds with innumerable references to sea voyages and sea-borne trade and the constant use of the ocean as the great highway of international inter­course and commeFCC; which therefore serve as indirect evidence pointing to the existence and development of a national shipping, feeding and supporting a national commerce. We shall there­fore now adduce those passages in ancient Indian works which, in Biihler's ^ opinion, "prove the early existence of a complete navigation of the Indian Ocean, and of the trading voyages of Indians." The oldest evidence on record is supplied by the Rig-Veda, which contains several references to sea voyages undertaken for commercial and other purposes. One passage (I. 25/7) represents Varuna having a full knowledge of the ocean routes along which vessels sail. Another (II.*4S. 3) speaks of merchants, under the influence of gree^, sending out ships to foreign countries. A third passage (1.56. 2)

^ Origiit of the Indiaj[ Brahma Alphabet, p. 84.

"53

INDIAN SHIPPING

mentions iisrchants whose field of activity Jinows no bounds, -who go everywhere in pursui-: of gain, aad frequert every part of the sea. The fourtS ;passage (VTI. 88. 3 and 4) alludes to a voyage Mudertaken: by Va^istha and Varuna in a. ship skilfully fited out, ai>d their ° undulating happily in the pro^erous swing." The fifth, which is the ntost inteB£sting passage (I. u6 . 3), mentions a naval expedition on which Tugra tlie Rishi king sent his sea Bhujyu against some of his enenties in

.the distant slands ; Ehujyu, however, is shipwrecked by a storn, with all his foll.mvers, on tihe ocean, " where .thare is no support, no rest for the foot or the bs-nd," from which he is rescued by tbe twin hrethjjen, tke Asvins, in their kimdred-oared gallev}

i 1 13ie five pjssages are:—

^ , . ;r. =5-7-)

(1.43.5.)

ft

(VIL 88. 3 & 4.)

(1.116.3.)

. 54"

HINDU PERIOD

Among other passages may be mentioned that which invokes Agni thus : " Do thou whose countenance is turned to all sides send off our adversaries as if in a ship to the opposite shore; do thou convey us in a.ship across the sea for our welfare " ; or that in \vhich Agni is prayed to bestow a boat with oars.

The Rdmdyana also contains several passages which indicate the intercourse between India and distant lands by way of the sea. In the Kish-kindhyd Kdndam, Sugriva, the Lord of the Monkey.3, in giving directions to monkey leaders for the quc5.t of Sita, mentions all possible places where Ravana could have concealed her. In one passage he asks them to go to the cities and mountains in th^islands of the sea^; in another the land of the Kosafcaras ^

^ Tbe passage in question is : ^?j fi*iq*Mci*« u^'rim^ ijTn'iF^ -^ ; {Kishkindhyd Kandam, 40. 25.)

2 The passage in question is: "^^^ *1*l*lTTTilt«FR^ ^oi rti^irm {Kishkiiidhya Kandam^ 40. 23.) The commentator explains ^"H^TTPCft ^ m « as ^^T'tT^Rn^^W^^f'Ti'^rrsre-rTrsrt lifnw or the land ^here cror'^ the worm which yields the threads of silken clothes. ITie silken cloth for which China has been famous from time immemorial has been termed in Sanskrit literature ^^^tXT^ and ^ ^ r # ^ to point to the place of its origin. Thus in Kalidasa's Sakuntald we come across the folIoiTing passage: —

In the Yalrdtattva of Raghunandana we find the following :—

The following further evidence of a'VVesteni scholar may be adduced to

55

INDIAN SHIPPING

is mentiorEd as tlie likely place of Sita's conceal-laent, which is generally interpreted to be no other country than China; a third passage^ refers to the Yavana Dvipa and Suvarna Dvipa, which are usually identified witii the islands of Ja\a. and Sumatra »f the Makya Archipelago; while the fourth passage alludes to the Lohita Sagara or the

show that CLma was the prime producer of silk : " The mannfactirrc of silk amongst the Chinese clains a high antiquity, natrre authorities tracing it as a national iia^ustry for a period of five thousand years. ;&OK] China the looms oSrersia and of Tyre were supplied with raw silk, and through these states tiE Greeks and the Romans obtained the envied loxury of silk tissues. Thfc introduction o£ silkworm eggs into Euroj^ was due to t- ra missionaries who brought them concealed in a bamboo to Byzantium. The food.sbo of the silkworm, the white imilberry (Jifoms-alba), is of Chinese or^n." (^Growth and Vidssitude of CiPitmerte, by J. Yeats, LL.D., F.CS., F.S.S., etc.) The same author, in his Tediniccd History of Commerce, p. 149, says ; " Fabrics of silk and cotton are of Oriental origm. For 600 yeas after its introduction from China (A-P. 552), silk cultivation was isolated-ivithin the Byzantine Empire. The rearing of the worms and the weavir^Tif the silk was practised in Sicily during the 12th and m Italy during the 13th century, wkence it was subsequently introduced into Frar.ce and Spain-"

^ The passages alluded tD are:—

* 3i «

Ptoleii^ adopted the Sanskrit name of the island of ^ava and mentioned its Greek=sqDivalenti whHeanodern writers like Humboldt cail- it the Barley Island. ^Ibermii also hasa-emarked that the Hindus cdl the islands of the Malay Apchipelago by the general name of Suvarna Island, which has been interpreted iy the reno\nied French antiquarian Reinauri to mean the islands of Java and Smatra. {fvurnai -Asiatig^/e, tome iv., IVe S^rie, p - ^ 5 . )

56

HINDU PERIOD

red sea. In the Ayodhyd Kdndam there is even a passage which hints at preparations for a naval fight/ thus indirectly indicating a thorough know­ledge and a universal use of waterway. The Rdmdyana also mentions merchants who trafficked beyond the sea and were in the habit of bringing presents to the king.

In the Mahdbhdrata the accounts of the Rajasuya sacrifice and the Digvijaya of Arjuna and Nakula mention various countries outside India with which she had intercourse. Ther^is a passage in its Sakha Parva \vhich states how Sahadeva, the youngest brother of the five Pandavas, went to the several islands in the sea and conquered the Mlechchha inhabitants thereof. The well-known

^ -srr T TtfnTt •^^virt ^ ^ t TTT mi' \

{Ayodhyd Kdndapi, 84. 78.) [Let hundreds of Kaivarta young men lie in wait in five hundred bhips

(to obstruct the enemy's passage).] The following sloka from Manusanhitd, while enumeratmg the various

and possible methods and means of warfare, includes also naval fight 'jy means of ships :—

{MaTiu, 7. 192 )

[The magnanimous Sahadeva conquered and brought under his subjection the Mlechchha kings aiid liunters and cannibals inhabiting the several islands in the sea, including the island called Tamra, etc.]

57

INDIAN I SHIPPING

^ory of the churning of the oceaii, in the Mahdbhd-^Hita, in thz boldness of its conception is not without ^ significance. In the Dronu Parva tha^ is a passage alluding to shipwrecked sailors whc " are -safe if they get to an island." ^ In the same Parva there is another passage :in which there is a referetKe to a " temgEst-tossed and damaged vessel in a wide #cean."^ ! • the Kania Parva we find the soldiers of the Kauravas bewildered like the merchants "whose sEips have come to,, grief in the midst of tiie unfathDfliable deep." ^ There is another sloka in the same Parva which describes how the sosis @f Draupadf' rescued their maternal undes by supplyingIhem with chariots, "as the shipwrecked merchants are rescued by means of boats." In the SdnfiJ^arva tke salvation attained b j means of Karma and true knowledge is compared to the 'gain whidi a merdiaht derives from sea-borne t-ade/ But the meet ^ interesting passage in the MahabhmLata is that which refers to the scape of

^ f^rrt^T ^raiTr^ra- -^TjCT^r?! f^-<Tr. i

•?^«rr'"«^^ %^nrt: grT r -Bfrsr 'r aim: n

' •(--. "" ' ]

H I N D U P E R I O D

the Pandava brothers from the destruction planned for them in a ship that was secretly and specially constructed for the purpose under orders of the kind-hearted Vidura.^ The ship was of a large sixe, provided with machinery and all kinds of weapons of war, and able to defy storms and waves.

But besides the epics, the vast mass of Sutra literature also is not without evidences pointing to the commercial connectionof India with foreign countries by way of the sea. That these evidences are suffi­ciently convincing will probably be apparent from the following remarks of the well-known German authority, the late Professor Btihler: " References to sea voyages are also found in two of the most ancient Dharma Sutras. Baudhayana, D/i, S. iL 2. 2, forbids^ them to the orthodox Brahmans, and prescribes a severe penance for a transgression of the prohibition, but he admits,^ Dh. S. i. 2. 4. that such transgressions were common among the ' Northerners' or, strictly speaking, t le Aryans

^ " Now (follow the offences) causing loss of caste, (vu.) making voyagcj by sea." (Biihier's translation in S.B.JS.)

^ " Now (tlie customs peculiar) to the North are, to deal in wool, to drink rum, to sell animals that have teeth in the upger and in tlie lower jaws, to follow the trade of arms, to go to sea." {ihid.)

59

INDIAN SHIPPING

iving ncrth of the author's home, the Dravidian districts. The forbidden practices mentioned in the sime Stih^ as customary 2saojxg the Northerners, aich as the traffic in wool and in animals with two H)ws of t^ th (horses, mules, etc.)^ leave no doubt that the inhabitants of Western and North­western India are meant. It follows as a iTiatter

oT course Ihat tkeir trade was carried on with Western Asia. The sime author,^ Dh. S. i. i8. 14, and Gautama,- x. 33, fix also the duties payafole by ship-owners to the kifig." The later Sntritis also contain ei^picit refcEnces to . sea-borne trade. Maim (iii. 158) declare a Brahman^ who has gone to sea to beamwortliyd" entertainment at a ^r/j^(3^. In chapter -viii. again of Manu's Code^ there is an interesting sloka laying down the law that tke rate

^ "The du& OB goods impated by sea is, after deducting a choice artmle, ten Fanaidn- the hundred-' (Buhler's translation in SS.E.)

- "Hereby Qhe taxes payatrfe 6y) those^vho sapport tbemsdves by personal • labour ^ v e been expiined, and those payable ty oivners of ^hijB and carts/' (Ibid.) , • i

^ -^Jrn:TT*#t T^T^ ' T^T fl ^t^-erai^ I

[" An incenoijy, a prisoner, hs who eats the food given by tiie son of an adulteress, a i rfler of smita, he who undertakes voyages by ses; a bard, an oilman, a subome to perjury."]

f" Wliatever rate men fix, whe are expert in sea voyages and able to calcalate (the profit) according to the place, and the time, and the objects (carzied), that (ha; l^al-fdrce) in such cases with respect to tie payment (to hE made)."]

60

Gns

HINDU PERIOD

of interest on the money lent on bottomry is to be fixed by men well acquainted with sea voyages or journeys by land. In the same chapter there is another passage ^ which lays down tlie rule of fixing boat-hire in the case of a river journey and a sea voyage. But perhaps the most interesting passages in that important chapter are those which are found to lay down the rules regarding what may be called marine insurance. One of them holds the sailors collectively responsible for the damage caused by their fault to the goods of passengers, and the t>ther absolves them from all responsibility if the damage is caused by an accident beyond human control.^ Manu also mentions a

£" For a long passage the boat-hire must be proportioned to the places and times. Know that this (rule refers) to passages alon^ the banks of rWera; at sea there is no settled (freight)."]

J"-

2 The passages in question are:—

{Jflanu^ \iii. 409. n,} ["Whatever may be damaged in a boat by the fault of the boatmeu,

that shall be made good by the boatmen collectively (each paying) his share, "

"This decision in suits (brought) by passengers (holds good only) in case the boatmen are culpably negligent on the water; in the case of (accident) caused by (the will of) the gods, „ no fine can be (iniiicted on them)."]

61

INDIAN SHIPPING

particular csete of Hindus entrusted with the' bmsiness of'conducting trade, and upon rh em \\'as enjoined tiie necessity of raalcing" themselves ac-qcainted rath the prodictions and requirements' ,of other cauitries, with various dialects and Ian-; gmages, and also with whatever has (Erect or indirect reference ta purchase or sale. In the Yajna^alkyd Sanhita ^ there is a passage which indicates that| the Hindus'vvere in the habit of making adventurous sea voyage in pursuit of gain. :

The astronomical worlcs also are full of passages' 'that hint at the flourishing condition of Indian shipping ard shipbuilding and the development of sea-borne "frade. • Thus the Vrihat SanM^a has several passages of thisi kind laaviig an indirect, bearing on slvipping and maritime commerce. One' of these indicates the existence of shippers and, saalors as a class whose health is said to be; inHuenced I»y the mooU; Another^ mentions the stellar influences affecting the fortunes of traders/

^ -d S ri *ftTT= ' ^f^-r^if f^iirn^flr ^ ^ ^ I

: (4. S.)

(7.6.)

62 !

HINDU PERIOD

physicians, shippers, and the like. The third,^ also, mentions a particular conjunction of stars similarly affecting merchants and sailors. The fourth pas­sage'^ mentions the existence of a class of small shippers who probably are confined to inland navigation. The fifth ^ mentions the causes which bring about the sickness of passengers sailing in sea-going vessels on voyages, and of others. The last passage^ I would cite here is that which recommends as the place for an auspicious sea-bath the' seaport where there is a great flow of gold due to multitudes of merchantmen arriving in safety, after , disposing of' exports abroad, laden with treasure.

The Pziranas^ also furnish references to mer­chants engaged in sea-borne trade. The Vardha

• - ( 9 - 3 I - )

(io. 30

( l O . l O . )

(44. T2.)

^ E.g. the Vayu Piirdm, the Mdrkandeya Furana, and the B/idgavata Furdnai

63

1N.DIAN SHIPPING

Purdna mentions a childless, merchant named Gokarna who embarked on a^'voyage for trading purposes but ivas pvertaken by a storm om the sea and neariy shipwrecked. The. san'K Furana ^ contains a passage which relates how a merchant embarked on a voyage' in a sea-going visssel in quest C[f pearls with people who knew all about them, ta the Mdrkandeya Purdna ^ also there is a well-kaown passage repeated as mcmitram by thousamfe of Brahmans which re'/ers as an illustra­tion to the danger-ous ipHght of the man sailing on the great ocean in a ship overtaken by a 'o^irhvind.

But besides the religious works like the Vedas, the Epics, aad the Sutras and Ptirdnas, the secular works of Sanskrit poets and writers aee also full of refesences to the ,use of the sea as the high­way of commerce, to voyages, and naval fights. Thus ia Kalidasa's Raghtivmisa. tcanto 4, sloka 36) Me fin^ the defeat by Raghu of a strong naval

64

HINDU PERIOD

force with which the kings of Bengal attacked him, and his planting the pillars Ojf victory on the; isles formed in 'the midst of- the River Ganges.^ The RagUiivrnzsa also mentions the carrying even into Persia of the victorious arms of Raghu, though of course he reached Persia-by the land route. But this express reference to land route implies that the water route was well known. In Kalidasa's Saktmiala we kave already noted the reference to China as the land of silk fabrics. The Sdktmtald also relates the story of a merchant named DhanavricJdhi whose immense wealth devolved to the king on the former's perishing at sea and leaving no heirs behind him. The popular drama o{ Ratnavali, which is usually attributed to King Harsha, relates the story^ of the Ceylone se princess, daughter of King Vikramavahu,

[." Having by his prowess uprooted the Vaii^s (Bengalis) arrayed for battle mth a naval force, that excellent leader (Raghn) posted pillars of vi(iory*on the isles formed in the midst of Ganga.*']

•[" Otherwise how- was the attainment of a. plank possible of the daughter of the king of Siiihala, shipwrecked on the sea, with her desire kindled by

.^tl^e,faith born of the words of saints? How aja) was she observed in tliat \ state by the merchant of Kausambi returning from Ceylon?"]

; '• • •; 6 5 F

INDIA2^ SHIPPING ';

being shipwrecked in mid-ocean and broughi thence by some merchants of the town of Kausantbi. In the Dasatiimaracharila of Dandin there is the storyj' of a merdmut named Ratnodbhava who goes to an kland cafed Kalayavaria, marries there a ^rl, but while returning home is shipwrecked; and another c^ Mitragi^ta,^ who ^ e s on board a Yavana ship;, and, losing liis way, arrives at an isle differen|t fiom his -festination. The Sisttpalavadha ^ of the poet Magka contains an" interesting passage whicli mentions kowS'ri Krishna, while goiiigfrom Dvaraka to 'Hastin^mra, behokis merchants coming' from foreign countries in skips laden with merchandise and again reporting abroad Indian goods. i

., : : , 1

[Then, anxibo- to see his brother, RatnDdbhava, with the persiEsion of' his Eather-in-law- liarted for Pushpapur (Patna) on board a ship irith his ' wife, having hen eyes rolling. 'Mxe vessel sank m the water of the sea, ) being beaten byralliiig waves.] ,

I ,

pi.t this verynnoment a fleet of many Aips was in pursuit: The i Yavanas were ^mid. Then Eke dogs atUicking a boar the ptnsuing I vessels very sooit surrounded the ^ip.] '

[He (Sri Krisbia) was glad to see merchants of distant islands, after ' realiang great pnfits from the sde of the products of many conatries, reload thdr vessett^vith merchandie of Indmn origin.]

66

HINDU PERIOD

In the vast Sanskrit literature of fables ?vd fairy tales also there are many allusions t*} merchants and sea-borne trade. Thus the Kathasarit Sdgara of the Kashmirian poet Somadeva bristles with references to sea voyages and intercourse with foreign countries. In the 9th book or Lambakii, ist chapter or Taranga, there is the story of Pntli\i Raj going with an artist in a ship to the island of Muktipura; the 2nd chapter relates the voyage- of a merchant and his wife to an island, and their separation after a shipwreck by storm ; the 4lh chapter describes the voyage of Samudrasura and another merchant to the Suvarna Island for coir-merce, and their shipwreck ; the 6th chapter recounts the quest of his son by Chandrasvami, who goe^ to Ceylon and other islands in many a merchants A'-essel for the purpose ; and so on. The Hitopaik^a also mentions the story of Kandarpaketu, a mer­chant. In the Hitopadesa a ship is described aii a necessary requisite for a man to traverse the ocean, and a story is given of a certain merchant who, after having been twelve years on his voyage, at last returned home with a cargo of precious ston*-'.s. In the NUikataka of \''artrihari ^ there is a passai;'e

Ti^ "ff «f^ TTf ^ ^ f nriTT ^^T^-f'T^r "grcrr

67 F 2

INDIAN SHIPPING

which refiers to ships as the "means of cros3ng the ilJimitabl&expanse of water, even as lamps destroy darkness. Tht Raja-Tarangint^ contains a passage describing- the misfortunes of a royal messenger on the sea.

Lastl}' we may notice in this connection the frequent mention in ancient Sanskrit literature of pearls and references to pearl fisliery as one of th'e importaixt^iational industries of India, and especially in the land of the Tamils towards the south. It is hardly neiessary to point out that pearls could not have been, procured without the aid of adventurous marinersaid boats that could breast the ocean wave and brave the perils of the deep. According to Varahamihira, Gani^ct Purdna^ and Bhoja, pearl-fishing WK carried on .in the whole of the Indian Ocean as fer as the Persian Gulf, and its chief centres were off tie coasts of Ceylon, Paralaukika, Saura-shtra, Taiaraparni, Parasava, Kauvera, Pandyava-taka, and^IHaimadesha., According to Aga^^ , the chief centaes of Indian pearl-fishing were in the neighbouAood of Ceylon^ Arabia, and Persia-Pearls \\£re also artificially manufactured bv Ceylonese craftsmen, but the Tamils were through-

^mr TPc FfrPfnrrorF'wffry^r^ f^raw: u [The ro)^ messenger fdl into the sea while prcceeding cm a •resse',

and a whale^Saisared him; but ripping open its belly, he came out ^ d crossed the sei.] • I

68

HINDU PERIOD

out the most famous among Indians for pearl fishery, and they gave to the Gulf of Mannar the name of Salabham, "the sea of gain." =*•

Thus Sanskrit literature in all its forms—such as the l^edas, the Sutras, the Pitrdnas, poetry epic and dramatic, romance, etc.—is replete with references to the maritime trade of India, which prove that the ocean was freely used by the Indians in ancient times as the great highway of international commerce.

Further, the conclusions pointed to by these evidences from Sanskrit literature receive their confirmation again from the evidences furnished by the BudcUiistic literature—the ancient historical works or the chronicles of Ceylon, the canonica' books, and the ydtakas or Re-birth storks. Th • accounts of the Vijayan legends as set forth ki the Mahawatiso and other works are full of rcferenc ;s to the sea and sea-borne trade. According to t^c Rajavalliya, Prince Vijaya and his seven hundtjd followers were banished by the king Sinhzixi (Sinhavahu) of Bengal for the oppressions t 'v\ practised upon his subjects, and they were put o' board a ship and sent adrift, while their wives .n children were placed in two other separate ship> :u: sent away similarly. The ships started frLtii place near the city of Sinhapura, and on thei • w touched at the port of Supara, which, according .o '." Burgess, lay near the modern Bassein on the n ;si.

6g

INDIAN SHIPPING

coast of tfe DeccaM. Vijaya landed in Ceylon " on the day fiat the successor of former Buddha:-5 reclined m the arbour of the two delightful Sal-trees io attain I^irvana," approaching the island from southwards^ and became the foimder of the " Great Dynasty." Vijaya then sent a present of precious stones to tb£ king of Pandya, and caused to be brought a princess whom he took to wife, and also seven hundrcil women attendants xi-hom his followers married. According to Tumour's Mahdwcmso, tlie ship in whidi "^ijaya's Pandyan bdde was brought over to Ceylon was of a very large size, having tke capacity to accommodate eighteen officers of state, seventy-five menial servants and a number of slaves, besides the priacess herself and seveii hundred other virgins who accompanied her. A period of inter­regnum followed after the death of Vijaya without issue till his oephew, "attended by thirty-two ministers, embaiked from the city of Sagal/'reached Ceylon, and assumed the reins of sovereignty. There are two further sea voyages ^ mentioned in this connection, the first imdertaken b3' a princess who afterwards became the consort of Vijaya s nephewy and the saiDnd by her six brothers, both of which had the san® startrag-point in the city of Morapura on the G<'mges, and the same destination.

'^ Upham's Sacnd and Bsshjrical Books of Ceylon^ i. 7 r j ii. 177. Tur-nour's Mahawam^i 55.

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H I N D U P E R I O D

viz. Ceylon, and the latter voyage, according to Tumour's Makdwailso^ occupied twelve days.

Next in importance to the Vijayan legends/ .so far a s sea-borne trade is concerned, are the legends of Piinna, a merchant of Supparaka, who carried on a lar^e trade, in partnership with his younger brother Chula Punna, with the distant region of Northern Kosala. At Sravasti he heard Buddha prcadi, and became his disciple, and afterwards induced his former mercantile associates of Sup­paraka to erect a Vihara with a portion of the rcd-sanders timber which Chula Punna and his three liundred associate merchants brought home on one of their sea voyages. The ship in which they made their trading voyage was of so large a size that besides accommodating over three hundred merclmnts there was room left for the cargo of that timber which they brought home. The legends, next Kquiring notice in this connection are those of the t\¥o Burmese ^ merchant brothers Tapoosa and Palekat, who crossed the Bay of Bengal in a ship that conveyed full five hundred cartloads of their own goods, which they landed at Adzeitta, a port in Kalin^a in the northern section of the eastern coast, on thdr way to Suvama in Magadha. Again, in the Jeg end o{ the conveyance oi the Tooth-relic, as

^ Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, 56, 57, and 60. ^ Bishop Bigandet's Life of Gcdamay loi.

71

INDIAN SHIPPING I

related kr tiie Ddthddhdtimanso, there is mention of the vQ^^e of Dantakumara con\-^ying tlie relic from Daitapura ta Ceyloru The voyage was performed in one of those ships which carried on a re^lar and ceaseless traffic between the port of Tamralrpta in Bengal and the island !of Ceylon. i

The Tibetan legend of the Sinhalese princess Ratnavdl may also l e mentioned, which telk of the voyage <£ the merchants of Sravasti wfeo were driven duwn the Bay of Bengal by contrary winds, but who subsequently completed their voyage to Ceylon and back. Again, in one of the Chinese legends of the liort-prince Siiihala/ it B related how the "Uoat in wliidi the daughter of the Lion was cast away was driven by the winds westwards into the PersEin Gulf, wiere she landed and founded a colony "in the: country of the Western women." The tradtion embodied in the Dipavmisa version of the l^^ud ^ nakes her land on an island which was afta^vards called the " Kingdom of Women." As the tev. T. Foulces^ remarks, " underneath the legendary matter wemay here trace the exdstenceiof a sea roule between India and the Persian coasts; in the days of Buddha/ , |

^ SPiiu-ki, ii. 346, ^ Svyu-ki^ xiii. 55.

72

HINDU PERIOD

Among the Pitakas, the Vinaya mentions a Hindu merchant named Poorna who made six sea voyages, and in the seventh voyage he was in the company of some Buddhist citizens of Sravasti and was converted by them to Buddhism. The Stitta Pitaka contains also several allusions to voyages in distant seas far remote from land. In the Sanyiiita Nikaya (3, p. 115, 5. 51) and in the AngiiUara (4. 127) there are interesting passages which mention voyages, lasting for six months, made in ships {nava, which means boats) which could be drawn up on shore in the winter. Very inter­esting and conclusive evidence is supplied by a passage in the Digha Nikaya (i. 222) which distinctly mentions sea voyages out of sight of land. It describes how merchants carrying on sea-borne trade would take with them in their sea-goin^ vessels certain birds of strong wing which, when the vessels were out of sight of land, would be le". loose and used to indicate in which direction the land lay. If the shore were not near or within ca-T/ reach, the birds would return to the ships aftrr flying in all directions to get to land, but if the e were land within a few miles the birds would n -.t return.

Some very definite and convincing allusions tc sea voyages and sea-borne trade are also contained in the vast body of Buddhist literature known as the yatakas, which are generally taken to relate them-

73

INDIAN SHIPPING

selves to a podod of one thousaad years beginning from 500 B.c_ The Baverii-ydtcf-ka "- Aviihout doubt points to the existence of commercial intercourse between Inci.i and Babylon in pre-Asokan days. The full sig"iificance of this importajat ydtaka is thus expressed by the late Professor Buhler : " The ri6^v^€i\-^my^Kj\J3a'verU''ydtaka, to which Professor Minayef first :drew aitention, narrates that Hindu merchants exported peacocks tc Baveru. The identification dF Baveru with Babiru or Babylon is not doubtful,' and considering the " age of tiie materials of t te Jdtakas, the story indicates that the Vanias 0!" Western India undertook tradiBg voyages to the .shores of the Persiaa Gulf and of its rivers in the 5tli, perhaps even in the 6th century B.C. just as in oiar days. This tiade very probably existed already in much earlier times, for the ydtakas contrm several other stcries, describing voyages to distai* lands and periloiB adventures by sea, in which the names of the very ancient Westerm ports of SurparakzL-Supara and Bharmkaccha-Broach are occasionally mentioned." The Samudda-Vanija-yat'dka 2 tells t ^ story of the village ^ of wood-wrigHts who, failmg to deliver the goods (furniture,.

1 Ji^akam.^ no. 33«),in Ihe Cambridge Edition. 2 Jataka iv. 159, no. ^S. '^ ^ "There stood nea- Bewares a great town of canienten^eentaining a

tJiousand families;."—Tbi: . * " The carpenters frsa this to vn used to profess that they would make

a bed or a chair or a houst."—Xbid.

74

HINDU PERIOD

etc.) for which they had been paid in advance, built a ship secretly, embarked their families, and emigrated down the Ganges and out to an island over-sea.^ The ydlahassa~ydtaka (ydi. ii. 12S, no. J96) mentions^ five hundred dealers'' who were fellow passengers on an ill-fated ship. The Sitpparaka-Jdtaka'^ {ydt. iv. 138-142) records the perilous adventures on the sea. undergone by a company of seven hundred merchants ^ who sailed from the sea­port town of Bharukaccha'' in a vessel under the pilotage of a blind but accomplished mariner/ The Mahdjanaka~ydtaka {ydt. vi. 32-35, no. 539)

' " There they sailed at the ^\•i^d's wUl until they reached an l^lan;! that lay in the midst of the sea."—Ibid.

'^ The ValaJiasstX'Jataka rehites how " some shipwrecked mariner:, escajied from a city of goblins by die aid of a flying horse.''—Ibid.

^ " Now it happened that five hundred shipwrecked traders vert rnsr ashore near the city of these sea-goblins."—Ibid.

* " The story mentions how a blind mariner was made th»i king'a assessor and valuer, and how he was pilot to a vessel which traversed th:: perilous seas of Fairyland."- -f^id.

^ " It happened that some merchants had got ready a ship and i\trt; casting about for a skipper. . . . Now there were se\en hundred soiilr> aboard the ship."—I/>iJ.

• "There was a seaport town named Bharukacch cr Marsh of Bham. At that time the Buddhisatta was bom into the family of f> master mariner there. . . . They gave him the name of Supparaka Knmara. . • - After­wards, w^injas father died, he became the head of his mariners. . With him aboal^jBp ship ever came to harm."—/bid.

' " Four months the vessel had been voyaging in far-distant regions; and now, as though endov/cd with supernatural powers, it returned -n one single day to tlie seaport to^vn of Bliarukacch."—Ibid.

15

INDIAN SHIPPING

recounts the adventurs^ of a prince who, with other, traders, is n^esented as setting out'^ fron: Champa' with export goods ^ for Suvannabhumi on tli£ same skip whick is wreckeil in mid-ocean—Suvanna-' bhumi is " orobably either Burma or the ' Golden i Chersonese^ or the whole Farther-Indian coast"—; and this y^aka also shows that the Ganges was; navigable r^ht away to the sea from Champa or, modern Bhagalpur. The SMkha-Jataka ijat.' vi. 15-17, no. 442) tells the story of a Brahman i given to cie-rity who a i l s in a ship for the Gold Country in c nest of riches by which he can repfenish ; the store ^ i i s philanthropy was exhausting. He was a nati\'e of Benares, and gave away daily in ;

^ The foUoviig is a brief seenmary of its stor}': A prince aispects Ills brother, with*tt reason, rebel£=against him, and kills him. The king's consort, being •wicichild, flees from the city. Tier son is brought up without knowledge of his father, but when he learns the truth goes "o s a on a merchant venture He is wrecked, and a goddess brings !him to his father's kingdom, "There, after ans^Tsririg some difficult questions, he Hiarries the daughter of fee usurper. By-and-bye he becomes an ascetic, and is followed by his «Tje. (Cambridge edition of th£ /dfa^as.)

^ " Having gctiogether his stock-in-trade (VE. store of pearls, jewels, and diamonds) he put it on board a ship with some merchants bound for Suvannabhumi, aid bade his m«ther fare;veJl, telHng her that be was sailing for that caartry."—IHiid. >

^ " There were s»'en caravans^vith their beasts embarked on board-In seven days the =hip made seven hundred leagues, but having goae too violently in its couseit could not Sold out."—/Md.

* " One day bethought to himsdl,' My siore of wealth once gone [ shall .-• "have nothing to gre. While it is stSl unexhausted I will take slip, a»d sail

for the Gold Countj, whence I wilLbring back ^realth. So he csuseda. ship to be built, filled rtwidi merchandiffi, and, bidding farewell to his ^i^e and child, set his face towards the seapoat, and at mid-day he departed."—/£>id.

76

HINDU PERIOD

alms 600,000 pieces of money. His ship, how­ever, sprang a leak ^ in mid-ocean, but he is miraculously saved by a kind fairy in a magic ship^ filled with the seven treasures of gold, sil\er, pearls, gems, cats'-eyes, diamonds, and coral. The Siissondi-ydtaka {Jdt. iii. 188, no. 360) mentions the vo)'age of certain merchants of Bharukaccha for the Golden Land, ' from which, as also from other Jdtakas such as the Mahdjmmka-Jdtnka, it is evident that besides Ceylon, Suvannabhumi or Burma was another commercial objective of traders coasting around India from western sea­ports such as Bharukaccha. Lastly, there arc several other Jdtakas in which we are told explicitly oi a successful, if sporadic, deal in birds between Babylon and Benares, and of horses''

^ " When they were come to the high seas, on the seventh day tiic ship S5>rang a leak, and they could not bale the water clear."—Ibid.

^ The following contains a full description of the i hip : " The deity, u-ell pleased at hearing these words, caused a ship to appear made of the seven things of price j in length it was 800 cubits, 20 fathoms in depth; it had three masts made of sapphire, cordage of gold, silver sails, and of goM also were the oars and the rudders."—Ibid.

3 " At that time certain merchants of Bharukaccha were setting sail for the Golden Land."- -Ibid.

* Jdtaka i. 124, or Tandulanali-Jataka^ no. 5, which tells the story of an incompetent valuer declaring five hundred horses worth a measure c^ rice, which measure of rice in turn he is led to declare worth a l Benares, contains a passage of which the following is the English translation : " At tli.it time there arrived from the North Country a horse-dealer with five hurtdred horses." Similarly,Ta/tz/Jaii. ^ifSn/ianu-Jataka, no. 158, has the follcwing r "Some horse-dealers from the North Country brought down five hindred horses.*' Again, Jdtaka ii. 287, or Kundaka-Kuahi-Suidhaxa-JdiahT,

11

INDIAN SHIPPING

imported hv hundreds from the North and from Sindh.i

The conclusions regarding the state of Indian trade to Avhich these varioms hints in the J-atakas point may i e thus summed up in the words of Mrs. Rhys Da\'i3s :—

Communicatan both inland arid foreign was of course efifected by caavans and \r:ler. The cararans are described as consisted of five husdied carls dxirwa by oxen. They go both east and ".rest TrcM Bei)ares and Patna as G^tres. TTie objective was probably the ports on liie west coast, those on tl:£ sea-board of Sobira (the, Sophir (Ophir) oF tie Sept'ja-gint]) in the GuEnf Cutch or Bfeirukaccha. From here theie rras inter­change by sea -ffith Baveru (Babylon) and probably Arabia, Hmenicia, and Egypt.- . . . Westward merchants are often mentioned as talaag ships from BenareSj oi iower down at Champa, dropping down the grsat river, and either coasti^ to Ceylon or adventuring many days witboat sight of land to SuvannatEhuni (Chryse Chersonesus, or possibly mcluave of all the coa^ of Farther India).^

no. 254, mentiooE how the "BotShisatta was bom into a tmder's family in tiie Northern Province; and five hui>dred people of that country, horffi-dealers, used t» convey hora:s to Benares and sell xhem theae."

^ Jataka i. i ^ or £hojaja?uiya-Jataka, no. 23, mentions ho^ " Bod-dhisatta came to Lfe as a thorou^ibred Smdk horse." Simi arij,/^/(7^a

^ i. iSa, or the Ajutsiorjataka^ no. 24, refers to a warrior ^ 0 foaght from a >''• - chariot to which ws re harnessed tiuo Sindh hotses.

^ Economic Jsm-nnl ixxiA J,R.AS. tor 1901.

78

BOOK I.—PART II.

The History of Indian Maritime Activity.

BOOK I.—PART II.

CHAPTER I.

THE PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD,

BOTH Brahminical and Buddhistic texts are thus replete with references to the sea-borne trade of India that directly and indirectly demonstrate the existence and development of a national shipping and shipbuilding. It is now necessary to narrate the facts of that trade, and for this we shall have to draw upon all sorts of evidence, literary, rnscriptional, and numismatic, and both Indian and foreign. For India alone has not the monopoly of these evidences ; and if she really had commercial connection with the outside world it is natural, and in fact necessary, that they be also supplied by those countries vrith which she carried on her intercourse, thus con­firming those conclusions that are reached b)' a study of the purely Indian evidences. And so do we find, as a matter of fact, in various foreign works abundant allusions to India's commerce, arts, and manufactures, indicating the glorious position she once occupied and for long maintained as the Queen of the Eastern Seas.

8i G

INDIAN • SHIPPING

Indeed, all the evidences available wiU clearly show that for full thirty centuries India stood out as the very heart of tlie commercial woM^ cultivating- trade relations successively with the PhoeniciatE, Jews, Assyrians, Greeks, Egyptians; and Romans in ancient times, and Turks, Venetians', Portuguese Dutch, and English, in modern times. A genial cLmate and a fertile soil, coupled wiih the industry and frugality of the Indian people, rendered them virtLaiy independent ol foreign nations in respect of the necessaries of life, while their secondary v^ants were few. Of the latter, tiii, lead, glass, amber, steel for arms, and perhaps coral and to a small extent medicinal drugs, were aH that India had ised to import- from Europe and Western Asia, while to Arabia she was indebted for the suj)p]y of fnnikincense used in her temples. On the otiier hand,-India provided Europe with v/ool from tfe fleeces jf the sheep bred on her north-western' mountain raiges, famous since the days of Ale^sander tfe Great; -\ ath onyx, chalcedony, lapis-la2iii, and; jasper, thear esteemed as precious stones; with a, resinous gem, furs, assafoetida, and musk; with' embroideret woollen fabrics and coloured carpets wiich were as highly prized in Babylon and Rome' a^ their mcdern reproductions are in London and' Paris at th^ present day. But the most va>uable of the expo ts of India was silk, which, under the! Persian Empire, is said to have been exchanged by,

8 2 •

HIMDU P E R I O D

weight with gold. It was manufactured in India, as well as obtained for re-export from China. Next to silk in value were cotton cloths ranging fi'om coarse canvas and calicoes to muslins of the finest texture. India aho supplied foreign countries \ ith oils, brassware, a liquid preparation o( the sugar­cane, salt, drugs, dyes, and aromatics, wliile she had also a monopoly in the matter of the supply of pepper, cinnamc^, and other edible spices, which were in great request throughout Europe.

Through ages India thus occupied a unique position in the commercial world as the main supplier of the world's luxuries. As a consequence she throughout had the balance of trade clearly in her favour, a balance which could only be s^rttled by the export cf treasure from European and other countries that were commercially indebted to her. For India desired nothing which foreigners could give her but the precious metals. Thus has she been for many centuries the final depository of ? large portion of the metallic wealth of the world. Her supply of gold she obtained not as did Europe from America in the i6th centuiy by cor-quest or r a j^e , but by the more natural and peaccfu method of commerce, " by the exchange of such t^ her productions as among the Indians were super­fluities but u'ere at the same time not only high'y prized by the nations of Western Asia, Egypt, ar d Europe, but were obtainable from no other quart :r

83 G 2

INDIAN SHIPPING \

except In-Ga, or from, the farther East by means of tJie Indian trade"."' It was this flow or " drum " of gold into imdia that SD far back as the ist century A-D. was the cause of sSarm and regret to Pliny, who calculated diat fully a hundred million sestercesi equivalent, according to Delmar, to /"yo.ooo of modern Er^^lish money, were withdrawn annually, fmm the Reman Empiie to purchase useless Oriental' products such, as perfumes, unguents, and personal i ornaments.^ It was pr^tbably also the same flow of j goM into India from oifiside that even earlier still, ' in the 5th ceotury B.C., ^ least partially enabled the , Indan satrapy of Darius, naturally the richest and mo^ populoiB part of his empire (including as much of Afghanistea,, Kashmir, and the Punjab as the Persan monarcks could feeep in subjection), to pa}' him " the enormous tribute of 2>^o Euboic talents of gold-dust ex 185 hundredweights, worth fully a million sterling, and constituting ai)out one-third of the total bullioa revenue of the Asiatic provinces.''^

We shall n*w enter mpon a relation of the fads of thrs trade \ 3iich serve! to create " the wealth of Ind," a bri^ surv^ of its course which un­doubtedly is an mportant, liiough r>egl^ted, aspect

^ C. naniell, F.S.S., XC.S., Indusfriai CompeHtion ofAsia^ p, 225. ^ Pliny, Natural HLipry^ xii. 18. fee also Momrasen's Frovinas cf

tJie Rommt Smfire^ vol—r., 399-300. ^ Herodxiiiis^ ui. (V.—L. Smith's Earij History of Jndia^ New Edition,

p. 34)-

84 . ,

HINDU PERIOD

of Indian history, the sfory of her old, abounding international life.

The antiquity of this irade will be evident from the fact that it is foreshadowed even in the ^4""-l^eda, one of the oldest literary records of humanity, which, as I have alreai^ shown, speaks in many places of ships and merchants sailing out into the open main for the sake of riches, braving the perils of the deep, "where there is no support, nothing to rest upon or cling to." India thus began her sea­borne trade with the very beginning of recorded time, and the trade of the Rig-Veda was very probably carried on with countries on the west like Chaldaea, Babylon^ and Egypt. I do not feel myself com­petent to deal with this subject of India's pre­historic trade relations; Egyptologists or Assyrio-logists alone can do fufl justice to it. I can but briefly refer to some of the conclusions reached in regard to this subject arpd the evidences on which they are based. Accowling to Dr. Sayce,^ the famous Assyriologist, the commerce by sea between India and Babylon must have been carried on as early as about 3000 B.C, when Ur Bagas, the first king of Ignited Babylonia, ruled in Ur of the Chaldees. This is proved by the finding of Indian teak in the ruins of Ur. Mr. Hewitt is of opinion

^ See his Hibbert Ledtires for 1887 on the Origin and Growth of Religion among the Babylonians.

S5

INDIAN SHIPPING

that this iiood must have been sent by sea from some port on the Makbar coast, for it is only there that teak i senv near enough to the sea to be exported with profrtin those eirly times. Again, Dr. Sayce points to tie use of the word sind-htt for muslin in an old Biid>jlanian list of clothes as the clearest proof " thsrf there was trade between Babyloaia and people wliT' spoke an Aryan dialect and lived in the country ^\Jtered by &e Indus." This trade must have beea sea-borne; and the muslin must have been broi^ht by sea,/or, as Mr. Hewitt points out, if Zend-sp<aking traders had brought it by land they would hav^ called the country by the Zend name, Hindhu, AetiMg the idnto an h} These conciusions of Dr. Say::e and Mr. TIewitt regarding the extreme antiquit}'nfthE Indian maritime trade with Baby­lon are not, hciwever, accepted by all scholars. Mr. J. KennetL/," for instance, in a learned article on the subject, sa;3S tkat he ^ can find no archaeological or literary eridence for ^maritime trade betv/eea India and Baby"! an pErior to the 7th centuiy B.C . . . but for the fiti century B.C. direct evidence is lorth-coming." ThB direct evidence, which is so very interesting;, may be thus presented afier him:— (i) Mr. R.Ksani found a beam of Indian cedar in

^ J.R.A.S:^ 18S8, p. 337. Mr. Hewitt, late Commissioner of Chota Nagpnr, is the niliiorof many works on primitive history.

^ See J.RSS.^ 1898, on the Early Commerce between incSa and Babylon.

86- -•, -• - 1 - • - ^

HINDU PERIOD

the palace of Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 B.C.) at Birs Nimrud, part of which is now exhibited in the British Museum. (2) In the second storey of the Temple of the Moon-god at Ur, rebuilt by NelMi-chadnezzar and Nabonidus (555-538 u.c.) Mr. Taylor found " two rough logs of wood, apparently teak, which ran across the whole breadth of the shaft," and Mr. Rassam thus says of it in a letter ; " Most probably the block of wood which Taylor dscovered was Indian cedar like the beam I dis-co\'-ered in the palace of Nebtichadnezzar. There is no doubt that this wood was imported into Baby-k)nia from India." (3) The Baverti-ydtaka, as we liave already seen, relates the adventures of certain Iiidian merchants who took the first peacock by sea to Babylon. Mr. Kennedy remarks^ "the Jataka itself may go back to 400 B.C., but the foIks-tale on wliich it is based must be much olden" We have already cited the opinion on this jfcitaka of the late Professor Biihler, according to whom, if the age of the materials of the Jdtakas be considered, "the story indicates that the Vanias of Western India undertook trading voyages to the shores of the Persian Giilf or its rivers in the 5th, perhaps even in the 6th century B.C., just as in our days. This trade very probably existed already in much earlier times; for the Jdtakas contain several other stories, describing voyages to distant lands and perilous adventures by sea, in which the names of

INDIAN SHIPPING

the very aadent Western ports of Surparaka-Supara and Bharukaccha-Broach are occasional^ men­tioned." ^ We may also note in this connection that in the Digha Nikaya (i. 222).of Smtta-Pitaka', the date of which has been placed by Mr. Rhys Davids ^ tu the 5th century B.C., there is an explicit reference ID " ocean-going sliips out of sight of land," (43 Certain Indian commodities, e.g. rice,; peacocks, sjidal-wood, were known to the Greeks and others under thdr Indian names in the 5th century B.C. " I t follows that they were imported from the w^ t coast of India into Babylon directly, by sea; and this conelusion is borne out t ^ the, statements of the Bmrnrii-JataJm. And we must further condude that tiiey were first imported into Babylon in the 6th century B.C., not only because •, direct intercGurse between Babylon aad India ' practically came to an end after 480 3.C., but because rice and peacocks must have reached Greece ; at the latest in 460 or 470 B.C. in order to become , common at Atiens in ^o" B.C." After this review ; of the evidoice Mr. Kennedy puts for\rard the ' following ccmdusion: ""The evidence warrants us \ in the belief "tiat maritiime commerce between India • and Babylon flourished in the 7th and 6th, but more especially in the 6th, centuries B.C. It was

' Orrfn of the Indimt Bi-ahma Alp^iabei, p. 84. 2 See j:Ji.A.S., Apri, 3899, p. 482.

88 - ,•

HINDU PERIOD

chiefly in the hands of Dravidians, although Aryans had a share in it; and as Indian traders settled afterwards in Arabia and on the east coast of Africa, and as we find them settling at this very time on the coast of China, we cannot doubt that they had their settlements in Babylon also." And he further remarks : *' The history of the trade between Baby­lon and India suggests one remark : the normal trade route from the Persian Gulf to India can never have been along the inhospitable shores of Gedrosia."

Mr. Rhys Davids/ who has also dealt with this subject, has thus stated his conclusions :— (i) Sea-going merchants, availing themselves (if the monsoons, were in the habit, at the beginning.; of the 7th (and perhaps at the end of the 8tS) century B.C., of trading from ports on the south­west coast of India (Sovira at first, aftenvanL : Supparaka and Bharukaccha) to Babylon, then r. great mercantile emporium. (2) These merchriLit-were mostly Dravidians, not Aryans, Such Ipdia. names of the goods imported as were adopted ir t!; West (Solomon's ivory, apes, and peacocks, [. instance, and the word " rice'') were adapt;.lii. not of Sanskrit or Pali, but of Tamil words.

The same view of this Indian trade u'i:li West has been held by Mr. A. M. T. Jack. ,• ,

^ Buddhist India, p. 116,

• • 8 9

INDIAN SHIPPING

I.C.S.^ According;to kim, " the Buddhist Jakikas^' and some cif the Sanskrit law-books^ tell us that ships from Ehroach and Supara traded with . Babylon (Baveru) from the 8th to the 6th cen­tury B.C."

There ha^e l>een also other scholars who are dis­posed to vie^'this maritime comniterce of India with the West as cf very ^ea t antiquity,. According; to Lenormant, tiiE bas-reliefs of the temple of Deir-el-Bahari at Thebes represent the conquest of the lamd of Pun under Hatasu. " In the abundant booty loading the vessel of Pharaoh for conveyaiKe to the land of Egypt appear a great'many Indian animals and products not indigenous to the soil of Yemen— elephants' teeth, gold, precious stones, sandaJ-woad^ and monkeys." Again, " The labours of Von Bohlen (Das aMe Indien, vol. i., p. 42), confiiTning those of Heeren, and in ^^eir turn confirmed by those of Lassen {Ind. Alt.^^r^X. ii., p. 580), have established the existence of a maritime commerce betv\ een Incfia and Arabia From the very earliest period of humanity/-^ The principal commodities imported from India were gold, pr(xiou5 stones, ivoiy. etc.

^ Bombay CHy Gaze^cer,-'^'6Lii., ch.' ri., p. 3 .

^ Nos. 339 and 463 (Fau^sDll).

^ S.B,E./li. 2 j S ; xiv. 146.200, 317.

* Hist. Anc. dd Orient, En^Esh edition, vol . i . , pp. 299, j o i , quoted in J.d.^ vol. siii., p. 228.

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H I N D U P E R I O D

FurOier, according to Wilkinson/ the presenct^ of indigo, tamarind-wood, and other Indian products has been detected in the tombs of Hgypt, and Lassen also has pointed out that i i e E^tryptians dyed cloth with indigo and wrapped their inummicis in Indian muslin.

Lastly, this early maritime comniErce of India, first vaguely hinted at in the Rig-Veda^ and pro\ed by the evidence of Egyptian and Assyrian archaeo-logyj. is further supposed by many competent authorities to be alluded to in several places in the Bible itself. "Even in the Mosaic period (1491--1450 B.C.) precious stones which w ere to a great extent a speciality of India and the neigkbourin^ countries appear to have been well known and were already highly valued. It is probable that some of the stones in the breast-plate of the high priest may have come from the far East."^ In the Book of Genesis ** there is mention of a compimy of traders with their camels bearing spicery, bairm, and myrrh. going to Egypt. In the days of Solomon (about 1015 B.C.) there could be supplied from Incia ak)ne

^ Andent Egyptians, ii. 237, quoted by Delmar, Dirrctoi of the Buieni: of Statistics, U.S.A.

2 Professor V. Ball, RI.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., in his highly valuable article cm " A Geologist's Contribution to the History of Ancient India," in l^c 2.A. for August, 1884.

^ Gai. xxxvii. 25: " Eehold, a company of Ishmuelites came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myirh, goinj; to carry it down to Egypt."

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INDIAN SHIPPING

the ivcay. garments, armour, spices, and peacocks -which fomid customers in ancient Syria. In the Book of I Kings it is stated ^ how the ships of Solomon came to Ophir and fetched from thence gold, plenty of almi^ trees, precious stones, and the like. I« the Book of Ezekiel, which dwells on the commerce of Tyre, there are mentioned commodities which ar^ undoubtedly of Indian origin.- Thus the ivory an^ ebony included in them are characteristic Indian products and ,were recognized as such by classical writers lifee Megasthenes/ Theoplirastus,^ and VirgH.- Besides, another proof that llie Bible really refers to the foreign trade of India may be found ii. the fact tliat there have been discovered some cid Dravidian words in the Hebrew text of the Books of Kings and Chronicles of the Old

"* I Khi^s ix. 26, ?7, 28; '! And ICing Solomon maCe a navy of ships in Ezion-^ijet, which is beside Eloth, on the shore cf the RedSea . . . And Hinam seatin the navy his servantSj shipmen that had ItnoTvledgc of the sea, with ift servants of Sdfcmon. And they c«me to Ophir, and fetched from thene gold, four hun&ed'and tweaty talents, and ferou^t it to King Solomon." r Kings x. r t : "And the navy also of H.ram^that brought gold from Dplnr,'brought m from Ophir great plenty of almug trees and precious stones."

2 Ezelirl sxvii, 34: "These were diy merchants in all sarts of things, in blue cktlhs, and broidered work, and in chests of rich apparel, bound with cords." Jbid. 15: " They brought thee for a present horns of irory and ebonyJi' , ,1

3 StraSv, sv. 37; " Ebony grows 'there."

•* Hisirry vf Plants, iv. 4 , 6, quoted by McCrindle. " Georg^'y. 57 : "Indiajiroduces ivory." Tlie PeriJ>ltts also mentions

logs of ehnny eiiported fcom Barygaaa-Broaclu

92

HINDU PERIOD

Testament, where there is given l!ie list of the articles of merchandise brought from Tarshish or Ophir in Solomon's ships "about looo B.C." Thus the word for " peacock" in the Hebrew text is tuki in Kings, hiklxvi Chronicles, whale " the ancient, poetical, purely Tamil-Malayalam name ol the pea­cock is tokei, the bird with the (splendid) tail,"^ Again, the Hebrew words ahalim 04- ahaloth for the fragrant wood calied "aloes" in Proverbs vii. 17, etc., is derived froai the Tamil-]\Ia.Iayalani form of tlie word aghil.

Without dwelling at any further length on the meaning of these Biblical allusions, I quote below the following interpretation put upon them by the learned bishop Dr. Caldwell, in his monumental work, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages :—

It seems probable tliat Aryan merchants fr^m the mouth of tlic Indus must have accompanied the Phoenicians and Solomon'!; servants in their voyages down the .Malabar coast towards Ophir (wherever Ophir mayhai-^ been) or at least have talten part in the trade. . . . It appears certain from notices contained in tie Vedas that the Arynns of the age of Solomo'i practised foreign trade in oceangoing vessel'-, but it remains uncertani to what parts their ships sailed.^

Bishop Caldweil's opinion is further supported by another erudite clergyman aad scholar, the Rev.

^ Dr. Caldwell, ia his Grammar of t/ie Dravidtan Lan^iwx^^y P- 9-We may remember also in this connection the well-known reference 'n tl c Bavern-Jaiaka to vojages made by Indian merchants to Balijlon, in th second of which they took thither the first peacock for sale.

^ Graiumar of the Dravidian Languages^ p, 123.

93

INDIAN SHIPPING

T. Foulki^/ who, in a, very learned essay, conies to the same-conclusion, and says :—

The fact ii now scarcely l» be doubted thai: the rich Otiental mer­chandise of thtr days of King Hiram and Kmg Solomon had its starting-piace in the sesports of the DaMian; and that with a very high degree of pnobability SODE of the most esteemed of the spices whi^h reae carried into Egypt by n e Midianitish merchants of Genesis xxxvii. 25. 2S, and by the sons of the Dalriarch Jacob (Gen. xliii. n ) , had been coitivaBd m the siace-gardens oLthe Dakhari.

Thus tl-e iirst trads of India of which there is any record was with Western Asia and Palestine. King Solorron tried to appropriate a share of this trade for tli^ Jewish peeple by creating facilities for his Eastern traders both on land and sea routes. Oa the land route he built as resting-piaces for caravans the cities of Tadmor (Palmyra), Baalbec (Heliopolis), ind Hamath (Epiphania), and his fore­sight in protecting these caravan routes bore fruit in t^e great trading cenires of Mesopotamia, Viz. Babylon, Ctesiphon, Sekucia, and Ossis, which all flounshed for a long time on the profits of their commerce wrdi the East The Jewish monarch was also equal'y interested in the sea-borne trade of the East H B £eets made periodical voyages to and irom the liaad of the E.ed Sea and the ports in the Persian GuJ",and we know from Holy Writ tint " Ezion-geber, which is beside Eloth on the shore of the Red Se^ in the land of Edom/' was the

^ T^' Indian A7iir^(ary, vol. viit

94 '

HINDU PERIOD

Syrian port for the arrival and departure of the fleets Sent on these voyages. Their cargoes were carried by caravans to Petra and distributed some to Egypt and others to Rhinocohira, a port of the Mediterranean, for transhipment to Europe. The Phoenicians also took an active part in this trade, with Tyre as their headquarters. After the conipuest of Tyre by Alexander the Great, and the foundation of Alexandria, the Egyptians came into the fiuhi, and after the successive decline of the Jewish, Phoenician, and Persian powers in Western Asia, they retained with the Arabians a monopoly of this commerce for about 900 years between Alexander's death and the conquest of Egypt by the Musalmans in the year 640 A.D.

We have now dealt with the foreign trad:; of India in the age of the Bible, and proceed to con-sjder the notices left by the Greek writers of this period of the international intercourse of India. The earliest, probably, is that of Herodotus (450 B.C.), the father of history, whose reference to the Indian contingent ^ of Xerxes' army, clad in cotton gar­ments and armed with cane bows and iron-tipped ^ cane arrows, is well knowoi. Herodotus also sj^eaks

^ Herodottis^ vii. 65, viii. 13, ix. gi. V. A. Smith remarks : " Th ; archers from India formed a valuable element in the army of Xerxes, and shared the defeat of Mardomus at Plataea."

2 Cf. V. Smith, Early History of India, p. 35 : " The fact thiu the Indian troops used iron in 480 B.C. is worth noting."

95

INDIAN SHIPPING

of the irtclnsion of a part of India as the twentieth satrapy cf the Emperor Darius,^ a fact which in the opinion CfT scholars accounts for the traces of Persian influence^ on old Indian art, architecture, and administistrve methods. Araong Indian products Herodotus noted the wool wMch certain wild trees bear inst^d of fruft, '* tkat ia beauty and quality excels th^ of sheep," ^ of which Indians make their clothing.

Herodotus also gives us some insight into the nature and extent of certain Indian mmeral pro­ductions. Babylon obtained precious stones and dogs (pratably Tibetan mastiTs) from India.^ In the enuni3:ation of the nations and tribes which paid tribuic to the Persian monarch Darius, the Indians ainne, we are told, paid in gold, all the others paying in silver. The amount of this gold was 360 Enboic talents; equi\'alent to ;^t,290,000. Herodotus also pointedly speaks of India as being " rich in gdiii,"^ and he rektes the famous and wide­spread fahfe of the gold-digging ants, which has been showniy Sir Henry Robinson and Dr. Schiem^

^ Herodatu^ m. ^ See Smithis Enrly History of India, pp. 137, 153, 225, for an account

of this Persian Educnce. " Itervdokis^ m. 106, in McCrindle's Anient Indra. as Described in.

Classical Litefa:^rs, ^ Ibid., i. 15?-^ Ibid., iii. Eao. ^ I.A., vd. TT^ pp. 235 ff.

96

HINDU PERIOD

to have originated in the pecaliar customs of the Tibetan gold-miners ; and the name " ant gold " was possibly first given to the fragments of gold-dust brought from Tibet on accoimt of their shape and size. The " horns of the gold-digging ants " men­tioned by Pliny and others hsve been supposed to be simply samples of the ordiaary pickaxeb used by miners, which in Ladakh and Tibet were made of the horns of wild sheep, mounted.on handles of wood. Herodotus may also have mesrit the gold-diggers of the desert of Gobi, who were in the habit of excavat­ing gold from beneath the earth, and from thcni Indian traders of the Punjab neighbourhood could obtain their supply of gold. The portion of India conquered by Darius was situated chiefly to the north­west of the Indus, and, according to the authoritative testimony of Professor V. Ball, F.R.S., the eminent geologist, " the Indus itself, as well as some of its tributaries, is known to be auriferous." Professor Ball also rejects the view heid by Lassen, Heeren, and many others that gold (as-d silver) was not indi­genous to India, but imported from abroad, e.g. from Tibet, Burma, or even Africa; ^ for as he points out, " our most recent knowledge of India affords evidence that the amount of gold derived from indigenous sources must have been very considerable befc re the alluvial deposits were extausted of their gold."

^ Asiatic Nations (Bohn's "M.), vol. il., p. 32.

97 H

INDIAN SHIPPINjG-

The further remarks of Professor Ball in this connection are worth quoting in full';—

When z is remembered that about 80 per cent, of th^ gold raised throughont ^e world is from alluvial washings, and when thu fact i? con­sidered in connection with the reflectiori that ^ide tracts in Australia and America, fcrmerly richly productive, are now deserted, being covered with exhausted t..ilings, it can be- conceived how these regions ia India—and there are v^ry many of them—which are Icnown to be auriferous, may, in the lapse al time, after yielding large s^ppKes ©f gold, have become :oo exhausted t- he of much present considejation. More tJian tiis, however, recent exphaations have confirmed the. fact, often previ-iusly asserted, tnat in Southernr India there are indications of extax^ed mining operations having beemrcarried on there.

Evidenc't exists of the most conclusive kind of large qiiartities of gold having beem^amassed by Indian monarchs, who accepted a. revalue in go-ld-dust only fr-m certain sections of their subjects, wKo were consequently compelled t^ spend several months of every year washing for it in tiie rivers.'-

In Oesias' Indica (400 B.C.), the earliest Greek treatise an India, is to be found, among other things, the exisT-ence of a really Dravidianll word which Ctesias ised for cinnamon.^ The word used by Ctesias is karpion, •which Dn Caldwe the Tami-Malayalam word kan^ffa

1 derives from 'or karfpti, to

which is ^ i n the Sanskrit word/ (r? /?/;-^ "camphor."

' /./4., Aqgust, 1884.

- Ctesias-, translated by McCrindle, p. 29. lEs tndiai embodi^ the information I-e had gathered about India, "panly fj;orr. the reports cf Persian officids who had visited that comtry on the King's s r^ce . and partly also perhaps from the reports of Indians themseK'es who in thcss days were ociasionally to be seen at the Persian Gouri, whither thev resorted either as merchants or as envoys bringing presents and tribtit-; from the priczss of Northo-n India, whidi was thfiii sulject lo Persian rule." (Mdlindle's Ctesias, Introduction, p. 3.)

^ Dr. Caldsvell in his Grammat^of the Dravidia^i Lmig^a^es^ p. 105.

98

HINDU PERIOD

Ctesias also refers to a lake in the country of the Pyg'mies upon the surface of which oil is pro­duced. This is supposed to mean Upper Burma, where there is a tribe answering to this description, and where " there are also the only largely pro­ductive petroleum deposits, which, moreox'er, we know to have been worked since the earliest times." ' Ctesias also mentions gold being obtained on certain " high-towering mountains" inhabited by the Griffins, which have been recognized as Tibetan mastiffs, "specimens of which, by the way, appear to have been taken to the Persian Court as ex­amples of the gold-digging ants first described b}'-Herodotus."'^

^ Professor Ball in the /.A., vol. xiii., p, 330. 2 liiii.

99 H 2

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER 11.

THE MAURYA PERIOD.

W E anw reach the age of the Maui-3^S, which may 'be taken roughly to begin from the date of Alexaniter's Indian campaigns, aboiit 325 B.G. In the accounts of these campaigns byi Greek writers like Arrian, Curtius, and others, interesting Hght is sometiMKS thrown on the economic life of the

II

period. Thus it may be stated with certainty that shrpbuffling was in those very ancient days (so far back as 325 B.C.) a very flourishing industry giving emplofcaent to many, and the srimulms to its develqprEcnt must have come from the demands of both rker and ocean traffic. Alexander's passage of the Indus was effected by means of boats ^

-' II

suppEei by native craftsmen.. A flotilla of boats was also ised in bridging the difficult river of the Hydas pT? For purposes of the famous voyage of NearcbtB ^ down the rivers and to the Persian Gulf, all available country boats were impressed for the service, and a stupendous fleet was formed, num-

* Vi A, Smith's Early History of India., p. 55.

^ ISii.^ pp. 59, 60: " He found the fleet of galleys, boatt, and rafts in readiness/ Also Arriati, v. 8. I

8 md., p. 87.

1 0 0

HINDU PERIOD

bering, according to Arrian,^ about 800 vessels, according to Curtius and Diodorus about 1,000 vessels, but according to the " mare reliable estimate of Ptdemy" nearly 2,000 vessels, which between them accommodated 8,000 troops, several thousand horses, and vast quantities of supplies. It was indeed an extraordinarily huge fleet, built entirely of Indian wood by the hands of Indian craftsmen. In this connection the remarks made by the two great authorities on the history of ancient Oriental com­merce, namely Dr. Vincent and Dr. Robertson, are of considerable interest. Says Dr. Vincent:—

The Ayeen Akbari reckons the Panje-ab as the third province of the Mogul Empire, and mentions 40,000 vessels employed in the commerce of the Indus. It was this commerce that furnished Alexander \vith the mean? of seizing, building, hiring, or purchasing the fleet with which he fell down the stream ,- and when ire reflect that his army consisted oi 124^000 men, with the whole country at his command, and that a considerable portion of these had been left at the Hydaspes during the interval that the main body ad\-anced to the Hyphasis and returned to the Hydaspes again, we shall have no reason to accuse Arrian of exaggeration when he asserts thiit the fleet consisted of 800 vessels of which 30 only were ships of war and tha rest such as were usually employed in the navigation of the rl\x'r. . . . Straho mentions the proximity of Emodus, which afforded plenty of fir. pine, cedar, and other timber ; and Arrian informs us that Alexander in (he country of the Assaconi, and before he reached the Indus, had already built vessels which he sent down the Koppenes to Taxila. All these cir­cumstances contribute to prove the reality of a fact highly controverted; and even though we were to extend tlie whole number of the fleet, com­prehending tenders and boats, with some authors to 2,000, tht-ro is no improbability .sufficient to excite astonishment.^

^ Iridica, ch. xix.

^ Commerce cf the Ancients, vol. i., p. 12.

lOI

INDIAN "SHIPPING

Dr. Robertson also expresses the same opinion:— That X- fleet so numerous should have been ccllectud :n lo shori a time

is apt to appear at flnst sight incredible But as the Punjdi ccaintiy is full of navigpTle rivers, -oh which all the intercourse jamor^ the natives was catried on. it abounded with vessels ready constEucted to the conqueror's hands, sa that he rai*ht easily collect that number. | If we :*uld give credit to the accaant of the invasion of India by Semir?uus, no leiver than i,ooo vessels wEre assembfed in the Indus to appose her fleet [Z!ncf. Sicul., lib. li, cap. 74). It is remarkable that when Mahmud of] Ghazrri, invaded India, a fleet va-- collected on the Indus to oppose his,|Consistmg of the same number •»! vessels. We learn from tlic Ayeefi Akbari thai the inhabitants

| i of this paS of Indiastill continue to carry on all their comraunication w th each otho^ by water j the inhabitants of the Chrca'- 6i Tatta done (in S.ndh) have not fess than /ED.OOO vessels of vaiious construction.-^

II Further, we have the actual mentiom made by

Arrian of the construction of dockyanfe, and the supply by the tribe called Xathroi of galleys of thirty oars and transport vessels which were all built W themr

AM this clearly indicates that ili the age of ihQ Maupja^ shipbuilding in India was a xegular and flourishLng industry of which the output was quite large. The imdustry was, howe\^' in the hands of the State and. was a Government inonopoly; for, as Mega^henes^ informs lisi while noticing the exis­tence »{ a class of shipbuilders among the artisans, tkey -a^re saiaried public ser\'^n:s and were not permitted to ^vork for any private person. These

^ Dts^iisition concerning Anclmtindia,'^ io6j ^ Ass^., vi. iS_and Curiius, is. g. I

3 Strain?, XV. 46: '* But the armoiir-maka^ and shipbuildeis fecelve wages and provisiwis from the kings tor whcm dofte thej^ work."

102

H I N D U P E R I O D

ships built in the royal ship-yards were, however, as Strabo^ informs us, let out on hire both to those who undertook voyages and to professional merchants.-

A few more interesting details regarding the shipping and navigation of the period are gi\en b} Pliny ^ in his description of Taprobane (Ceylon) . " T h e sea between the island of Ceylon and India is full of shallows not more than six paces ir. depth, but in some channels so deep that no anchors can find the bottom. For this reason ships are built with prows at each end, for turn­ing about in channels of extreme narrowness. In making sea voyages the Taprobane mariners make no observations of the stars, and indeed the Greater Bear is not visible to them, but they take birds out to sea with them which they let loose from time to time and follow the direction of their flight as they make for land."^ Pliny also indicates the tonnage of these ancient Indian vessels, which is said to be 3,000 amphorae, the

' Stmbo, XV. 46.

* Fimy, vi. 22, quoted in McCrijidle's Ancient India, p. 55.

3 Plmy, vi. 22. The fact of manners using birds for asceitaining the direction in which the land lay is also alluded to in the DigAa yikaya ( i . 222) of SuUa-Pitaka, the famous Pali text. Mr. Rhys Davids places: the date of the Dzgha in the 5th century B.C. and takes this reference to be " the earliest in Indian books to ocean-going ships out of sight of land (^^ee /.JLA.S., April, i8gg, p. 433.)

103

INDiAN SHIPPING

jthe much more m the invalu-

amphon. bein^ regarded as weighing about a fortieth of a toti.^ 1]

Thn developmesit of this national shipping made possibk and necessary the creation and organization of a Beard of Admiralty^ as one of j the six Boards which made up the War Office of Eihperor Chandra Gupta I321 B.C. to 297 B.C.), "one of tiie greatest and niEst successfml kings known to:history." For-tmately, for information regarding' this Board of Admiialty and the Naval Department we can depend not ordy on foreign notices like ,those of Mega-sthenes and Strabo, but also on elaborate and relia"ble account given able Sanskrit woric of the period, tht ^rfkasdsira of Kautilya, which is undoubtedl)' one of the most importmt landmarks not only in the literary history of India but aiso rn tke history of Indian civilization itself. The book requires to be thoroughly studied,

ji

1 PBs^y vi. 22. With regaid to the equivalent of rfce £.mphon and the tonp^e of these ancient vessels, McCrindle sa)s: "The amotnt of cargo earned by ancient Aips was generally coinputed by the talent cr the amphora^ach of M iich w'eighsd about a fo*ieth of a ton. The largest ships CEiried 10,000 talents ar 250 tons. The talent end ihe amphora each repesented a lu lae foot of waier, and as the Gredcor Rjoman foot measureifiabout '97 of an English focrt, the talent and Lhs amphoK each weighed v-ery nearly 57 Ifcs. See Torr's Amiaif Ships, p . 25."

2 V. A. Smith's Sariy ISstory 0/ J7idi&, p. 1124. Cf. also Sfrabo, XV. 52 : ^Next to the dty magistrates thei3 is a ttirc governing body which discts military afiairs. This also conasts of ax divisions ^vith five membcEio each. One tSvisian is associated vith the Admiral of the Fleet."

3 In iBing this book for my purposes I ivas ^eaily felped by the translatinos of Pandit R. Syama Sastry in the Mys%-e IRedt^^.

104

HINDU PERIOD

being a unique production of its kind in the entire Sanskrit literature, and a most valuable historical document, conveying as it does a perfectly complete picture of the extraordinarily rich and varied civili­zation that was developed in Maurya India over 2,000 years ago. I have, therefore, no hesitation in drawing largely upon the contents of this remark­able work of Chanakya and placing before the reader all such passages as tend to throw any light on the condition of the national shipping, naviga­tion, and sea-borne trade of India in the glorious age of the Mauryas.

The Naval Department seems to have been very well organized. At its head was placed an officer who was called the •frr rvrr or the Superintendent of Ships.^ He was entrusted with the duty cf dealing with all matters relating to navigation, including not only navigation of the oUans, but also inland navigation on rivers and lakes, natural or artificial.^ The matters relating to navigation were of course manifold. The Superintendent of Ships seems to have been something like a modern Port Commissioner, and his first duty was to see that all the dues of his port were paid, and nut one evaded.

^ Arthiikastra, bk. ii., ch. xxviii.

105

INDIAN SHIPPING II

The kind and degree of the maritime activity of the period will be evident from the various kinds of port-tases that were levied. Thus villages on sea­shores oc on the banks of rivers and lakes had to pay regularly a fixed amount of tax. Fishermen had to yield one-sixth of their haul as fees for fishing license.^ Merchants also had to pay the custontacry tax levied in port towns.** Passengers arriving^ on boai'd the State or the king's ship had to pay the fixed and requisite amount of sailing fees.'' State boats were also let out to those who

ij

wanted to use them for pearl-fisfeery or for fishing for cowdi shells, and they had to pay the required amount of hire ^; but they v\ ere also free to use their own boats for the purpose.*' Besides these taxes p^^able to the Port Commissioner, there were the various sorts of ferry fees, which are also very interestrng and equally indicative of a brisk trade and a throbbing commercial life. A man with a minor quadruped carrying some load had; to pay a ferry

F

106

K :

HINDU PERIOD

fee of one masha^ A load cirriecl on the head, a load carried on the shoulders, a cow, and a horse had each to pay t"w o mashasl^ Four mashas A\ ert: demanded for each camel or b iffalo that was tran- '-porlcd across the river.^ Five mashas were levieiJ for a small cart, six mashas for a cart of medium size that was drawn by bulls, and sr\^en mashas for a big-cart.'' Four mashas had to be [laid for a load of mer­chandise whether for sale or not.* Again, for b:g rivers involving greater risks, double the ferry fees above mentioned were charged ^ Thus conveyances and beasts of burden as well as loads of merchandise were subject to ferry fees.

But besides seeing to the realization and collec­tion of all proper taxes and dues, the Superintendent of Ships was also entrusted with the duty of en­forcing many humane harbour regulations. Thus whenever any weather-beaten, tempest-tossed sh'p arrived at his port, his first duty was to lend her the protecting hand of a father.' He was also

107

INDIAN SHIPPING

empo\ra:ed to exempt from toll any ship kden with merchaacEse that -W3.s damaged and spoiled by water, GT to charge only half the due :olU and then allow if to sail when the proper time approadied.^ Again, whenever a s

fcr setting sail lip laden "with

merchsadise foundered owing to want of hands or on accauiTt of iD-repair, it was the duty of the Super-intendeat of Ships to make good the l o s of mer­chandise in part or full, as the case m ight be, because presumubiy the lo s was dua not to any fault of the merchants but to defects tn the State vessel, and therefojs must be made good fromi State funds.^

But "besides relieving ships in distress the Super­intendent had to adopt many preventive measures

Dexiod from the of Kartika, i.e.

to ensure safety. Thus during tdie 7th day of AsfeadSa till tlie momth when i^ers are swollen owing to rains, ths crossing of rivets by State or licensed ferries was strictly enforce4.^ Again,5n those large rivers wkich cannot be forded during either the winter or summer seasons the Superintendent of Ships had to see that k r ^ and perfectly safe vessels'were launched,

• n^ rf-fn: niyij -j-

108

HINDU PERIOD

manned with all necessary officers and hands, viz. a captain, a steersman, and a number of servants who would hold the oars and foe ropes and bale out water.^ Small boats were launched only in small rivers that overflowed during tiie rainy seasons.^

To ensure safety there wer«e also in force many strict regulations regarding th*' fording or crossing of rivers. Fording or crossiag of rivers without permission Avas prohibited in order to ensure that no traitor or enemy could escape.^ The time and even the place fpr fording and crossing rivers were definitely fixed, so that any person fording and crossing outside the proper place and in unusual times was punished with fir^ amercement; ^ and the man who forded or crossed a river at the usual place and time but without permission had to psiy 3. fine of 26i^anas.^ Exceptions to this strin­gent rule were, however, allowed in the interests of trade and public good. Thus the folloAving ^ were

^•qiHr^rs w^r*r^^ H^^"a^ I

109

INDIAN SHIPPING I I

freely allowed to cross rivers at 'any time and place:—

(i) rishermen, whose business would be seri­ously hampered by ihe above regulations.

(2) Carriers of firewood, grass, flowers and fruits ; gardeners and vegetable dealers who had to go far and wide to find the things they dealt in.

(3) Persons pursuing suspected cmrainals. (4) Messengers Tollowing other messengers go­

ing in advance. (5) Serx ants engaged to carry things (provisions

and orders) to the arm}'". j (6) Persons usin^ their own ferries; and (7) Dealers sujg)lying A llages of marshy dis­

tricts \wth seeds, necessaries of life] comnaodities, and other accessory things. Again, Bfahmans, ascetics, children, the aged and afflicted, royal Eiessen^rs, and pregnant women had all to be provided by the Superintendent with free passes to cross rivers.^ Tha-e was also another regulation permittimg fore^n merchants who had often been visiting the countrj, as also those who were well known I0 local merchants, to land towns.^

Lastly, the Superintendent of Ships was also entrusted with the duty of punishing ail violations

freely in port

no

HINDU PERIOD

of harbour regulations, and miscreants that were dangerous to public peace. Thus to destruction •were doomed the ships of pirates, the ships which were bound for the enemy's country, and the ships that violated the customs and rules in force in port towns,^ The Superintendent had also to arrest persons of the following descriptions^: Any person who eloped with the w.fe or daughter of another: one who carried off the wealth of another; a sus­pected person ; one having a perturbed appearance ; one who had no baggage ; one who attempted to conceal or evade the cognisance of a valuable load m his hand ; one who had just put on a different garb; one who had just turned out an ascetic; one who pretended to be suffering from a disease ; one who seemed to be alarmed ; a person stealthily carrying valuable things ; a person going on a secret mission ; a person carrying weapons or explosives or holding poison in his hand; and lastly, one who carne from a long distance without a pass. The Super­intendent finally was to direct the confiscation of the commodities of those who were found to travel without a pass and of those also who w ith

Ox

i n

INDIAN SHIPPING

uniHLial place

brganization of

a heaver load forded a river at an and time/

We aow have seme idea of the the Naval Departrnieni, the devdopmeat of tiie national shipping, and the aboundilig commercial life in tbs India of the Mauryas. All this no doubt was due to the vast extent of the empire founded by Chandnr Gupta that extended overi the \vhole of Northern India froKi sea to sea, includine^ even the provinQis of the Paropanisadai, Aria, and Arachosm, beyond Xhe modern frontiers of British Intiia. The alliance ef such a powerful emperori was courted even by tlie potentates of the Helle'nistic -world of his time The consequence of this vast aud varied realm was no doubt the constant stresim of visitors,

II '

travellets, and envoys to and from India, and the resulting growth of elaborate regulations for the:r care and entertainment which were framed by the muniripal commission under Chandra: Gupta. "All for^ners were closely watched by officials, who provided suitable lodgings, escorts, and, in case of aeed, medcal attendance,[[- As Mr. Vincent Smith remarks, " the existence of these elaborate regulations is conchisive proof that th^ Maurya Empire in the 3rd century;B.C. -was in

^ ^''^-fTT^i^iiwy Mrs ^ ^ - 1

^ V. A. Smith's Earfy History of India, p J125.

1 1 2

HINDU PO^IOD

constant intercourse with foasign states, and that large numbers of strangers visited the capital on business."^ So great was the growth of foreir n commerce that the mere taxes on imports formed a good and expanding source of revenue.

In the days of Asoka, wh«se empire embraced a much wider area than that ofliis grandfather, India was brought into systematic connection with the distant Hellenistic monarchies of Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia, and Epirus,^ and she soor became, through the efforts of merchants, and mis­sionaries preaching the gospel of universal brother­hood, at once the commercid and spiritual centre, the very heart, of the Old Wcrld. This was possible only through the instrumentality of an efficient national shipping and system of communications. As Mr. V. A. Smith observes: "When we re­member Asoka's relations v, ith Cejlon and cvon more distant powers, we may credit him with a sea-goia^ fleet as well as an army."^

In that monumental work called Bodhisattva-vadmia Kalpalatd, by the Kashmirian poet Ks'ie-mendra, of the loth centuiy A.D., is preserved a very interesting story reganiing Indian mercantile activity in the Eastern waters, which clearly

^ V, A. Smith's Karly £Esi-ry a/ India, p. 125,

2 Rock Edicts II, and xiii.

3 Edicts of Asoka, Introdu-iion, p. viii.

INDIAN SHIPPING 11

indicates that the progress of the foreign iMtercourie and naval activity of India during the days of the

., Emperon Chandra Gupta was continued afeo in the daj s of Asoka the Great. The 73rd P^llava or chapter ^ Kshemendra's work aboye referred to relates h<i*w the Em]?eror Asoka, seated on the throne in the ccty of Pataliputra, while holding his court, was one iky approached by some Indian merchants who traded to the distant islands. They kifomicd him of their losses and complete ruin brou^t about by tiie depredations of seafaring- pirates called Nagas (probably the Chinese, who are worshippers of th£ Dragon),, who destroyed all th'eir ships and plundered their treasure. They said that if tlie Emperor was disposed to be indifferent to them they would no idoubt be forced to take to jbther ways of earning their livelihood, but the imperia! exchequer in that c s e was liable to be emptied awing to absence of sea voyages (Le. if there was a slackening of the sea-borne trade and a consequent falling off in the export and import duties). Then tiie storj-goes on to relate how Asoka, after bestcm'ing some thougiit on the seafaring Nagas, was persuaded hy a Buddhist priest Ho issue a sort of edict (which we may call Asoka's Marine Edict) inscribed on a copper pl^e, which was, however, contemptuo-usly set at naught by those for whom it was msant. It was only when Asoka became a devout Buddhist tkat he vr^ able to make the Nagas respect his

114

H I N D U P E R I O D

edict and give up all their booty, which was after­wards distributed among the merchants robbed^

Weliave now narrated some of the facts in the sea-borne trade of India from the earliest times recorded to the glorious epoch of the Maur)'as, seeking humbly to unroll the ample pag;es of one of the many forgotten but brilliant chapters in tht early history of our country.

•fi ^^f^-tT ' m t * ' r ^A ' Miiir*iH 1

TF T - xrt •w^- "KT rran ' rrsfrrr pr: i ^ TT'mTVr •iTTJirsi f^Fr:^ f^wts^rq^f li

ftt^"^ -fTirw^ -inm^^ ^W- 'g; «

115 I 2

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER III.

THE ANDHRA-KUSHAN PERIOD :

WITH R O M E .

INTERCOURSE

T H E ^ ^ of the Mauryas, of Chandra Gupta and Asoka, was followed by the age of the Andhras of tlie South and Kushans of the Ncrtii, which witnessod an equal development of the foreign trade and intercourse of India. This!is apparent not only from the writings of Greek, Roman, and other foreign authors, but also from the nimismatic evidence discovered in India itself. With regard to the cummercc of the Andhra peribd {200 B.C. to A.D. 250) R. Sewel, the well-known authority on the early history ©f Southern India, makes the followiag general Emarks : " The Andhia period seems to have, been one of considerable prosperity. There WTIS trade, both overland and by sea, with Westerx Asia, Greece, Rome, and Egypt, as well as with China and the East. Embassies are said to have been sent fronr South India to Rome. Indian elephaiis were used for Syrian warfare. Plin}?-mentioiE the vast quantities of specie! that Sound its way every year from Rome tn India, }and i i this he is confirmed by the author of the Perthlns. Roman coins ha*ie been found in profusion in the Peninsula,

116

HINDU PERIOD

and especially in the south. In A.D; 68 a number of Jews, fleeing from Roman persecution, seems to have taken refuge among the friendly coast-people of South India, and to have settled in Malabar.'' In respect of the same period, Dr, Bhandarkar, also, remarks, " trade and commerce must have been in a flourishing condition during this early period." -

In the north, under the Kushans, there was a great development of the intercourse of India with the West. " During the Kushana period the Roman influence on India was at its height. When the whole of the civilized world, excepting India and China, passed under the sway of the Caesars, and the Empire of Kaniska marched, or almost marched, Avith that of Hadrian, the ancient isolation o( India was infringed upon, and Roman arts and ideas travelled with the stream of Roman gold which flowed into the treasuries of the Rajas in payment for the silks, gems, and spices of the Orient."^

The result of it was the rise of a new school of Indian art, the school of Gandhara, which is admitted on all hands to be closely related to the art of the Roman Empire in the Augustan and Antonine periods, and was at its best between A.D. 100-300. Indian coins were also aftected like

1 Imperial Gazetteer, New Edition, vol. il, p. 325.

2 Early Blstory of tlu Deccan, p. 32.

^ J.R.A.S.. January, 1903, p. 56.

117

INDIAN SHIPPING

In Southern maiatained an

Indian art " Kadphises I., who s'truck coins in bronze or copper only, imitated, after his conquest of Kabii, the coinage either of Augustus in his later yors, or the simitar coinage of iTiberins (14 to 38 A.D.}. When the Roman goldj of the early emperors began to pour into India in payment for the silks, spices, gems, and dye-stuffs of the East. Kadphtes 11. perceived the advantage of a gold currency:, and struck an abundant issue of Oriental­ized mv/ei^ freeing in weight with their prototypes, and not much inferior in purity. India, -which during the same period active maritime trade with the Roma!n Empire, the local kin^s did not attempt to copy the imperial mirei, which were themselves imported in large quantities, and used for currency purposes just as English sovereigns are now in many pails of the world."'-

Numismatic evidences point unmistakably to the growth of an active Indian commerce with the West, daiefly Rome. They also show that the maiu centre of this commercial activity was tovrards the south, in Tamilakam, tke land of the iTamils, which figures 50 largely in the early historjy of the com­merce of India. Fer we have already seen how, in the ancEEat days of Solomon, this land' supplied the merchamdise of his ships and kept up a commercial

^ ^rty History, p. 238*

118

HINDU PERIOD

intercourse that has resulted in the incorporation oi several Tamil words into the language of the Bible itself. The Roman coins found in Southern India in and near the Coimbatore district and at Madura are more numerous than the finds in the north.' The chief reasons for the dearth of coins in the north are that the export to Rome of w'hich we have mention in classical writers, in exchange for which Roman coins were brought to India, was mostly of products of South India and the Deccan, while the Kushan kings had the Roman coins melted down in a mass and new coins issued from the metal having" exactly the weight of the aure?' Besides this significance of these finds of Roman coins, one interesting feature ^ of the Andhra coins deserves to be carefully noted in this connection, conveying as it does a sure hint at maritime com­merce, viz. that on many of these coins found on the east coast is to be detected the device of a t vo-masted ship, "evidently of large size," the sugges­tion of which is quite clear.

The stimulus to this Occidental trade of India came from the Roman Empire under Augustus.

^ "Roman Coins fonnd in India," by Robert Sewell in the J.F,A.S., 1904.

3 Imperial Gazetteer, New Edition, vol. ii., p. 324; V. A. Smith's Rany ITtstory, p. 202 : "Some pieces bearing the figure of a ship . . . suggest the inference that Yajna Sri's (184-213 A.D.) power was not confined to the land."

119

INDIAN SHIPPING

Before that time India carried on her traie chiefly with E ^ p t ; whos king, Ptolemy j Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.), with whom Asoka the Great had intercom-se/ foundel the city of Alexandria, that afterwartfe became the principal emporium of trade between East and West. With Alexandria com­munication was established of two seaiports founded on the Egyptian coast, viz. Berenica and Myos Hormos, from w^ich ships sailed to India aiong the coasts of Arabia and Persia. Strabo^ mentions that in k s day he saw about 120 ships sailing from Myos Hiirmos to India. There were of course ether overland routes of commerce between India and tl:^ West, such as that across Central Asia alone: the OxiB to the Caspian and the Kack Seas, or that

through Persia to Asia Minor, or that by way of the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates through Damascus and Palniyra to tfe Levant. But] this caravan traffic was by no means of any great importance, and was further r^uced by the Parthian wars. ** It was l»y the sea, and after Claudius by the open sea, that 4 e bulk of merchandise from Irnlian south-roast ports was caried to the Arabian marts and Alexandria,"^ The Egyptian Greeks were the principal rarriers of this extensive trade in Indian

1 RotkE£ct\\.

^ Sipabo, EL V. 12.

3 "Roma» Coins,"/•^• '^"^., i?c4,

1 2 0

HINDU PERIOD

commodities that sprang up under the Ptolemies, and as usual this commercial intercourse has left some marks on their language. Thus the Greek names for rice iprysa), gi nger [zingiber), an :l cinnamon (karpion) have a close correspondena with their Tamil equivalents, viz. arisi, iuchiver, and karava respectively; and this identity of GrecA. with Tamil words clearly indicates that it was Greek merchants who conveyed these articles and their names to Europe from the Tamil land. Again, the name Yavana, the name by which these Western merchants were known, which in old Sanskrit poetry is invariably used to denote the Greeks,' is derived from the Greek word laoncs, the name cf the Greeks in their own language. The same irord also occurs in ancient Tamil poems and is exclusively applied to the Greeks and Romans. On this point the remarks of the late Mr. Pillay, our authority on Tamil literature, require to be quoted. He says: " The poet Nakkirar addresses the Pan-dyan prince Nan-Maran in the following words ; ' O Mara, whose sword is ever victorious, spend thou thy days in peace and joy, drinking daily out of golden cups, presented by thy handmaids, the cool and fragrant wine brought by the Yavanas in their good ships.'" The Yavanas alluded to by these poets wer:i undoubtedly the Egyptian Greeks, because, as stated;

^ Weber's Indian Literature, p. 220.

1 2 1

''

INDLAN SHIPPING I '

in the Pcriplus, it was Greek merchants from Egypt who b r o i ^ t wine, brass, lead, glass, |etc., for sale to Muziris and Bakare, and who purchased from these ports pcfzper, betd, Ivory, pearls, and fine muslins.^ These Greek traders saied from Egypt in the month of July snd arrived^at Muziris in forty days. They stayed ©Q the Malafear coast for about three months and commenced their return voyage: from Muziris in December or January. ;

The activity of this Occidental ,trade of India reached i s height -during the earlier days of the Romaa Empire, especially the period ifrom Augustus to Nera, the pencd of Rome's Asiatic conquests' which rna.de her a world power controlling the tmde routes between the East and the West'. Then a great demand arose on the part of the wealthy Romans for the luxuries of the East, wliich shocked the more sober-minded citizens of Rome. jThus we find Pliny "txbout A.D. 77) lamenting and coademning the wasteful extravagaace.of the richer classes and their reckless expenditure on perfumes, unguents, and personal ornaments, saying that! there was *'no year in wiiich Indiajiid not drain the Roman Empire o^ahimdred milHon sesterces,"^ seridmg in return

^ r I I .

.1 jf ^ T/ie l&mi/s Eighteen Mtmdrvd Yeats Ago, ch. iii. 0 A Nzthsa^ History, xii. •^. i'

^ ;£irO«Oj"00> of TFhich-^6ob,oco went to Arabia and j^4oOjOoo to ladia; see Sommseh's Frounces of ilie Roman Empire, vol. ii., pp. 299-300.

1 2 2

HINDU PERIOD

wares which were sold for a hundred times their original value, " so dearly do we pay for our luxury and our women." What gave a great impetus to this Roman trade, and increased considerably its volume and variety, Vv'as, besides this steady and growing demand, the discovery of the rejj'ularity of the monsoons in the Indian Ocean. This discovery was made about the year 47 A.D. by a pilot named Hippalus,^ and ships began to sail direct to the port of Muziris (Muyirikolu) in Malabar—a circumstance which added immensely to the security of the cargoes which no longer had to fear the attack of Arabs on caravans crossing the deserts or of pirates on vessels hugging the coast.

The articles of this Roman trade comprised chiefly (i) spices and perfumes, (2) precicnis stones and pearls, and (3) silks, muslins, and cotton. The consumption of aromatics in Rome was stimulated by religious and funeral customs. Incense v/as burnt at every worship. At the funeral of Sylla 210 loads of spices were strewn upon the pile. Nero is reported to have burnt at the funeral of Popp:>ca fully a year's produce of cinnamon and cassia. These spices were supplied to Rome by Arabians, wlx) obtained them from India, famous from time immemorial as the land of aromatics. Pliny '^

%

' Periplus of the Erythraean Sea^ ch. Ivn.

^ Natural Hhtory, xii. 7 (14).

1 2 3

INDIAN SHIPPING

refers to the pepper^ and ginger of India and the great demand f»r them in Rome, where they wereboii^lbyweiglii; like gold and silver. Besides aromaticsaad spices^i;he articles for which there was a great inquiry in E.oman markets were precious stones, pearls, and minerals, which have been carefully noticed and described by Bliny- with a skill rivalling thai ofa. modem lapidary. The most highly prked of these stones was the beryl, found in India in only one place, namely Padiyur in the Coimbatore district, or at most in two, iVanij^ambadi in the Saiem district being said to also possess a mine; ami these ber^s were believed to be the bes!; and pure^ in the w«rld. And it is in the neigh­bourhood of these mines that the largest number of Roman ccars has been found. Thirdly, the demand

^ Cf. McOrndle, Andmii Mdia^ p. 121 : " Pepper iras in ancient times produced chefiy in those partsof India wbich adjoin the Mrlabar coast. The author of ihe Periplm names TyntEs, Muzixis. Nelkynda, and Bacare as the ports Dom which pepper was exported. The Iships, he teKs us which frequert these ports an? of a large size on account of the grea" amount and bilkiness of the p^per and beiel which fDrm the main part of their cargoes." Cf. also Mammsen, Pfwinas of tht Kon.^n Empire. vol. ii., p. 501 : " In the FlavijM period, in which the monsoon voj-ages baG already become regular, the -iv iole west coast of India was cpened up to the Roman mcEchants as far down as the coast of Makbar, the home 01' the highly estemcd and dear^priced pepper, for the sake of which they visited the porfe of Muziris (probably Mangcilura) and. l^elcyndi (in Indian doubtless NilhrnAs, from one of the sumames of the god Shira, probably the modern r«Ieswara). Soragwhat farther to the south, £* ICananor,

'^^umerous E.onian gold coins ofiihe Julio-Ckudian epochjhave been found, formerly eKchaaged against tkespices destined for the Roman Ivitchens."

^ Natural Hilaryi sxsvii. c. i.

124

HINDU PERIOD

on Irrdia in Rome was also for silk, muslin, and cotton, which were sold at fabulously high prices In the reign of Aurelian, silk was worth fully its weight in gold. Tiberius Caesar had to pass a Idw forbidding transparent silk as an indecent dress. Mr Vincent A. Smith has thus summarized the information regarding the Roman irade "with Southern India: " Tamil land had the good for­tune to possess three precious commodities not procurable elsewhere, namely pepper, pearls, and beryls. Pepper fetched an enormous price ;n the markets of Europe. . . . The pearl-fishery of the Southern Sea, which still is productive and valu­able, had been worked for untold ages, and ;ilways attracted a crowd of foreign merchants, The mines of Padiyur in the Coimbatore district were almost the only source known to the ancient world from which good beryls could be obtained, and W^ gem.'f were more esteemed by both Indians and Rom.an ? The Tamil states maintained powerful navies, an [ were visited freely by ships from both cast an ' west, which brought merchants of various plar s eager to buy the pearls, pepper, her)ds, and ctr r choice commodities of India, and to pay for th . i with the gold, silver, and art ware of Europe "

Numismatic evidences bring to li.;ht the >.c that the Indian trade with Rome was most acl^

^ £ar/y History^ p. 400.

INDIAN SHIPPING

during t^e period of eighty years from Augustus to Nero (A.D. 68) ; for the largest number of coins ^ discovered in Southern India refers tp this period. As already noticed, the locale of these discoveries points also to the conclusion that the things which India exported comprised mostly spic£s and precious stones. In the long interval behveeix; Nero and Caracalla (.A-D. 217) there must have been a decline of this trade* considering the very small\! number of coins discovered which belong to this period, aad the finds have been mostly in cotton-growing districts, so that the conclusion is irresistible that\;the trade with Rome in-snch luxuries as spices, perfumes, and precious stones must have ceased after thevdeafii of Nero, and only a limited trade in necessaries, sirch as cotton fabrics, continued. This {act is almost In keeping with, aiid indeed explained by, the r.ise OTTL

new era in social manners in Rome at this\period •finder Vespasian, when, tousethe words of Meriv^le, "the simpler Irabits of the Plebeians and the Pro­vincials prevailed over the reckless luxur^^ and dissipation in which the highest classes had so lon^

^ According to Se-ff^l, " RomaQ Coins," in the J.R.A^. fDr\;i904. "612 gold coins and iiSf silver, besides hoards discovered wkich £Je severally described as fello^^ t of gold coins * a quantity amounting- to fi'^e cooly-loads' J and of silver cjains (i) * a great mar ^ in a plate,' (2) 'about goo in an earthen pot,' (3) ' afiad of 163/ (4) ' some/ (5) ' some thousands,' also (6) of metal'not stated, ^a potfull' lliese coins are the product of fi^y-fi'se separate discoveries, mostly in the Coimbatore and Madura districts."

126 \

' HINDU PERIOD

indulged." The trade with Rome was at a low ebb from the days of Caracalla, when Rome was a prey to confusion, both internal and external, and her inhabitants could hardly think of spending large sums of money on spices, perfumes, and ornaments. There have been accordingly but [e\v finds of coin:; belonging to this period, while the discoveries in the north are larger than in Southern or Western India, The Occidental trade revived again, though slightly, under the Byzantine emperors. The localities of the coins discovered" suggest the conclusion that precious stones, cottons, and muslins were not in much request in Rome, but that an export trade was brisk in pepper and spices shipped from the southern ports both on the east and west. And so the fact need not surprise us that when Alaric spared Rome in A.D. 408 he demanded and obtained as part of the ransom 3,000 pounds of pepper.^ The most interesting discoveries of this period are the finds at Madura, comprising two classes of Roman coins, the copper issues of the regular Roman coinage, and small copper coins locally minted for daily use; and the suggestion has been made that Roman cori-mercial agents took up their residence in some of the capitals and marts of South India for trade purposes at a time -when the Roman Empire was being overrun by barbarians. Vincent Smith is

^ Gibbon, ch. xxxi.

127

INDIAN SHIPPING |i

also of the same opinion, and remarks^: "There is good reason to believe that considerable colonies of Roman subjects engaged in trade MJerc settled, in SoutheiB India during the first t vo centuries of ojr era, and tlmt European soldiei's, described as poxer-ful Ya^^Ilas, and dumb Mlecchas ibarbarnns) dad

ji

in compfetE armour, acted as bodyguards to Tamil kings, \rhile the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas lay off Muziris (Cranganore) to receive tdie cargoes of pepper paid for by Roman gold/' More in­teresting and conclusive is the evidence derived from the Tamil literature which, may be adduced here in the words of Mr. Pillay again-: " Roman soldiers were enlisted in the service o{ the Pandyas and oths* Tamil kings.". " During the reign of the Pandya Aryappad^-Kadantha-N'edunj-Cheliyan, Roman soldiers were employed to guard the gates of the fort xjf Madura."^ A poet of this period describes a TamQ king's tenf on a battlefield as follows : " A tent \vitli double wdls of canvas firmly held by iron chains, guarded by- powerful Yavanas, wliDse stern looks strike terror into evei'v beholder, and whose

^ I!

long and loose coats are fastened at the waist by means of belts, while dumb Mlecchas, clad in com­plete armourj who could express themlsElves only by

^ Early History vf IhMia, pp. 400-401.

- Uie Tanzils Eighteen Hundred Y&irs Age, ch. iir.

• Chilappathikarsm, xiv. H. 66-67.

128

HINDU PERIOD

gestures, kept close watch throughout the night in the outer chamber, constantly moving round the inner apartment, which was lighted by a handsome lamp."^ It is evident from this description that Yavana and othec Mlechchhas or foreigners were employed as bodyguards by ancient Tamil kings. Mr. Vincent SmiEh further says: " It is even stated, and no doubt truly, that a temple dedicated to Augustus existed at Muziris. Another foreign (Yavana) colony was settled at Kaviripaddanam, or Pukar, a busy port situated on the eastern coast at the mouth of the nortEern branch of the Kaviri (Cauveri) river. Both town and harbour disappeared long since, and now lie buri#d under vast mounds of sand. The poems tell of the importation of Yavana wines, lamps, and vases, and their testimony is confirmed by the discovery in the Nilgiri megalithic tombs of numerous bronze vessels similar to those known to have been pro­duced in Europe during the early centuries of the 'Chrfetian era, and by statements of the Feriplus!'

We have now dealt with the numismatic evidences that point unmistakably to the trade of Indm. with Rome. But the fact of this Roman inteM;ourse is further very satisfactorily established by the various references ^ we find in the native

^ Muliaipaddu, ii. 59-66.

^ These references have been dealt with in thaJ.A.S.B. for 1906. New Series; vol. ii., by Dr. Satischandra Vidyabbusana, M.A., Ph.D.

1 2 9 K

INDIASN" SHn^PING

literature ©f India, in the ancient Sanskrit and Pali works, to Romaka oc the city of Rome. Thus the MahabhoAata speaks of the Romaka! or Romans coniifig toJ;he EmpeiDr Yudhisthira witi> precious presents oa the occasion of the Rajasuya Yijua at Indraprastha or DelhL^ In tke five famous astro­nomical ^orks named Paitamaha, Vdsishtha^ Suryya^ J^atdisa, ami Romaka Siddkantas^ some of which vv re compiled in the 3rd or 2nd 'centtiry A,D.,

' I

Romaka ii often merrtioned as a Mahdfit^, Pat-tana, or h^sayay Le. a great city, state, or dominion. Varakamidra, who ffeurished about AIP. 505, also mentions Lomaka in liis well-known works Fancha-Siddhdnfira and VrHiat-Sanhitd. In a passage^ in the former work he says that while there is sun­rise at Lanxa there is midnight at Romaka, and in the i6th chapter of the Vrihat-SanJiitd he speaks of the Romaka^d Romans standing under the influence of Chandra or the moon. Lastly, in the Pali Piiaka Romaka is mentioned the Roniaka-ydtaka^ which describes a. sham priest killing a pigeon to eat it

{MahaUiaraia, Sabha Parva^ ch. j n )

^ "51?? Itr^'3^^4'T Ttw^TP f % f 5 ^ "Siwri I

130

HINDU PERIOD

contrary to Buddhist practices, evidently to show the contrast of a Buddhist ascetic with a Roman ascetic.

Besidjps these evidences from ancient Indian works regarding the intercourse with Rome, there are also evidences from foreign works bearing on the subject. We have already referred to the enumeration and description of the vegetable and mineral products which India sent abroad, by Vlinv, who calls India *' the sole mother of precious stones," "the great producer of the most costly gems." Even as far back as 177 B.C., Agatharcides, v/ho was President of the Alexandrian Library, and is mentioned with respect by Strabo, Pliny, and Diodorus, describes Sabaea (Yemen) as being the centre of commerce between Asia and Europe, and very wealthy because of the monopoly of the Indian trade. He also saw large ships coming from the Indus and Patala. But the more im­portant works in this connection are undoubtedly the Periphis of the Erythraean Sea (A.D. 100) and Ptolemy's Geography (A.D. 140). The Periphis, a sort of marine guide-book, is the record of an experienced sailor who navigated the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Malabar and Coromandel coasts, and resided for many years at Barygaza-Bharoach. According to the Periplus, BJiaroach was the princi­pal distributing centre of Western India, from which the merchandise brought from abroad was

131 K 2

INDIAN SHIPPING

carried to the inland countries. Paithan, situated at twenty days' journey to-tl^e south JDf Barygaza, and Taga-a, ten days' east of Pitnan (modern Dkarur in the Nizam's territory), were two inland towns of great comma-cial importance, of which the fonner sent into Bkaroach for export waggons containing large quantities of onyx stones, and the fetter ordinary cottons, mudins, mallow-coloured cottons, and other articles of local production. The other seaport towns mentioned in the Psri^kis are Souppara [modern Supara, near Bassein), KalHena (modern Lalyan), a place by the way *'af great commercid importance, since a good pany of the donors whose names are inscribed in |the caves at Hanhiri and some mentioned m the cayes at Junnar ivere nierrhants fesiiing' in Ka]yan['" - SeraiiUa (identified with Chembur by some and Chaul by others), Marfcdagora (modern Mandad), Palaipatamai (probably Pal near Mahad), Melizeigara {modern Jayagad), and others To the south] three great emporia are mentioned, viz. Tyndis, Muziris, and Ndkynda, from which were exported pepper, spices, pearl, ivory, fine silks, and precious stones, such aS diamonds, rabies, and ameth).'5ts. It may also be mentioned that the Periplus noticed large Hindu ships off East African, Arabian, and Persian ports

^ J,B.B.R.l.^.^.voL vi.; Arch. Sur. W. India, 2yo. l o ; and Dr. Bhandarkar's Esriy History qffhe Deccan,

132

HINDU PERIOD

and Hindu settlements on the north coast of Socoira. In fact, as pointed out by Dr. Vincent, " in the age of the Periphis, thi merchants of the country round Barygaza traded tc3 Arabia for gums and incense, to the coast of Africa for gold, and to Malabar and Ceylon for peppei and cinnamon,' and thus com­pleted the navigation of the entire Indian Ocean." T\\^Periplns also throws some light on the shipping of the period. According to it, the inhabitants of the Coromandel coast traded in vessels of their own witk those of Malabar, and at all seasons there was a number of native ships to be found in the harbour of Muziris. Three marts are mentioned on the Coromandel coast in which " are found the native vessels vrhich make coasting voyages to Limurike—the monoxyla of the largest sort, cnlled smigara, and others styled colandiophonta, which are vessels of great bulk and adapted to the voyages made to the Ganges and the Golden Chersoncs " 'I

" Commerce of t!ic Ardents^ vol. ii., p. 404.

^ Dr. Vincent makeh the following interesting comment in t!iis con­nection : "The different sorts ^vessels constnictcd in these por ;, ar^ corKspbndent to modern accounts; the monoxyla are still in u --, not canoes, as they are irap»perly rendered; but with their loundation formed of a single timber, hollohved, and then raised with tiers of planking till they wiir contain TOO or 150 men. Vessels of this sort are employed a tht intacourse between tlie two coasts; but the colatidiopho'nta,\i\i\ii fir the trade to Malacca, perhaps to China, were exceedingly large and stout, resembling probably those described by Marco Polo and Nicolo di Conti." Varthema likewise mentions vessels of this sort at Tarnasari (MasuJipatam) that were of 1000 ton? burthen (lib. vi., ch. 12) designed for tlii;. ver/

INDIAN SHIPPhNG

Some dendJs are also given regarding the trade-routes. The ships carrying on the India* trade started from Myos Hormos or Berenikii, and sailed down the Red Sea to Mou^a (twenty-fi-ve miles somth of 3okha) and thence to the \yatering-place Okelis at the straits. They then foUcaved the Arabian csast as far ^BS Kane, passing on the way EudaimoK (Aden), Ai-abia, oace a great mart for Indian trailers. From Kane the routes to India diverge, ssEoe ships saling to the Indus aod on to Bar)^gaza, and others direct to the poiits of Limy-rike (MaE^ar coasi),. There was also another route to Limyrikc, starting from Aropiata (Cape Guardafui). In all three voyages the ships made use of the monsoon, tken called Hippa os, starting from Egypt in July. I

Ptolerm^s Ge&grapiy describes the whde sea coast from Sic mouths -of the Indus to those of the Ganges, asid mentions many towns and ports of comraercialainportance. These are, among otherS( Syrastra (Stint), IVIonoglosson (Mangrol)jin Guzerat, Ariake (Maharasthra),^ Soupara, Muziris, Baskarei, Maisolia (Itoslipatam)^ Kounagara (KonarakX and other places. Bishop Caldwell has pointed onl that

trade to Malacca, The other vesels employed on the coast of Malabar, as Trapagga aniIS;oituniba,it is r»t necessarj-to describe'} they iuve still in the Eastern Cfeac germs, tranfees, dows, grabs, gaiivats], praajcfc, junks. champans, etc." {Coimnercevf thcAtzdsnts^ vcJ. ii., p. 521.)

ii ^ Grammar (^^is Dramdian i^ngttages^ p. 94.

HINDU PERIOD

in these three works, viz. Pliny's Natural History, the Periphis, and Ptolemy's Geography, is to be found the largest stock of primitive Dravidian words contained in any written documents of ancient times.

More interesting and reliable information re­garding some of these South Indian ports is supohed by the Tamil literature of the times, in which are contained descriptions of their magnitude and magnificence which cannot fail to bring home to our minds the throbbing international life pen^ading entire Tamilakam. Thus Muchiri, an important seaport near the mouth of the Periyar, is described by a Tamil poet as follows : "The thriving town of Muchiri, where the beautiful large ships of the Yavanas, bringing gold, come splashing the white fo^m on the waters oi the 'Ptnyar wJiich htlcmgs to the Cherala, and return laden with pepper."" "Fis i is bartered for paddy, which is brought in l:askets to the houses," says another poet: " sacks of pepper are brought from the houses to the market; the gold received from ships, in exchange for articles sold, is brought to shore in barges at Muchiri, where the music of the surging sea never ceases, and where Kudduvan (the Chera King) presents to visitors the rare products of the seas and mountains."-' The description given of Kaviripaddinam (the Kamara

^ Erukkaddnr Tlmyan Kannanar-Aka-in, 148,

2 Oaranar -Puram, 343.

INDIAN SHIPPING

of the Pertplus and Khaberis of Ptxjlemy; or Pukar are equally important and inspiring, 'it was built on the no*hern bank of the Xaviri river, then a broad and deep stream into which heavily laden ships entered from the sea without slacking sail. The town \r^s divided into two paits, one of which, Maruvar-Pakkam, adjcaned the sea-coast. Near the beach in Ma^uvar-Pakiam werexaised platforms and godowns and wareho^Jies where the goods landed from ships were stored. Here the goods were stamped wiMi the Tiger Stamp (the emblem of the Chola kings^ after payment of customs duty, and passed on to merchants' warehouses.^ Close by were the settlements of the Yavana merchants, where

II '

many attractive articles were always exp'Osed for sale. Here were also tfe quarters of foreign traders who had conrs from beyond the seas and \yho spoke various tongms. Vendbrs of fragrant pastes and powders, of ftowers and mcense, tailors who worked on silk, wool, -or cotton, traders in sandal, aghil, coral, pearl, gD d, and precious stones, grain mer­chants, washermen, dealers in fish and saltsjlbutchers, blacksmiths, braziers, xarpenters, coppersmiths, painters, sculptors, goldsmiths, cobblers, 'and toy-makers—all Ihad their habitation in Mamvar-Pakkam.^ Aaother accDunt thns describes the

•• Paddinappeiaii 134-130. - Chilwppathikaram.

136

HINDU PERIOD

markets of Kaviripaddinam: "Horses were brought from distant lands beyond the seas; pepper was broight in ships ; gold and precious stones came from the northern mountains; sandal and aghil came from the mountains towards the west; pearls from the Southern seas, and coral from the Eastern seas. The produce of the regions watered by the Ganges; all that is grown on the banks of the Kaviri; articles of food from Elam or Ceylon and the manufacturers of Kalakam" (in Burma) were brought to the markets of Kaviripad­dinam.^ What is again worth noting is the fact thiit in these Chola ports there were lighthouses built of brick and mortar which exhibited blazing lights at night to guide ships to ports. It i alsj said that the paiacc of the Chola king in the city o( Kaviripaddinam was built by "skilled artisans from Magadha, mechanics from Maradam, smiths froin Avanti, carpenters from Yavana, and the cleverest workmen in the Tamil land."^

It may be noted in passing that in the period we are considering, India also maintained a sort of political connection with Rome, besides the com­mercial. Strabo ^ mentions that a mission or an embassy was sent to Augustus Caesar in 20 u.c. by

^ Paddinappalai^ 1-40.

^ The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, pp. 16, 24, 25, cad a j .

Book XV., ch. iv., 73.

37

INDIAN SHIPPING

the Indian "king Pandion., It is now settled beyond doubt that Pandion was the king of thej Pandya.s of the south, "vho wQ e tiien the only people in India that perce ved the advantages of d\ EuDopean aJIiaHce tha was first entered into in the days of the Mauryan aaperors of Northern India. 'Strabo also mentions l3t,c name of Zarmano-Khegas; i.e. one of the German^e, still called Sarnaanes bv the Hindus, as one of th^ ambassadors from Porus, kjng of 600 kings, to Augustus, who burnt himself at Athens ; his epitaph v^as, " Here rests Khegas or Ehegam the Jogue, an Indian from Barugaza (or Bhroach), who rendered hin'self immortal according to the custom of his country."^ The embassies to Augustus are also alluded :o by Dion Casskis,- by Florus,^ and Orosiiis.^ Dion Cassius® (A.D. J8O) also speaks of Trajan receiving many embasies fromll Indians, With regard tD this embassy Mr, Vincent 'A. Smith remarks: " T i e Ind^n embassy which offered its congratuJatioTB to Trajaa after his arrival ;in Rome in 99 A.D. probably was dispatched by Kadphises II. to announce his conquest of North-Western India."

1 Dr. Vincent's Ommerce of the Aficienis, vd. i^ p. ig. 2 Bist. Mojne, ix. ^3. 3 Epitome of Rovrrn History, iv. rz. * Historyi vi. 12. ' Hist. Rome, ix- j 8 . Dion Caffiius also saj-s (IxYii. zS)',!: " Ttajan

having reached the accan (at the moutii of the Tigris) saw a vessel setting sail for India."

^ Early History eflndia^ New Edition, p. 2j8.

138

HINDU PERIOD

Eusebius Pampheli ^ speaks of Indian ambassadors bringing presents to Constantine the Great; and Ammianus Marcellinus"^ of embassies sent by Indians to the Emperor Juhan in 361 A.D.

The explanation of this intercourse of India with Rome is to be found in the fact that " from the time of Mark Antony to the time of Justinian, i.e. from B.C. 30 to A.D. 550, their political importance as allies against the Parthians and Sassanians, and their commercial importance as controllers of one of the main trade routes between the East and the West, made the friendship of the Kusans or Sakas, who held the Indus Valley and Baktria. a matter of the highest importance to Rome."° How close ivas the friendship is shown in A.D. 60 by the Roinan general Corbulo escorting the Plyrcanian ambas­sadors up the Indus and through the territories of the Kushans or Indo-Scythians on their return f:om their embassy to Rome.'* This close connecdor between India and the Roman Empire during the period of the Kushans also explains the ma^s of accurate information regarding the Indus valley and Bactria which Ptolemy in the ist century V.D , and the author of the Periplus had been able to record, \vhile it also accounts for the special \alue

^ De Vita Constant, iv, 50. ° xxii. vii. 10. 3 Bombay Gazetteer^ vol. i., Part i,, p. 490, * Rawlinson's/'tfrA^/ff, 271.

INDIAN SHIPPING

of the gifts which the Periplus notices "A ere sef apart for iiie rulers of Sindh. One other result Qi this long-continued afiiancewas, as has (been, already indicated^ the gaining by the Kushan and other rulers of t ie Peshawar and the Punjab of a know­ledge of Roman coinage and astronom}^.

After Hiny, Ptolemy, and tlie Peri^his, the next important foreign notice of Indian commerce is that of Cosmas Indicopleustes (A.D. 535), which, though of a later ^ t e , may be most conveniently considered here. His Christian Topography furnishes some interesting particulars respecting Ceylon and the Malabar coast, incluckd in which he preserves for us alsa a few Tamil words. Hej speaks of Mala or ^falabar as iie chief seat of jthe pqjper trade, and mentions the five pepper! mails of Poudopatama, Nalopatana, Salopatana., Manga-fouth, and Parti, and also other ports farther northward lai the wesfern coast, such as Kallyan and Surat. _He describes Ceylon underi the name of Serendip-as the place where ""were inxported the silk of Sinae-Roman China and the precious spices of the Eastern countries, and which were conveyed thence to al parts of In3ia and to other countries." He then considers Ceyloa^ as thecentre of.commerce between Chkia. and the &ulf of Persia and the !Red Sea. It wasaiso -'a g r^ t resort of ships from all

IVkiCrindle's Anrient India, p. i6i.

140

HINDU PERIOD

parts of India and from Persia and Ethiopia, and in like manner it dispatches many of its own to foreign ports." He is the first Western author who "fully asserts the intercourse by sea between India and China," ^ and alludes to the Eastern trade of India, of which we now must give an account.

^ Dr. Vincent's Ccinnierce of the Ancients, vol. ii., pp. 50J-600.

141

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER IV.

T H E PER-'-aD OF HINDU IMPERIALISM IN NORTH­

ERN INDIA UNDER THE GUPTAS AND "HAR-

S H A V - k i ^ D H A N A — T H E FOUNDATION OF A

G R E / ^ R INDIA : INTERCOURSE WITH FARTHER

INDIA-

THROUGHOUT the centuries when India caaied on her maritbfi£: and political intercourse iwith JRome she also maintained an equally active commerce with the is:ther East. The trade with the West" alone was unable to give a full scope fo her throbbing iirternational life. We have already indi^ Gated sonL^of the evidences supplied by Buddhist texts belonging to a period of a thousand years from 600 !-£., which all point to a complete aaviga-tion of the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean and the flow c£ 3. steady and ceaseless traffic fcEtween Bengal an5 Ceylon, Madras and Burma. Those evidences :a.ve been set forth in great detail, and need not bca-eproduced here. As Elphinstone ^ has pointed oin, *' the inhabitants of the coast of Coro-mandel secEi early to have been distinguisked by

^ History of India, p. 185.

142

HINDU PERIOD

their maritime enterprise from their countiymer on the west of India." Mr. Vincent Smith ^ also say5: " Ancient Tamil literature and the Greek and Roman authors prove that in the first two centuries of tae Christian era the ports on the Coromandal or C.iola coast enjoyed the benefits of active commerce nith both West and East. The Chola fleets did not confine themselves to coasting voyages, but boldly crossed the Bay of Bengal to the mouths of the Ganges and the Irrawaddy, and the Indian Oce^n to the islands of the Malay Archipelago." Of the precise part played by the Tamils and their trade with Eastern nations, no detailed accounts are available, but according to our authority on this subject, Mr. Pillay, there are many illusions in ancient Tamil poems to voyages undertaken by merchants and others to Nagapuram in Chavakam (Sumatra or Java), Kalakam in Burma, and sea­ports in Ceylon and Bengal. Thus a ship sailing from the coast of Madura to Chavakam (Java) is said to have touched at Manipallavam, an island between Ceylon and India on which was one of the sacred seats of Buddha. Again, in another Tamil poem of the ist century A.D. it is said that ships from Kalakan (the ancient name of Kaddarir m in Burma) brought articles of merchandise Xo Kaiirip-paddinmn^ the great emporium at the mouth of the

^ Early History of India, p. 415.

H3

INDIAN SHIPPING I

Kaveri.^ ILower Burma or Pegu was conquered by emigra3:ts from the Telugu kiiigdoms boidering on the Bs^ of Beagal, and consequently :he people of Pegu hsB e long been known to the Burmse and to all fore%Ti£rs by the name of Talaing.^

Next t-* the Tamils in the eastu^ard maritime activity of ndia the pioneering work seems to have been done rjid the lead taken by the ancient king­dom of Kadnga on the eastern sea-board, wkich is said to ha^-i been founded '* at least eight centuries before Chjs ;t, * and which extended from the miouth of the Gan^s to the mouth of the Krishna, *' It formed ome -f the five ^ outJying kingdoms of ancient India, with cts capital about halfway down the coast and still sn^viving in the present city of KaJinga-patam." ^ Hiis kingdom was ruled h for many centuries fej princes of the Buddhist 'persuasion, a religioa 3^hich did not tolerate any antipathy against fo»d^ nations. The materials for the early histDn of this kingdom are mainly monu­mental in ttear character. Some of the inscrip­tions "speai of navigation and ship-commerce as forming pan of thje' education of the Lprinccs of

^ Paddb^^alai^ 1. rgi.

^ Sir A.Zl, Phayre's History of Surma, pp. 28 and 31.

^ HunJ:Q3 Orissa, p, 188. |,

^ Viz. i k ^ , Banga, Kalinga, Shuma, and PundraJ.

* Hunteri Orissa, vol. i., p. 170.

144

HINDL^ PERIOD

Kalinga."'^ The Chilka Lake in those days mace an excellent harbour for anchorage, " crowded with ships from distant conntries."^ The conjecture rnuy be hazarded that the great sea-king Bali of the Rcima-yana might have been no other than a monarch of the sea-coast kingdom of Kalinga. At first confining their maritime effort i to Ceylon, the Klings {':oxi\ mere coasting soon b(;gan to make bolder voyages across the Bay of Bengal. From the eviderices furnished by the Btiddhagat, or the sacred scripture of the Burmese in particular, it is clear that a steady commercial intercourse was cultivated with Burma by the Buddhist merchants of Kalinga, which bOon led to missionary undertakings for the propagation of tiieir religion, and aftenvards to the .ussumpiion of political supremacy in the land.^ One of Asoka's religious missions was to Suvarna-bhumi or Burma, and one of the most famous of Hindu settlements, the remains of which still exist, was 1 hara-khctra

^ Huntei^s Orissa, vol. i., p. 197. Hunter remarks ; "' This and cither-i of the inscriptions prove, in tlie opinion of the scholrr to whom ru; owr their decipherings, that Kalinga was at that time an emporium of fade. We know from other sources that, shut out as Orissa wcii tVom the aeneral policy of India, it boarjted of fabrics which it could r-end as \aluable presents to the most civilized monarchs of the interior. So fine nM> tiu; linen which the prince of Kalinga sent to the King of Oydh, that a [ rirstess who put on the gauzy fabric was accused of appearing naktd." (" Cc^ma's Analysis of the Dulva," faurnai As. Soc, of Bmgat, vi.. 1837.)

^ History of Ftiri, b}' Brojokishore Ghosh.

3 " History of the Burma Race," by Col. Sir A. Phnyre, A.S.J.. no. -1864, and no. 2, 186S.

145 J-

INDIAN SHIPPINC

near Prome:. According to R. F. St,; Andrew St. John,^ " somewhere ^ o u t 300 A.D. people fK)m the west coast of the Bay of Bengal found-ed colonies on the coasts of the Gulf of Martabaia, of which the principal appear to have been' Thalon or Saddhammanagara." The intercourse liEtween KaEi^a aad Burma also appears from Sir A. P. Phayre's stafe^ment ofroins and medalsjwith Hindu symbols being found in Pegu.^ "That there was intercourse also with Malacca is evident from many words in ibe Malayan language which Marsden has traced to ax Indian orBanskrit origin, there are KHngs or descendants of ancient KaBr^a at Sir^apore." lowest clas of Indians, and their name is derived from Kalim^a in India, from whence they arc said to have come. Indians, moreover, of a higher grade, Mate,sees, Tamils, etc., are also called Klings at Singapon:.^ With reference to this ancient trade Sir WaltCT Elliot obsrves: "There is no doubt that the intercourse between the east coast of India and the whde of the opposite coast of the Bay of Bengal and the Straits of Malacca was far greajter in ancient times. . . . It had attained its height at the time the BuddBiists were in theascendantjli.e. diring

To this day settlers from

The Klings are the

1 " Histoiy uT t i e Burma Ra^," by Col S r A. Phajre 2 JM.A.S., -DS98. • ^ IBsiory ofJ?vT}na, P- S^-^ Mission LJ^ May, 1867.

146

in AS J.

HINDU PERIOD

the first five or six centuries of our era. The first great Buddhist persecution both checked it and also drove great numbers of the victims to the opposite coiist. The Tamil and Tekigu local histories and tradition are full of such narratives. When the Chahikya princCj brother of the King of Kalyan, was foundmg a new kingdom at Rajamundry, which in\'olved the rooting out and dispersion of the pre-existing rulers, nothing is more probable than that some of the fugitives should have found their way to Pegu. One Tamil IVlS. refers to a party of Buddhist exiles, headed by a king of Manda, flying in their ship from the coast." ^

1 Sir A. p. Phayre, " History of Pegu," in A.SJ. 187 3.

147 L 3

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER V.

T H E PERIOD OF HINDU IMPERIALISM I NORTHERN

•iKDiAlcoi^fhmed): T H E COLONIZATION OF JAVA.

PERHAPS the most interesting- and conspktEous fact in connectian with the Indian maritime activity towards the East is the Hindu colonization of Java, one of tbe2ix)st glorious' achievements recorded in the entire iiistory of tie country. And yet the first impulse to this colonizing activity and expansion of India had its origin in the obscure Ikingdom of Kalinga, whose early tistory nobody knows or cares to know. As far back as the 75th y ^ r of the Christian era a band of. Hindu navigators sailed from Kalinga, and, kistead of' plyingj within the usual limite of the Bay of Beagal, boldly ventured out into tire open limitless expanse of the Indian Ocean and arrived at the island of Java. There

I! the adveniurous navigators planted a colony, built towns aniT dties, and devek)ped a trade with the mother country which existed for several centuries, The kistoiy of this Hindu colonization of Java is thus brieflj put by E^hinstone : " The histories of Java give a distinct account of a numerous body of Hindus fr-om Clinga (Kalinga) who landed on thia

148

HINDU PERIOD

island, civilized the inhabitants, and who fixed the date of their arrival by establishing the era still subsisting, the first year of which fell in the 75th year after Christ. The truth of this narrative is pi'oved beyond doubt by the numerous and magnifi­cent Hindu remains that are still existing in Java, and by the fact that, although the common language is Malay, the sacred language, that of historical and political compositions and of most inscriptions, Is a dialect of Sanskrit. The early date is almost as decisively proved by the journal of the Chinese pilgrim in the end of the 4th century who found Java entirely peopled by Hindus, and who sailed from the Ganges to Ceylon, from Ceylon to Java, and from Java to China in ships manned by cr::ws professing the Brahminical religion." ^

That Kalinga had a large share in the coloni. a-tron of Java and the adjacent islands is hinted at not only in the native chronicles of Java but is also accepted as truth by many competent schohrs. Crawford (A.D. 1820) held that all Hindu influen':c in Java came from Kalinga or North-East Madras. Fergusson^ also observes: "The splendid remdns at Amravati show that from the mouths of ti.ie Krishna and Godavari the Buddhists of Ncrth and North-West India colonized Pegu, Cambodia,

^ History of India^ Co\7eirs Edition, p. 185.

^ Indian Architecture, p. 103.

149

INDIA:>J SHIPPINGii II

and ex^eiiimlly the island of Java," Tavermier' in A.D. 1666 pemarked ttiat " Masulipatam is the only place in £he Bay of Bengal from W-hich vessels sailed eastwards for Bengal, Arrakan,|iPegu, Siam, Sumatra, Cochin China, and the Manillas, and west to Hormci;!, Makha, and Madagascar." Ij Inscriptions also bear out the correctness of the connection between thtE Kalmga. coast and Javal;which Java legends have preser\^d,2 Besides, as Dr. Bhan-darkar kas pointed oitt^ in his article on the eastern passage oTthe Sakas, certain inscriptions also show a MagadiE element wliich may have r.eached Java from Sumatra, and Sumatra from thei; coast either of Bengal or Orissa. It is further observed, in the Bombay Gazetteer, that " the Hindu settlenaent of Sumatra TSS almost entirely from the 'least coast of India, asd that Bengal, Orissa, and Masuipatam had a large share En colonizing both Java and Cambodia cannot be doubted."^ '1

There is, however; another legend preserved in the native chronicles of Java which transfers the credit of its colonis,tion from Kalihga on the eastern co^t to Guja-at on the west. According

^ Ball's Tiaslation, i, 174 ' ||

^ IMian J&iiquaryy v.. 314, vi. 356; referred tol'in thC: Bombay Gazeiteer^ voLL, Part i., p. 496^ •!

^ Journal, Bombay Branck if S..A.S., xvii. ,'

* Vol. i., :ferrt i., p. 493. Ij

150 1; li

HINDU PERIOD

to this legend, a great and powerful prince from Gujarat named Aji Saka made his descent on the island about A.D. 75, but was soon compelled to \vitkdraw in consequence of a pestilence or . ome other calamity. This story was perhaps invented only to show the connection of the ancient royal dynasty of Java with the Saka kings of Northern India. The Javanese chronicles, however, record, besides this abortive attempt, another more success­ful attempt^ at colonization, made again from the west coast of India, about A.D. 603, when a ruler from Gujarat, forewarned of the coming destruction of his kingdom, started his son with five thousand followers, among whom were cultivators, artisans, warriors, physicians, and writers, in six large and a hundred small vessels towards Java. After some difficulty they got to the western coast of Java, and built there the town of Mendang Kumulan. The son soon sent for more men to his father, who dis­patched a reinforcement of 2,000, including carvers in stone and brass. An extensive commerce sprang up with Gujarat and other countries, and the foun­dations were laid of temples that were aftervwirds known as Prambanam and Borobudur, the grandest specimens of Buddhist art in the whole of Asia. These legendary facts are probably connected with some central event in a process which continued

^ History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, vol. ii., p. 82.

INDIAN SHIPPING

for at least lialf a century before ari'd after the beginning <if the 7th century, a process of Saka migration that was stimulated by the then con­dition of Northern India, and was] almost a sequence of the final collapse of the Saka power at the beginning of the 5th century, when the Saka kingdom ot Siirashthra or Kathiawar was conquered by Chandra Gupta 11./ and Brahmanism supplanted Buddhism as the dominant State religion in India. Then. " the Buddhist art-traditions went with the Saka immigrants into Java, where they reached their highest expression in the magnificent sculpture of Borobudar." ^ There were, however, other forces at work widdi conspired to bring about a general movement smong Northern Indians. The defeat of the White Hunas by Sassanians and Turks between A.D. 550 ac-d 600 intercepted tlieir retreat north­wards ; secDidly, there A ere the cdnquests of

Prabhakaravardhana, the father of S'rlrHarsha of i |

Magadha, who defeated the king of Gandhara, the Hunas, the king of Sindh, the Giirjjarasj the Latas, and the kin^ of Malava; and thbdly, there followed close upos them the further defeats inflicted by S'ri-Harsha- himself about twenty years later (A.D. 610-642), SD that there would be quite Iswarms of refugees at flie Gujarat ports eager to escape further

^ See T. A. Smith's Eoj-fy History of liidia, pp. i86,187.

^ IndiasSmipture nnd Painfmgi by E.B. Havell, p. 113

HINDU PERIOD

attack and to share in the prosperity of Java. If we add to these the follOAving further events which al! took place during the second half of the 7th century, viz. the advance of the Turks from the north, and of the Arabs both by sea (A.D. 637) and through Persia^ (A.D. 650-660), the conquering progress- o:' a Chinese army from Magadha to Bamian in A.D. 645-650, the overthrow (A.D. 642) of the Buddhist Saharais by their usurping Brahmanist mi.lister Chach, and his persecution of the Jats, we have a concatenation of circumstances which sufficiently explains the resulting movement, fairly constant, cf Northern Indians southwards from the ports t.f Sindh and Gujarat, a movement which, though caused by fear, would be strengthened by the titiingh of Javan prosperity reaching the leaders, P'ot the same enterprise and ambition that led Alexand'-^r to put to sea from the mouths of the Indus, Trajan frorn the mouth of the Tigris, and Mahmud of Ghazni from Somnath, must also have driven the

^ In 637 A.D. laidere attaclted Thana from Oman and BhioaLh, a d Sindh from Bahrein —Reinaud's M'emoire stir I'lnde^ 170,176.

^ The Chinese emperor sent an ambassador, Ouarg-h-TOicntsi, to S'l-Harsha, who, on his arrival, found he was dead (AD. 542) and hv pli :e usurped by a minister who drove him off. The envoj" rstircJ to 1 il et, aiid with help from Tibet and Nepal he returned, defeated the usurper, nnd pursued him to the Gandbara river. The passage was forced, ihc ar.ay captured, the king, queen, and their sons were led prisoners to (Jima, and 580 cities surrendered; the magistrates proclaimed the victory in tlie Temple of the '\iicient3, and the emperor raised the rank of the triumphsnt ambassador.

INDIAN SHIPPING

Saka, Huna, and Gurjjara chiefs to leacj'. thdr men south to the land of rubies and gold^

1 In compari^ the relative importance of the western a»-t eastern Indian strains in Java, it is to be lEmerabered Ihat tke western elonent has been overlaid hy. a late Baigal snd Kalinga. layer of fugitivadrom the Tibetan conquest of Bengal in ifae 8th centKry and during the gth and later centuries hfiands of Buddhets withdrawing from a land xrtere their religion was no Inager honoured.—Sctnbay Gazetteer., vtrf. i', p. 4 ^ .

154

HINDU PERIOD

CHAPTER VI.

THE PERIOD OF HINDU IMPERIALISM TN

NORTHERN INDIA {continued): THE MARITIME

ACTIVITY OF THE BENGALIS.

THERE was also another people that played a verv prominent part in the sea-borne trade and colonizing activity of India towards the East The testimony that history bears to the military, religious, and maritime enterprise and achievements of the ancient Buddhistic Bengali in the earlier cemturies of the Christian era now scarcely wins belief and accept-ajjce. Yet It is an incontrovertib]e fact that Beugal of old gave birth to men who marched armies beyond the frontiers of modern India and ruled for a time as the paramount power in the land ; who braved the perils of the deep in armed galleys, and carried home foreign itinerants in their ships. It is also equally noteworthy that from very early times sh(2 has been the home of many a religious move­ment whose influence penetrated to lands far beyontl her limits. It is hardly sufficiently known that during the first few centuries of the Christian era an enthusiastic band of devoted Bengalis, burning with a proselytizing zeal, went as far as China, Corea, and Japan, canying with them the torch of the

^55

INDIAN SHIPPING

Buddhistic fkith, while her Buddhistic scholars and ii

reformers, ike Atlsha, Dipankara, and S'ilabhadra, achieved an Asiatic fame, and were kno\ n through­out the wi(fer Buddhistic world. It is also a recent discovery tliat some of the scriptures of the Japanese priests preserved in the Horiuzi temple; cf Japan are written En Bengali clmracters of the i ith centuiy,^ thus teslifykig to the extraordinary vitality of Ben­gali rel^ious activity that made itself! felt even in the Land of the. Rising S I R . Artis s and art-critics also See in the magnificent Sculptures of the Burobudur fenple in Java the hand of Eengali artists who iKDrked side by,side with the people of Kalinga and-Gujarat in thus building up ii:s early civilization. And the numerous representations of ships which we find in the vast panorama of the bas-reliefs of that colossal temple reveal the ty^ of ships whiich ihe people o( Lower Bengal built and used in safl i^ to Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, China, and Japan, injiursuit of their colonizing ambition, commercial interests, and artistic and Irdigious missions. The Mahdwcaisa and other Buddhistic works tell us liow as early as about SSO B.C. Prince

^ 1 1 ^ The prists oF ihe temple woship the manuscript of a BaddlEstic

York called Usfdsa Vjjaya Dharnii^ -written in a character considered bj experts to be i d e n d ^ with that prevalent in Biaigal in the 6th centary. Vide Aneciota Oxcr^sts, vol. iii. For information regardii^ this and some other points cosnecled with ancient Bengali enterprise, I am indebted to Srijukta Dineshcfcader Sen, the learned author of the History of Bar^aU Literature.

155

HINDU PERIOD

Vijaya of Bengal with his 700 followers achiev^ed the conquest and colonization of Ceylon, and gave to the island the name of Sinhala after that of his dynasty—an event which is the starting-point of Sinhalese histoiy. It is also said tliat in a . till earlier period the Bengalis of Cl^mpa, near Eha-galpur, founded a, settlement in Cochin China, and named it after their famous native town. No less creditable also v\£re the artistic achievement-, of Bengal ; besides, as we have seem, influencing the art of Borobudur, Bengali art hzs influenced that of Nepal through the schools of painting, sculpture, and works in cast metal founded about the middle of the 9th century by Dhiman and his son Bitpal, inhabitants of Barendra, and from Nepal the art of the Bengali masters spread to China and other parts of the Buddhistic world.

This tradition of Bengalis being once fanums for their maritime enterprises and commercial activities has aiso been, as may be naturally expected, well preserved in their literature. yio folk-lore is so popular in Bengal as those volumes of poetry evoked Ijy devotion to the goddesse.; of

^ Rhys David's Buitdldst India^ P- 35-

^ Indian Antiquary^ vol. iv., p. loi . Mr. Ila'^ell, in his Indian Sc!ily!i:-c and Painting^ writes: " From the seaports of her eastern and wc- trr'i cjasta India sent streams oF colonistSj missionaries, and craftsmen al' o^xx Southern Asia, Ceylon, Siam, and far-distint Cimbodia. Through China and Korea Indian art eatered Japan about the middle of the 6th untiry "

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INDIAN SHIPPING f I ,

Ghandl anil Matlasa, snd in them are contained accounts of the maritime adventures of merchants like Dhanspati, S'rimanta, and Chand ijSaoddgara/

-which, in spte of the miraculous details invented and imported inlo them by a pious imagination snd warm religious feeling, cont^n a nucleus of!;truth, and unmistakabfypoint to one of the ivays through which the national genius of the country chose'! to express itself In the same manner that Shakespeare's Antonio had " an argosy bound for Tripolyj annther for the Indies, a third for Mexibo, and a' fourtii for England," is our Indim S'rimanta represented to possess meirhantmen trading to the Coroma-ndel coast, to Ceylon, to Malacca, Java, and China. The vast collection of poems known as the Pa-dtna Purdna or Manasdmangala is formed biy che con­tributions o£ more than fifty authors wh'o have all described sei voyages. About eight or nine poems form the gronp of poems celebrating the-glories of the goddess Chandi, an(3 in nearly all oi\\ them are also contaimid accounts of sea voyages. These works belong to so late a period as the i6th century, and their vatae lies in tlie fact that they thus carry down to comparativel)^ late times the tradition of the Bengalis beki^ once known for their comniercial and maritime pursuits. The oldest record iii Bengali literature is that of Narayanadeva, a post who lived about the latter pait of the 13th century, and who has givei a graphic account of the sea voyage

HINDU PERIOD

of Chand Saodagara. Another account, free from exaggerations and fabulous details, and hence ruorc rehable, is that given by Ban^i Efesa, who of course profusely borrows from Narayanadeva.

These poems together throw a great light on the then condition of commerce in fengal. Sail-;rs for sea-going vessels were then, as now, recruited from the people of East Bengal, who have been the object of genial banter in the writings of Kavikankana, Ketakadasa, Kshemananda, and others. Ships had more poetical names in those days than ncA\. In Manasmnangala poems we come across such narne-3 as Gangdprasad (- ^ smt ), Sagarafend (r-^r^r^ l), Hansarava ( <n ?), Rdjavallava (ri^f^«), and the like. There is a very detailed account of the fleet of Dhanapati sailing towards Ceylon in Kavi­kankana Chandt, which is well worth a notice.^ Il

1 ;£f5t^ ^fsfcf f ^ l ^ t ^ ^ i j ^

f^t2f^??f nc^ ^rt^ ^t^ i ^ c tV li

^ l ! ^ ^5? «ttr " ^f?? r s^ ra" ^ I

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ds- made up of seven vessels. The head shjp is called Mctdmikara- i^^i), generally meant for princes and big- merchants : its cabin is made all of gold. 'The second ship is named Durgdvara, the third Gooardkhi, the fourth Sankshachuva, the fifth Sinhamnkhl, shining like the sun, the sixth Chandvapmrn, which is used for goods, and the seventh Chotemtikkt, meant to carry provisions.^ The whole fleet sailed merrily, propelled by the lustily singing oarsmen. There were also ti-ading fleets carryimg merchandise and provisions for long voyages; and worthless things were often exchanged in distant co'antries for ver}^ valuable

ones.^ The great ixading centres of Bengal in those

^f^=. ^sn: fs^l '[ife^rr yt^tir ii

c^m ^K ?ic«r f ^ ( cq*t^ f*\:^c^ 11 ^ ^ fHc^ 'sm f ^ 1 ^t^ •5^'il^ I

i6o

HINDU PERIOD

days were Satgaon, called Tchafitrapoura in the time of the Chinese pilgrim's visit, and described by Ptolemy as a royal city of immense size, as \rell as Sonargaon, the great harbour of Eastern Bengal. Champa or Bhagalpur was also one of the commercial centres from which merchants could sail for Stibarnabhfimi or the Burmese coast. Bur. ijy far the most important emporium of ancient Bengal was Tamralipta, the great Buddhist harbour of the Bengal sea-board. It is referred to in the Mahdwanso (ch.*xix.) as Tamalitta, and was probr,bly meant by the author of Periphts when he spoke of "a great commercial city near the mouth of t":e Ganges, the trade of which consisted chiefly in cloths of the most delicate texture and extreme beauty." The place is of very great andquity, -aid existed prior to the days oi Asoka, for it figures even in the sacred writings of the Hindus. The Chinese pilgrim, Fa-Hien, when he visited India in A.D. 399-414, found it a maritime settlement of the Buddhists. " There are twenty-four Sangharamas in this country," he says; "all of them have resident priests." After his residence there for two year.-he shipped himself on board a great merchant vessel which he found in the harbour of Tamluk, and putting to sea, they proceeded in a south­westerly direction, and catching the first fair wind of the winter season (i.e. of the N.E. monsoon), they sailed for fourteen days and nights, and arrived

161 ]M

INDIAN SHIPPING ('

at Ceylon. Two hundred and fifty years later, a yet more celebrated pilgrim from China speaks of Tamluk as still an important Buddhjst harbour, with ten Baiddhist monasteries, a thousand raonks, and a pillar by Asoka, 200 feet high. It was "situated an a bay, could be approacted both by land and water, and contained stores !• of rare and precious xaerchandise and a wealthy [population." And anotlxer Chinese traveller, I-Tsihg, wiio fol­lowed Hiusn Tsang, thus wrote of the pengal port: "TamalipQ is forty yqfanas south from' the eastern limit of India. There are fi\-e or sis Imonasteries ; the people are rich. . . . This is th«! place where we embarked when returning to ChinaJ" ^

' Taltakusu's I-Tsi?ig^ xsxiii., xxxiv.j'

162

H I N D U P E R I O D

C H A P T E R VII.

T H E PERIOD OF HINDU IMPERIALISM I>

NORTHERN INDIA {confimted): T H E INTERCOCJRSE

WITH C H I N A .

I T was also in the age of the Guptas and Harsha-vardhana that we find the field of Indian maritime activity in the eastern seas extending as far as China and Japan in the farthest East, beyond the small colonics of Java and Sumatra. As Mr Kakasu Okakura remarks, " Down to the days of the Mohammedan conquest went, by the ancleai highways of the sea, the intrepid mariners of thi. Bengal coast, founding their colonies in Ceylon Java, and Sumatra, and binding Cathay (China) and India fast in mutual intercourse."^ The intei course of India with China by way of the sea beg^m at least as early as the commencement of tl;.' Christian era, while " the Chinese did not arrive in the Malay Archipelago before the 5th caitury, a:'d they did not extend their voyages to India, Pcrs'i, and Arabia till a century later." ^ Throughout t 'e

' Ideals of the East, pp. i, 2.

2 Mr. G. Phillips in itie /./^.A.S., 1895, p. 535. Atcordir4C to ' ' :o-fessor Lacouperie (Wesfern Origin of Chinese Civiiizaticn) thu mar;^ ''•t intercourse of India with Cliina datas from a much eatlier pt-riod, •y. about 680 B.C., when the " sea-traders of the Indian Ocean," who: e '•' c'--

163 U 2

INDIAN SHIPPING |

ist and 2nd centuries ofIhe Christian era,'duria^;^ the reigns of the Chinese Emperor Hoti (A.D. 89-105) and of the Emperor Hivvanti (A.D. 1587-9), there arrived, according k) Chinese annals, many em­bassies from Indian sovereigns bringing IVnerchan-dise under tkc name of tdbute to the Chinese court, which alone i ad the mionopoly of the trade with foreign natioas.^ Thus, as the Milindci Panha informs us ^'p. 127, 327, 359), during the 2nd century after Christy when under the great Satiap Rudradaman (;\.D. 143-1^) the K^hatrapa 'dynasty of Kathiavad was at the lieight of its power, chal­lenging the supremacy e\£n of the great Andhra Empire, Indiais of the Tientes, i.e. Sindhu^ brought presents by ses to China. Chinese annals poiat also to a coniinued inteacourse of Ceybn with China by way of the sea, which was du'e to a common nation^ worship. Among those men who shared in the pffDpagation of Buddhism andlin the

were Hindus," founded a colony calledl Lmtg-ga, afier the Indian name Lanka of Ceylon, aboul the present Gu!f Df Kiao-tchoa, where they arrived in vessels having the pajws shaped like the heads of birUs orj^animafe after the patterns spec^d in the Vuktiialpaiani and exemplified in the ships and boats of old Indian art. These Indian colonists had, how -ever, to retreat before tfe^radual advance of the Chinese till thev became merged in the kingdom of Cambodia, founded by Hindus in the. Indo-Chinese peninsula ahoutrtfie ist century A.D. But throughout thisjlperiod the monopoly of the sea-±E>rne trade of Clana was in tieir hands, and the articles of this trade were Che well-linoiivn Indian products, such as :rubies, pearls, sugar, aromatics, pEicocks, corals, aid the like.

^ BeeJ.J?.A.S., 1896, j . 64^66.

164

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translations of Its scriptures in China, there were many who took the sea route between India and China. Some particulars about them are contained \n the Kwai'Yuen Catalogue of the Chinese Tripitaka compiled in A.D. 730.^ The first eminent Buddhist who succeeded in finishing a sea journey from ("eylon to China was of course the well-known Fa~Hien. But a little before him an Indian called Buddha-bhadra, a descendant of the Sakya prince Amito-dana, arrived in China in 398, i.e. two yeans bcfc rc Fa-Hien entered India. He embarked from Cochin for China after travelling through Northern Indu and Indo-China. After him the Kwai-Yii.t'n Cai':-logiie, as well as other Chinese works, mentions .1 series of names of Buddhist priests who sail.-i between Southern India and China. Thus in A,D \JO Sarighavarmi, a Sinhalese and the translator of :;». Mahisasaka Vinaya, arrived in China. l a A.D. :."•: Gunavarman, grandson of an ex-king oi Kamv arrived at the capital of the Sung dynasty. F had sailed from Ceylon and visited Java on i' way, like Fa-Hien. In the year 429 A.P., it. 1 reign of the Emperor Wun, three Sinhalese v - i i China. Again, it is mentioned in the work c J ' Bhikshimi Niddna that in the year 433 A :•. ship called Nandi brought to China a %^conC 1 .-of Sinhalese nuns who established the Bhi'-s^

^ Professor M. Anesaki in "dx^J.R.A.S.. /ipril, 1903.

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order in China. In A.K 434 there arrived in Qiina quite a number of Sinhalese nims, under the leader­ship of a ceitain Tissara, to further Gunavarman's

- W •

work for the foundation i)f the raonastic system m China after the niadd of Sinhalese Buddhisiri. In A.D. 435 Gunabhadxa, the translator of the Smi~ yukta-dgmna ^f which tke MS. was brought by Fa-Hien from Ceyfori), aM-ived at the province of Kau in China from Ceylon. Again, in A^D. 43S another group of eight "Bhikshunis camd from Ceylon. In AJ). 442 Sanghavarman, who had come to China ky the overland route, saile«i\ from the southern coj^ of China Tor India. In A.rj'. 453 a Chinese Buddhist called Dharmakrama took the sea route from Southern IncEa on his way back to China. SaiighabLadvaL, who was born in a western country but educated in Ceylon, came to China with his teacher, a Trrpitak-Acharyya, and trans­lated Buddhaghosa's Samaniapasadika in A.D. ^S^: IH the 6th century there was a continued develop­ment of the maritime intercoirse between India and China. In the year 526 jv.r>. Bodhidharnia, the great patriarch of Indian Buddhism, who was tke son of a king of Southern Ijidia, embarked in kis old age from India, and "reached Canton by ^a." He was received wrfli the lionour due to his age and character, an«l invited to Nanking, wherei the Emperor of South Clirna heid his court. Asl the Chinese gecgrapher, CkHa-Tau, also records in

J 6 6

HINDU PERIOD

his Hziang-hua-hsi-ta-chi, " Ta-rno (i.e. Eodhi-dharma) came floating on the sea to Pan-yu (i.e. Canton)." ^ The arrival of Bodhidharma gave a great impetus to Indian missionary activ!:)' in China, where it is recorded that there vcre at work at one time and in one province, viz. Lo-Vang, "more than 3,000 Indian monks and 10,000 Indian families to impress their national religion and art on Chinese soil."^ Specific mention of indn-idual sea voyages to China also appears in Chinese works. Thus the Kwai-Yuen Catalogue records that in A.D. 548 Paramati, who was a native of Ujjaini, being invited by the Emperor Wu, of the Llan dynasty, arrived on the southern coast of China. In the Snyshoo, a Chinese history of the Sny dynasty, it is stated that in A.D. 607 the liipg of Ceylon " sent the Brahman, Kewmo-lo, with 30 vessels tc- meet the approaching ships which conveyed an eml^assy from China." Ceylon had at that time a fully developed national marine which, according to the Mahdwanso (ch. xl.), was founded as early as A.D. 495 by the king Mogallana for the defence of the coast.

^ J.R.A.S.y 1896, and Edkins' Chinese Buddhism p. loo

^ 0V.^\xc3!^ Ideals cf t/ic East, ^. 113.

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CHAPTER VIIL

THE PEHOD OF HINDU IMPERIALISI^ IN"

Noio'HERN I? DiA {conthmed): MARITIME ACTIVITY

ON THE W E S T COAST.

DURING the ^t ter days of the Gupta Empire, i.e. during the 5th and 6th centuries A.DJ, Indian maritime activity was equally manifest towards the West. In te 5th century, according to Hamza of IspaQian, the ships of India aaid China could be seetx constan ly moored at Hira, near Kufa, on the Euphrate.^ The ports of Sindh and Gujarat appear amon^ the chief centres of this naval enter­prise of the time. It was from these Dorts that the Indian a^iventurers sailed to colonize Java. In A.D 526 Cosmas found Sindhu or Debal and Orhet, ije. Soratha or Veraval, as leadingi places of trade with Ceylon.^ In the 6th century, apparently dri\jien out by the White Hunas, the Jatsj! from the Indus and Cutch occupied the islands in the Bahrein GuM About the same time, as Fergusson has pointed out, Amravati, at the mouth of the Krishna, was superseded as the port for the Golden Chersoriese by the accompJiskment of the direct voyage from Gujarat and the west coast of India.

^ Yule's Othay, I, Ixxviii ^ Ibid. I, clxxviii.

168

HINDU PERIOD

, In the time of the empire of S'ri Ha'-sha, succeeding that of the Guptas, the peopk: of Surastra were described by Hiuen Tsang (about A.u. 630) as deriving their livehood from th(; sta by engaging in commerce and exchanging com­modities.^ He further notices that in the chief cities of Persia, Hindus were settled enjo3 }ng the full practice of their religion.' -^K ' i, tlie Jats were probably the moving spirit in the early Mahomedan sea raids (A.D. 630-770) aga'nst tht Gujarat and Konkan coasts. During the 7th and 8th centuries, when the chief migrations by sea from Gujarat to Java and Cambodia seem to have taken place, Chinese fleets visited Diu under tlio. pilotage probably of the Jats. On the Sinda, Cutth, and Gujarat coasts, besides the Jats there wer. other tribes that showed notable energy at sea Thus in the 7th and 8th centuries the Gurjjara., chiefly of the Chapa or Chavada clan, both i • Dwarka and Somnath, and inland, rose to powc •, and about A.D. 740 established themselves ;-t Anahilavada Patau. They tried to put down t'.c piracy of the Jats, but afterwards themseh'es bccai' e more dangerous pirates.

1 Bsal, Buddhist Records, vol. ii., p. 269.

^ Reihaud's Abiilfeda, ccclxxxv.

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CHAPTER IX.

T H E PERIOD OF HINDU IMPERIALISM IN SOUTHERN

INDIA : T H E RISE DP THE CHALUKYAS AND II

THE C H O L A S — F R O M THE MiDOLE OF iTEE yTH

C E I N T U R Y T O THE TtME OF THE M A H O M E I I A N

CoNQUESi-s IN NORTHERN INDIA- 1 T H E period succeeding that of the Guptas and Harshavardhana was also equally characterized by remarlcable outbursts of naval enterprise and colonizing activity, bringmg about a further ex­pansion of India. The field of maritime acdvily in the Easiern waters wass considerably widened. For along with ihe intercourse of India with China there was deveic*ped in this period the interccurse with Japan in the farthest East. As regards the intercourse with China we hive fresh facts to record. The Clm^Jan-cJuh of Chao Jukua, a Chinese traveller of tke 13th century^ relates that during the periods Cheng-Kuan (A.D. 627-650) and T'ienUhoa (A.D. 690-692) of the T^ang dynasty, the people of T'ien-cha (i.e. India) sent envoys with tribute to China.^ According to the Kwai-Ytien Caialp^ie, Punya-upacliaya, whoAvas a rative of Central India, came to Chi»a from Ceylon in A.D. 655, while

1 SaJ.Ji.A.S., 1896, p. 490. 170

H I N D U P E R I O D

Jnana-bhadra, a Buddhist from Palyan of the " Southern Ocean," came to China for the second time after having visited India from China by .;ea. Some very interesting facts regarding the maritime intercourse between China and India arc furnished by the famous Chinese traveller I-Tsing/ who visited India in A.D. 673. He has recorded the itineraries of about sixty Chinese pdgrims who visited India in the 7th century A.D., from which it is clear that there was constant traffic across the sea between India and China. The whole coast of Farther India from Suvarnabhumi or Burma to China, and also of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, was studded with prosperous Indian colonies and naval stations, which ocean-liners regularly plying in the Eastern waters between India and China constantly used as. convenient halting-places. I-Tsing refers to more than ten such colonies where Indian manners, customs, and religious practices prevailed together with Sanskrit learning. These were S'ri-Bhoja in Smnatra, Kalinga in Java, Mahasin in Borneo, and the islands of Bali, Bhojapara, etc., which had all Indian names, and afforded to Chinese pilgrims to India a good preparatory training. In these colonies or naval stations passengers often changed their ship, though many would come direct to

^ I-Tsing, by Dr. Taka-kusu.

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INDIAN' SHIPPING

Bengal, like I-Tsing, \ iho disembarked kt the port of Tamralipti, while others would halt 'at Ceylon, that sacred piace of Buddhism, to re-ship them­selves for Bengal, like Fa-Hien. I-Tsing- has also recorded the names of some of his contempotaries who like him risited ladia by w^y of thejisea. One was Tao-lio., tiie Mastea: of the Law. who came to Tamralipti by way of Jsva and NicobarsJj Another was Ta-tch3ig-teng, wko came by way'bf Ceylon and lived at the moiastery named Varaha in Tamralipti. •'

Throughout this period we have also frecfuent notices in Chinese annals of Indian \' Buddhist devotees viattng Chiiia, as we have |j those of Chinese Buddhists visiting India witht the per­mission of {heir emperor. Thus the J^wm'-Yuen Catalogue^ to which vre have alreadyj' referred, mentions thet name of the Indian Vajrab'pdlii, who came to China by sea and entered the capital in A.D. 720 He was born in Malaya, a mo^untainous district in dllicr Southern India or Ceylbn, trans* lated many Mantra i^yii's,^ and became the founder of Mystical Buddhism in China. The son of an Indian king, Manju Sri by nante, a veiy zealous Buddhist, came to Chira, but left the rdyd court through misujiderstandirg, and went off indignant to the southern coast to embaik in a [merchant vessel for India. At the fime oi Yung-hsi (A.D 984-988) a Buddhist devotee, by name Lo-hu-na,

172

HINDU PERIOD

arrived in China b}' sea; he called himself a native of T'ien-chu (India). In Col. Yule's Cathay and the PVay Thither we have a record of the various instances of intercourse between China and India from the earliest times downwards, both by sea and land.

As regards tiie intercourse with Japan, M'hich also developed auring this period, we have a few conclusive facts and evidences to adduce. Japanese tradition records the names of Indian evangelists who visited Japan to propagate the Buddhistic faith. Thus Bcdhidharma, of South India, after working in Chcia, came to Japan and hail an interview with Prince Shotoku (A.D. 573-621). Subkakara was another Indian, a nati\e of Central India, who, w hile working in China (716-735), privately visited Japan and left at the Kunicdera Temple, in the province of Yamato, a book of the Mahavairochanabhisambodhi Sutra, consistinif of seven books, the fundamental doctrines of Bud­dhistic Tantrism/ The visit of tlie Indian missionary, Bodhisena, to Japan in A.D. 736 is :i historical fact. Bodhisena had originally gone to China to see a Chinese sage, Manju S'ri, and while staying in a temple there came in contact with a Japanese envoy to the Celestial court, and was

^ Rev. Daito Shim.n i on " India and Japan in Ancient TimcV" 'n the Journal of the Fndo-Jap^nese Association, January, 1910.

INDIAN SHIPPING

persuaded ty the latter to visit Japan. 'Pie settled in Japan, and taught Sanskrit to Japanes:^ priests. He vras mo^ bountifully provided by the Imperial Court, and laost devotedly loved by the populace.

But India, contributed not only to thdjreligion of Japan but aJso to her itdustry. The official afinals of Japan nsxrd how eleven centuries ago cotton was introduEed into Japan by two Indians. The eighth volume of the Nihrni-Ko-Ki records how in July, 799, a foreigner was washed ashore in a little boat someM^ere on the southern coast of Mikiva Province in Japan. He confessed himself to be a man from '"Ten-jiku," as India was then called in Japan. Amsng his effects was found something like grass-seeds, which proved to be no other than some seeds of the cotton-plant. Again, it is written in the iggth chapter of the Rtdjukokitshi (ausother official reccrf) that a man from Kuen-lum was cast up on Japarrese shores in April, 800, and that the cotton-seeds he had bro:ugh± with him were sown in the provinces of Kii, Awaji, Sanuki, JyoJ Tosa, and Kyushu. These two records are enough to convince us that cottrm was introduced into Japan through the Indians who were unfortunately carried over to that countryby the " black current."•" l|

Towardsrthe end of the loth and the' early part

^ Dr. Taka-Krsu on "What Japan Owes to India" in the Indo-Japanea'dssQciaHon, January, 1910,

174

the /c'urnal of

HINDU PERIOD

of the iith century, Southern India witnessed a remarkable outburst of navaJ activity under the strong- government of a succession of Chola kings. The first of this line of rulers was Raja-raja the Great, who ascended the throne in A.D. 985. He began his career of conquest by the destruction of the Chera fleet in the roads of Kandalur (probably on the west coast), and passed from victory to victory till, in the course of a busy reign of twenty-seven years, he made himself bey'ird dispute the Lord Paramount of Southern India, ruling a realm which included the whole of the Madras Presidency and a large part of Mysore, together with Kalingam, which he conquered in the sixteenth year of his reign. Ceylon (Ham) also was added to his empire in die twenties yea'-, for he built up a powerful navy, and his operations were not confined merely to the land. Raja-raja Chela (A.D. 984-1013) was succeeded by his son Rajendra Choladeva I., under whose long and brilliant rule from A.D. 1013 to 1044 the power of the Cholas reached its high-water mark and thdr empire its widest extent. In inscriptions dated in the twelfth year of his reign (A-D. 1025) he is said to hav-conquered Orissa, Gujarat, Behar, and Bengal, and reached the banks of the Ganges, for which he assumed the title of Gangaikonda-chola (the Chola who seized the Ganges). In the inscriptions of his thirteenth year detailing his conquests we find

175

INDIAN SHIPPING \\ ii

that he also xonquered "the whole kingdom of Ham (Ceylon) in the raging Ocean girt by ji'the crystal •waves of ths sea," as \i>cU as " countless!i?/^ islands (about i2,©eo in numfer) in the midst of the ocean in which conches resound," which were probably the Laccadrves and Maldives. In the same imscrip-tion it is also recorded that be achieved a great naval victory over " Sangrama Vijayottunga Var-man, the King of Kadaram, whom he cau.y'ht by dispatching (his army in) many ships across tke stormy sea and his huge elephants furiotis as the roaring sea." This "stormy sea" was no doubt the Bay tif Bengal 5" Kadaram is identified with the ancient kingdom of Prome or Pegil, also known as Thardchettra. The inscription also describes KadaraMi as being " difficult to attack, bein^ defended by the sea." All this, therefore, fndicates that the naval power of the Cholas was considerably developed, making itself felt even on the opposite coast of the Bay of Bengal. In addition to Kadaram there wese also taken on the sacne coast the flourishing seaports of Takkolarh (the Takcla of Ptolemy, where,, according to the Itidktn Anti-qtiary, vol. xxi., p. 383, " cables^ ropes, and other vestiges Qi sea-gcdng vessels are 'still frequcnily dug up") and Matana or Martaban. | Then followed the annexation of tTie whole of the kingdom, ^ rlach was named S'ri Vishaya and Nakkavaram or the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. These exploits are

176

HINDU PERIOD

thus referred to in the Tamil poem Kaiinga Hupardni'. " The war-elephants of the Chola drank water of the Ganges at Mannai: and Kadaram, where the roaring crystal waves washed the sand mixed with red gold, was annexed " (canto viii., stanza 25).

The naval activity of the Chola emperors was not however, confined within the limits of the Bay of Bengal. They appear to have carried on their mtercourse with countries of the farther East as far as China. In the Stmgshih, a Chinese work, the names of the two Chola kings are mentioned who sent embassies with tribute to China, viz. . in A.D. 1033, Shih-li-lo-ch'a-yin-to-Io-chu-lo, i.e. S'ri Raja Indra Chola; and again in A.D. 1077, Ti-wa-ka-lo, which may staud for the Chola king Kulo-tunga (A.D. 1077-1118). The last embassy consisted of 72 men; it was probably, like most of the missions to the coast of China, nothing better than a trading expedition on joint account, the 72 ambassadors being the shareholders or their supercargoes.^

^ The authorities consulted for the Chola history are V, KanakasaMiai's articles on " Raja-Uaja Ctola," " The Conquest of Bengal and Burma by the Tamils," and S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar's article on "The C4ola Ascendancy in Southern India," in the Madras Review for 1902, vol- ^iii,

'^ J.M.A.S., 1896, pp. 49off.

177 N

INDIAN SHIPPING

CHAPTER X. ji

RETROSPECT. j;

W E have now set fortk at some length the available evidences bearing on the history o( the shipping, sea-borne trade, and maritime activity of India from tke earlier times down to the period ofiithe Musal-man c o n q i ^ s in Northern ladia. "VV^ ha\''e con­sidered the kind of maritime activity arid commerce which India had in the long and ancient period before the Maury^an in the light of the evidences from both li&erary works and arcliaeological finds, and are qnrte prepared for the remarkable outburst of naval activity and growth of foreignj| intercourse w^ich has been establcshed beyond doubt or dispute to be the ckaracteristic of the Mauryan period. We have next seen how the impetus giv^n to the development of India's international life under the Mauryan Hnpire in the days of Chandra Gupta and Asoka survtyed that empire itself and e'ontinued to gain in focre and volmme amid the vicissitudes of her domestic politics. Dynasty after dynasty .succeeded ks the position of paramount power in the land, but the course of commerce ran

.11

smooth through all these changes. The opening centuries of the Christian era, which ss-w the

' j

political usity of India divided by the Kushans 178

HINDU PERIOD

of the north and the Andhras of the south, with the Vindhyas as their mutual boundary, were also, as we have seen, the period of a remarkable growth of foreign commerce, especially with Rome, ihat was shared equally by the north and the south. This is shown, on the one hand, unmistakably by the books of Roman writers with their ^-emarkably accurate details regarding Indian exports and mi-ports, ports, and harbours, and, on the other hand, by the unimpeachable testimony of many finds of Roman coins both in Northern and Southern India.

A consideration of the kind of things whith India sent abroad in exchange for the things she imported and a glance at the list of Indian exports and imports, such as that given in that most in­teresting work on Oriental commerce, the Periphts of the Erythraean Sea^ will reveal certain peculiar features regarding the economical system of ancient India, to which has been traced the proverbial " wealth of Ind " by many scholars. As remarked by Major J. B. Keith, in a recent article in the Asiatic Qtiarteriy Review (July, 1910), "the old prosperity of India was based on the sound pii'.i-ciple, which is, that after clothing and feeding your own people, then of your surplus abundance give to the stranger," For it will appear that the chief items of Indian export were the "renowned art industrial fabrics, arid exports w ere not muhi-

179 N 2

INDIAN SHIPPING ; ij

plied on tie reprehensible practice ofi'depleting a country c^ its food-stuffs." The result -was the developmemt of an exlernal trade to which we owe, (XI die one hand, the ^reat cities like Baalbek and Palmyra in the desert, andj on the other hand, " those great monumoits of art whicti India was enabled to erect after clothii^ and [ifeeding her ©wn peo^fe." And of the many jsatrapies of Darius India was also, as we have seen, tlie only one which, could affard to pay her tribute in gold K) him. Finally, w t should not missjithe point of Pliny's faaaous comprint about alloWing India to find a market for her superfluous manufactured luxuries in Rome and thereby suck out her wealth and drain her of gold. ,;

It may also be ncEted in passing that it was her wonderful achievements in applied chlbmistry more than her skill in handicraft wtuch enabled India to command for more ihan a thousand years (from Pliny to Tavernieary the markets of j!the East as well as the West,, and secured to, her an easy and universally recognized pre-emipence among the nations of the world m exports and manu­factures. Some of the Indian discoveries in chemical arts and manufactnres are' indicated as early as the 6th century A.D. by Varahamihira in the VTnhat-Sankita. Thus, he mentions several prepara.tE)ns of cements or powders: called Vajra-lepa, "cements streng as the thunderbolt," for

i 8 o '•

HINDU PERIOD

which there was ample use in the temple architec­ture of the times, whose remains still testify to the adamantine strength of these metal or rock cements. Varahamihira also alludes to the experts in machinery and the professional experts in the composition of dyes and cosmetics, and even artificial imitations of natural flower-scents which bulked so largely in the Indian exports to Rome. Broadly speaking, there were three great discoveries in applied chemistry to which India owed her capture of the world markets, viz. (i) the preparation of fast dyes for textile fabrics by the treatment of natural dyes like manjishtha with alum and other chemicals; (2) the extraction of the principle of indigotin from the indigo plant by a process " which, however crude, is essentially an anticipa­tion of modern chemical methods"; and (3) the tempering of steel " in a manner worthy of advanced metallurgy, a process to which the mediaeval world owed its Damascus swords."^

Besides the Roman trade, and the trade with the West generally, there was also developed iilong with it a trade with the East. The West alone could not absorb the entire maritime acti' 'ity of India, which found another vent in a regular traffic in the Eastern waters between Bengal and Ceylon, Kalinga,

^ Brajendranath Seal, M.A., Ph.D., in his learned thesis on "The Chemical Theories of the Ancient Hindus."

181

INDIAN SHIPPING ;

aiid Suvanmbhumi, and a complete navigation, in fact, of the Bay of Beagal and the Indian Ocean. Ttis Eastam maritime enterprise reached its dimax in the age of the Gupta emperors, when 'India cnce m®re, as in the days of. Chandra Gupta and Asoka, asserted hoself as a dominant factor nn Asiatic politics, and even showed symptoms of a'colonizing aclivity thst culminated in the civilization of Java, Sumatra, and Cambodia, and laid the foundation of a Greater tmdia. To^i^-rds the later days of the Gi^ta En^ re , Indian maritime activity in the Eastern waters had a vastly extended l! field, an-braning within its sphere not only Farther/ India and the islands of the Indian Archipelago;' but also China, with ivhich a regslar and ceaseless traffic by

11

way of the sea was established amd long continued. Lastly, we tind the sphere of this Eastern aaval activity widening still feirther during the days of Harshavardiana and PiOakeshi, the Chalukyas and the Cholas, t3] Japan in the fartliest East'is brought within the cange of IncSan irifluence, and becomes the objective of Indian missionary and cok^nizing activity.

182

BOOK II. MAHOMEDAN PERIOD,

BOOK I I .—MAHOMEDAN P E R I O D .

CHAPTER I.

THE PRE-MOGUL PERIOD.

W E shall now briefly narrate the history of Indian maritime enterprise after the advent and conquests of the Musalmans.

We begin first with the history of Sindh, and particularly of its Arab conquests, which furnishes many instances of Indian naval activity and enter­prise. The immediate cause of the Arab conquests was the exaction of vengeance for the plunder, by the Meds and other pirates of Debal and the Indus mouths, of eight vessels, which the ruler of Ceylon had dispatched, fitted with presents, pilgrims, Mahomedan orphans, and Abyssinian slaves, to secure the good-will of Hajjaj and the Khahf^ in the 8th century (A.H 712). It will be remembered that these Indian pirates had been carrying on their activities from very early times. They inspired with alarm the Persian

' Al-Biladuri'm Elliot, vol. i., p. i i8 ; also Appendijj p. 439,

185

INDIAN SHIPPING'

monarch) even in t ie days of its most absolute power. According to Strabo and Arrjan it was tc-protect tireir cities gainst these piratical attacks that the Persians made the Tigris entirely inacces­sible for navigation, till Alexander, on his retura from India, to fia'ther commercial intsrcourse caused to be removed the masses of stone by which the Goui3e of the stream was obstructed. It has also beoi supposed tliat, inspired by the same dread, and not from religious motives, thej'Persians built no city of any note oipon the sea-coast.^

Mui}aiiimad ibn Kasim, the Arab conqueror of Sindh, arrived at Debal in ships carrying his men, arms, amd warlike machines, one' of which, the manjmiik, required 500 men to woi'k it. He kad also to construct bridges of boats in order to effect his p ^ a g e of tbeo-ivers of Sindh.^ \

F?«m the 9th century we get no.tices of India by the Aiabs. The commerce of the 'Arabs was at its highest activity under the Caliphs bi Bagdad, under whonthe Arabs conquered Eg^'pt, closed Alexandria to Europeans, aad founded Busspra (A.D. 635) at the head of the Persian Gulf, rivalling Alexandria as the centre oi foe Eastern trade," The voyages oi Sindabad the Sailor belong to J;'th€ 9th cerrtur}'.

1 See£lliot, vol. i., p. 513. \

2 Al-Biladurim Elliot, vol. i.,i.p, 120.

^ Osuk-nama in Elliot, vol. i.^'p. 167.

186 '

MAHOMFiDAN PERIOD

About A.D. 851 Suleiman, a merchant of Bussorah, speaks of the Sea of Lar (which washes Gujarat and Malabar), of Serendip or Ceylon, and the like. Masudi of Bagdad (A.D. 890-956) visited India, ^ad mentions nutmegs, cloves, camphor, and sandal­wood as Indian j)roducts.^

In the n t h century, according to the Tabakat-i-Akbari of Nizamuddin Ahmed, the 17th expedition of Sultan Mahmud was directed against the J.-its who had molested his army on his return from Somnath. It was a brilliant naval fight, and is thus described by the historian :—

Ke, led a large force towards Multan, and when he arrived there he ordered 1,400 boats to be built, each of which was armed with three tiir.-i iron spikes, projecting one from the prow and two from the E;ide3, so 'iiat everything which came in contact with them would infallibly be destre;jed. In each boat were 20 archers, with bows and arrows, t?_renades, ind naphtha, and in this way proceeded to attack the Jatu, who, having intelligence of the armament, sent their families into the islands nnd prepared themselves for the conflict. They launched, acco- ding to soT:e, 4,000 boats, and according to others 8,000 boats, manned and armed, ready to engage the Mahammadans. Both fleets met, and a desptrntc conflict ensued. Every boat of the Jats that approached the Moslem fleet, rfien it received the shock of the projecting spikes, ^ -as broken and overturned. Thus, most of the Jats were drowned, and those v'".c were not so destroyed were put to the sword.^

Al-Biruni gives some interesting details reganl-ing the Indian maritime and commercial activity of the n t h century. He has referred to the pirates

^ Sir G. Birdwood in his Report on t/ie Old Records of the India Office.

^ Elliot, vol. ii., p. 478.

187

•INDIAiSi SHIPPINGi

infesting die wester* coast, named Bawarij, who are so cailed because " they commiti their depre­dations in boats called Baira." ^ j

The coasts of Gujarat were the scene of much commerdil activity, from which sugar from Malwa, badru (ban) and baladi were exported in ships to all counk-es and cities.^ i

Malal3,r also was in those days ,'the " Key of Hind," wkose productions, such as rubies, aromatics, grasses, a^d pearls, were " carried to Irak, Kkurasan, Syria, Rjin, and Europe." It has; also a gr^it amount cf entrepdf trade, for " large ships, called in the language of Chiaa 'junks,' bring, various sorts of choKe merchandise and cloths from China and Machin, 3cid the coanntries of Hind 'and Sindh."^ Wassaf C\.D. 1328) ^eaks of these junks as sailing like maiMitains with: the wings of the winds on the surface o'the water.

In the 12th century, Al-Idrisi found Dcbal to be a " station for the vessels of Sindh and other countries," whither came the " vessels of China and shijiS laden with the productidns of Uman." Baruh (ftroach) was a port for the vessels coming from Clana, as also for those of Sindh.* He also mentions the cotton fabrics of Coromaadel, the

^ " Rash-uddin from Al-Hruni," in Sir^H. Elliot's History (f India, vol. i.. P- 65. ]

^ Ibii.^ 3. 67. * Ibid.^ p. 6g. \ Tbid.^ pp. 77, 87.

188 '

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

pepper and cardamomes of Malabar, and the lemons of Mansura on the " Mehran " (Indus).^ Again, m the 12th century, intercourse with the farther East is proved by the fact that Gupta (A.D. 319-500) and White Huna (A.D. 500-580) coins were said to have been in use in Madagascar and the islands of the Malaya Archipelago,^ and, according to Abul-Feda, the merchants of Java could understand the language of the natives of Madagascar.^

In the 13th century an important naval ex­pedition was directed by Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-86 A.D.) against Tughril Khan, Governor of Bengal, who declared himself independent of Delhi, and assumed royal insignia. Two previous attempts to subdue him having failed, the Sultan " resolved to march against the rebel in person, and ordered a large number of boats to be collected on the Ganges and the Jumna. . . . Proceeding into Oudh, he ordered a general levy, and two lakhs of men of all classes were enrolled. An immense fleet of boats was collected, and in these he passed his army over the Sarau (the Saraju or Gogra). The rains new came on, and, although he had plenty of boats, the passage through the low-lyingcountry was difficult." Tughril fled from Lakhnauti to Jajnagar (some-

^ Sir George Birdwood in his Report on tk£ Old Records of the Lvfia Office.

^ Reinaud's Mtmoires^ p. 236,. ^ Reinaud's Abul/eda, ch. xxii.

189

INDIAN SHIPPING'

where near modern Tiperrah). Baiban marched from Lakbnauti in pursuit of the rebel vxdth all ^eed, and in a few days arrived at Stmaf-gnaw. The Rai of that place, by name Danuj |'Rai, met the Sultan, and an agreement was made with hrm that he should ^ a r d agamst the escape of Tughril by water. The expedition ended in the death of Tughril, and the coniplete defeat of his arnty, and " such punishment as was indicted oh Lakhnauti had never ieen heard of in Ddhi^ and no one could remember anything like it in Hindusthan-"^

The foreign travellers who visited India towards the latter pajrt of the s.me century were AbuMeda of Damascus and the famous Marco Polo. Abulfeda

I*

(A.D. I 2 7 ; ^ I 3 3 I ) mentioas the pepper of Malabar and the fine cotton manufactures of Coromandel Marco Pak) (A.D. 1292) found the Coromandel coast a great centre of pearl-fishiig, and the Gujarat coast of desperate jsracy. These pirates sailed every year with their wives and children in more than a hindred corsair vessels, staying out the whole summer. They are alsD said to havejoined in fleets of twenty to thirty, and made a sea cordon ,ftve or six miles apart. Maixo Polo also found Sokotra a prey to multitudes of Hindu: pirates who encamped tliere and sold off their 'ibooty. tie also mentk)ns Cad/ (Kayal in the Tihnevely dis-

n •

^ Barnfi: Tarikh-i-Firaztkahi^ in Elliot, vol; ilL, pp. r i5 - i3 i ,

190 ;

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

trict) as the city where "all the ships touch that come from the West . . . laden with horses and other things for sale." Of Coilum (Quilon) he says, "'a great deal of brazil is got here, also ginger and pepper, and very fine indigo. The merchants fn>m Arabia and Persia come hither with their ships " He speaks of Tana (Thana) "where grow no pepper or spices, but plenty of incense. There is mjch traffic here and many ships and merchants frequent the place, for there is a great export of leather and buckram and cotton." Of Cambaet (Cambay) he says, " it produces indigo in plenty, and much fme buckram; cotton is exported hence; there is a great trade in hides, which are very well dressed^ He speaks of Aden as a "port to which many ships of India come with their cargoes." He also mentions Indian vessels sailing as far as the iskad of Zanguebar, which they took twenty days in reaching from Coromandel, but three months in returning, "so strong does the current lie towards the south."

Marco Polo has also left some very important and interesting details regarding Indian ships which are well worth a notice. According to him, the ships that are employed in navigation arc built of fir-timber; they are all doubled-planked, that is, they have a course of sheathing boards laid over the planking in every part. These are caulked with oakum both within aiid without, and are fastened

191

INDIAN SHIPPING;'

with iron nails. Ths bottoms are smeared over with a preparation of-quicklime and hemp, pounded together md mixed Afdth oil procured from a certain tree, whicfe makes a kind of unguent that " retains i±s viscoms properties more firmly and is a better material '.kan pitch." ]i

Besvd:^ the constmction of Indian jships, Marco Polo gives details r^arding their size, form, and fittings, snd the mode of repairing. He saw ships of so large a size as ±o require a crewjiof 300 men, and othe' ships that were manned by trews of 200 and 150 men. T h e s ships could car ry from five to six thousand baskets (or inat b2^3)!j0f pepper, a fcict whicE indicates tD some extent thb tonnage of these IrxLan vessels. These ^ ips were moved with oars or svceps, and each oar required jfour men to work it. They were usually accompanied by two or three \s.tge barks with a capacity toiicontain one thousand liaskets of pepper, and requiring a crew of sixty, eigbty, or one hundred sailors. These small craft wer&«ften employed to tow the la.rger vessels, when working their oars, or even mnder a i l , pro­vided, of course, the vuind be on the quarter, and not •wilien right aft, because in that case thej'saife of .the larger vessel must becalm those of the smaller, wJiichwouEd in consequence be run down. Besides these barls, these ships carried with th'em as many as ten small boats for the purpose of Carrying out anchors, for fishing, and a variety of other services.

192

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

As in modern steamers and ocean-liners, these boats were slung over the sides of the main ship and lowered into the water when there was occasion to use them. The barks also were in Hke manner provided with their smaller boats. The lart^er vessel had usually a single deck, and below the deck the space was divided into sixty small cabins, fewer or more according to the size of vessel, and each cabin afforded accommodation for one merchant. It was also provided with a good helm, with four masts, and as many sails. Some ships of the larger class had, besides the cabins, as many as thirteen bulkheads or divisions in the hold, formed of thick planks let into each other {incastrati, mortised or rabbeted). The object of these was to guard against accidents which might make the \ essel spring a leak, such as " striking on a rock or receiving a stroke from a whale." For if water chanced to run in, it could not, in consequence of the boards being so well fitted, pass from one division to another, and the goods might be easily removed from the division affected by the water In case of a ship needing repair, the practice was to give her a course oi sheathing over the original boarding, thus forming a third course, and this, if she needed further repairs, was repeated even to the number of six layers, after which she was condemned as unserviceable and not seaworthy.

Marco Polo has also left a very interesting

193 o

INDIAN S H I P P I N G '

descriptjon. of the pearl-fishings of Malabai". It v/as conducted by a number of merchaats who formed tiiemselves^ into sevecal companies, and ernployed many vessels and boats of different sizes, well provided with ground-tackle by whidi to tide safely at anchor. They engaged and carried with them persons who were skilled in the art of (fiving for tlie oysters in which the pearls were eaclosed. These therdivers brou^ght up in bags made of netting that were fastened about their bodies, and then repeated tlie operation, rising to the surface when Ihey coaiM no longer keep their breath, and after a short interval diving again.^

In tfe 14th ceatury, we have in the account of the voyage acres the Indian Ocean of Friar Odoric" (A.D. 1321}, in a ship that carried full 700 people, a striking proof of the' capacit}' and maritime skill of tlie Rajput sailors of Gujarat, who could successfully manage smch, large vessels.^ There is even an earlier mention of Rajput ships sMling between Sumena (Somnath) and China m Yule's Cathay. To the,'? san>e centurj' belonged Ibn Batuta, the greatest f/Vrab traveller,

^ Tkg Travels of Mareo Polo (Majsden's TEansla^-ionj, ed. Thonias Wright. j:

^ Dr. Vincent remains-: "This is a confiBnatidn of te accounf we have of tfanse large ships from the ome of Agathar^ide down to tl'.e r6th century; the ships of Guzarat which travetssd tha laJian Oceai in all ages." 1

^ Ste^snson, in Kerr^s Voyages^ xviH. 324, ,1

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

who spent twenty-foUr years (A.D. 1325-1349) in travelling. Being sent by Muhammad Tughlak on an embassy to China, he embarked from Cambay, and after many adventures at Calicut, Ceylon and Bengal he at last took his passage toward China in a junk bound for " Java," as he called it. but in fact Sumatra. Returning from China, he sailed direst from the coast of Malabar to Musoit and Ormuz. He confirms the statement of Marco Polo regarding the maritime and piratical habits of the Malabar people, who, however, captured only those vessels which attempted to pass their ports without the payment of toll.

Wassaf, in the same century, speaks of the large importation x)f Arab and Persian horses to Mah-bar which in the reign of Abu Bakr even reached the modest figure of 10,000 horses every year. This horse trade was also noticed by Marco Polo (A.D. 1308), who remarks that "the greater part of the revenue of the country is employed in obtaining the horses from foreign countries."^ Wassaf also notices the entrepSt trade of Malabar by which the produce of remotest China was consumed in the farthest West.'

In Northern India, in A.D. 1353 and A.D. 1360.

1 Elliot, vol. iii., pp. 28, 32, 33.

^ TravdSy Murray's Edition, p. 296.

3 Elliot, vol. ilL, p. 35.

195 0 2

INDIAN SHIPPING ' I ,

two expedi€ons were (Erected against Lakhnauti by Sultau Fir^z Shah Tuglak, in both of which " many barrier-broking boats {kistiha-i-bandJiusJimt) were used, in wiich his whole army, consisting -of a lac of troops, hac to embark in crossing rivers roimd the islands of^kdala and Sunar-gnaw." ^ jln A.P. 1372, with an £3my consistkig of 90,000 cavalry and 480 dephants, Firoz Shah led an expedition against Thatta, ia which he collected and used'a fleet of as

. . I many as 5,000 boats, in which the army descended #ie River Indus and in a few days reached Thatta.-

In A. a 1388 Timnr crossed the mighty river of tTie Lndu^ by means of a bridge of boats constructed in the sLort space of two days; aftenvards he marched :o captmre the island of Shahabuddin in the River Jhelura, though Shahabuddin effected his escape doivn the river in 200 boats. Shaha&uddin's fleet of boats was, however, completely destroyed jiear MuA" an. Timur again had to fight several naval "battles Qi_ the Gangs. On one occasion he had to encount^' a force of Hindus coming down the river in 48 bozts, which afterwards fell into, his tands.^

After Marco Polo, the most impprrant foreign notice EJJ India is the account of 'Mahuan,* the

I.

^ Tarikh'i-Firozshahi^ in Elliot; vol. iii., pp!' 253 ft,

- ^bid., pp. 531-32:2. j

' '\faifmai-i-Timteri, in Elliot, vol. iii,, pp. '408-12,453. l i '

- 3eorge Phillips m the /.JR.A^., 1896, pp. 204 fE 196

MAHOMEDAN P E R I O D

Mahomedan Chinaman, who was attached as inter­preter to the suite of Cheng-Ho when he made his voyages to India and other places at the beginning of the 15th century. lie describes Calicut {AD. 1409) as a great emporium of trade, frequented by merchants from all quarters,and says "when a ship arrives from China the King's Overseers, with a c/iiUz (capitalist), go on board and make an invoice of the goods, and a day is fixed for valuing the cargo." According to Mahuan, the Ming-shih, or history of the Ming dynasty, records that Ai-ya-sei-ting (Ghiyas-ud-din Azam Shah, who reigned A.D. 1385-1457), the King of Pang-Kola, sent to the Chinese court in 1408 an embassy with presents including horses and saddles, gold and silver orna­ments, drinking vessels of white porcelain with azure flowers, and many other things ; and that in 1409 the same king, called Gai-ya-syu-ting, sent another embassy to China. In A.D. 1412 the Chinese ambassador of the return embassy met Indian envoys bringing the usual presents, and learnt from them that the king had died and had been succeeded by Saifuting (Saif-ud-din Hamza Shah, 1407-10). According to Chinese annals he, too, sent an embassy to the Chinese emperor, with a letter written on gold-leaf, and presenting a giraffe This embassy arrived in China in the 12th year of Yung-lo, A.D. 1415. In this year also a Chinese embassy under Prince Tsi-chao, with presents, was

197

INDIAN SHIPPING,, I

received by the Bengal king, his queen aiid ministers.^ Thus, in the first half of the r5th centur)-, a» active sea-borne trade and commercial interconrse were going on b^Aveen Bengal and China ; and the silver money of Bengal u s d at this periodi to be called Tung-kia, weighing about 163-24 grains.

For tlie 15th century Abd-er-Razzak - (A.D. 1442) has left a-highly interesting account {of the impor­tant harbour of Calicut, which is regarded as " one of the greatest shipping centres of the world in this period." Says he:—• - ' ;.'

(I

From Ciriicat are vessls continually sailing fax Mecca, which are for the most part laden with pepper. The inhabhants of Calicut ere adven­turous sailors, and pirates domot dare to attack the vesseJs of Calicut. In this harbour xme may find e^x^ything that can be desired.

Agaia :— j; Security anci justice are £D firmly established in this city thai the most

wealthy merchants bring ikither from maritime coumrros ccnsiderable cargoes, which "they unload, mnd unhesitatingly send.intD the markets and the bazaaESr.-without thinking in the meantime of any necessity cf checking the account ar of keeping ira^ch over the goods. The,officers wf the custom­house takeupcn themselves the charge of looking after the merchandise, over whidi Jhcy keep watch day and night. When' a aile is efiected tiiey levy a doty oa the goods of one-fortieth part; if thev are not sold they make no ckuge on them liiatsoever. In other parts a straage practice is adopted. When a vessel sets sail for a certain poinr, and suddenly is driven by "a decree of Dwne Providence into Miother roadstead, the inhabitants, uader the pretest that the wind has driven :t there, plunder the ship, Bu ta t Calicut, every ship, whatever place rit maj' come from, or wherever ii may be bouTKlg.-when it puts into this port is treated like other vessels, sErd has no trouble of any kind to put up with.

i' ^ G€DFg& PhilHps in iim/.Ji,^.S., 1896, pp. 304 ff. 2 Indm m the Fifteentii Cetittiry (Hakluyt Society's publication), i. 14,

i. 19.

198

MAHOAIEDAN P E R I O D

Nicolo Conti ^ was another traveller in the earlier part of the 15th century who gives ;ii_)me interesting details regarding Indian shipbuilding and commerce. Thus he says: " T h e natives of India build some ships, larger than ours, capable of containing 2,000 butts, and with five sails and as many masts. The lower part is constructed with triple planks, in order to withstand the force of the tempests to which they are much exposed. Hut some ships are so built in compartments that should one part be shattered, the other portion remaining entire may accomplish the voyage." On the banks of the Ganges he was astonished to see bamb'jos growing supremely high and thick, of which " fishing boats are made and skiffs adapted to the navigation of the river." Of the Indian merchants of the south he makes a wonderful statement whicli deserves to be carefully noted: "They are very rich, so much so that some will carry on their business in forty of their own ships, each of which is valued at 1^,000 gold pieces."

Hieronimo di Santo Stefano,^ a Genoese mer­chant, visited India on a mercantile speculation at the close of the 15th century. He embarked from Cosir (Cairo) " on board a ship, the timbers of which were sewn together with cords and the sails

^ Ifu-iia in the Fiftmith Ceniiir^ (Hakluyt Society's publication), ii. ro, 21 , 27-

^ /bid., iv. 4, 8, 9. 199

INDIAN SHIPPING j;

made of ccfton." While sailing from Sumatra in a ship to return to Cambay he was wrecked in a siorm off tie Maldives, and was floating on a large plank of w^od when '^hree ships which had parted from our <X)mpany aid had been fiji^e miles in advance of us, learning our disaster, -immediately sent out their boats . . . and I arrived in one of the said ships at CambayJ' i

Of the 15th and the earEer part iof the i6th century there are otter facts to show th^t much of the Indian maritime activity was manifested on the western coast. Till the arrival of the Portuguese (A.D. 1500-1508) the Ahmedabad sultans maintained their position as lorls of the sea, (At this time Java appears in the State list of foreign bandars which paid tribute, the tribute being probably a cess or ship-tax paid by the Gujarat traders wkh Ja\'a in return for the profection of the royal nary." In 1429 the Gujarat kit^ Ahmad Shah sent a fleet of seventeen vessels to recover the Island of Bombay

i

and Salsette seized by the Bahmani kingdom.. Between 1453-1469 "the Raja of Vishalgad, one of the coa^ fortresses, built up a gijeat maritin>e power, and with a fleet of 300 ves|sels began to harass the commerce of the Musalma'hs till he was

^ When, in A.D. 1535 he secured Enhadur's splendid ji^rdied bdt, Humayun sad: " These areshe equipments of the lord of tte sea." See Bayle/s Gnjorat-^ 386. '

^ Bird's Gujarat, 131, '

200 '

MAHOMEDAM PERIOD

subdued by treacher)' by the King of Gujarat. Mahmud, probably the greatest of the kings of Gujarat (A.D. 1459-1511), or^nized and maintained a large fleet to subdue the fwrates that infested hi.s coasts.^ In East Africa ia A.D. 1498 Vasco dc. Gama found sailors from Gimbay and other parts of India, who guided themseL'es by the help of the stars in the north and south, and had nautical instruments of their own {y.^S.B., vol. v., p. 784I. Again, in A.D. 1510 Albuqurrque found a strong Hindu element in Java and Malacca, and Sumatra ruled by a Hindu named Parameshwara. In A.D. 1508 the Gujarat fleet combined with the Eg}'ptian :o destroy the Portuguese fleet ofT the harbour of Chaul. In A.D. 1521 the admiral of the King of Gujarat defeated the Portuguese off Chaul and sank one of their vessels. In 1537 anotier Gujarat tieet was sent to Chaul, but a great number of the ships were destroyed. In 1528 there was a decisive battle off Bandru, in which the Portugui;se took 73 ships out of the 80 which composed the Cambay fleet. ' In 1546 there was another naval battle fought off Din between the Portuguese, who equipped a large fleet consisting of over 90 sails, and Coje Zofar, a Turk, who was one of the King of Cambay's captains.'

' Elphinstone's History of India, Appendix on Gujarat.

^ Bombay Gazetteer, vol- i., Part ii., pp. 29-34, 46.

^ Portitgiiese in India, by Danvers, pp. 468-74.

2 0 1

INDIAN SHIPPING.

In 1584 &e Portuguese were defeated in a regular expeditic_E which they sent against the pirates of Goa, then a nest of buccaneers who were organized into a foanidable force under die Samura:, practising guerilla'^^.rfare and preying on all sea;-borne traffic.

Durki^ this period the great coni'mercial marts on the T^estern coast were Chaul iand Dabhol, carrying an a large trade with Persia and the Red Sea, by which route the whole of the:'i Indian goods designed for Europe then passed. The next im­portant place was Bassein, situated'' in the great timber-fooducing district. Many ships used • to load there with timber and carry it to Mecca, where the Tui"Es used it for their fleet. Py'rard says that all the inmber required at Goa for building houses and sh-}fcs came from Bassein. Agashi is also spoken cf by Portuguese annalists as a large and rich place with a trade in timber. It had a large dockyaLd in which ships were built :—

As shonmg the equality on which these places stood with PcMrtagal in the art of upbuilding, it must be raeiitioned that in 1540 an expedition went from^Ksein against ^ a s h i with the sole abject of getting pdssesaon of a great Mp which was jkst built ther& and was then ready for launching. The ship -.cs taken, and afterwards made several 'voyages to Portugal. One of the Surat ships stepped by Sir H. Middleion on its voyage to the Red C^ in 1612 was 153 ft. long, 42 beam 31 de sp, and said to be of 1,500 t ^ burden.2 I

I

^ AVhiiGvay's jRise of the Portuguese Tower in India, p. 47.

^ De Cmitto, iv. 99; Orme's Frc^ments, 326- cuofed in BGmbay Gaseitesr^ tnL i., Part ii., pp. 34-36.

202 !

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

One of the Dabhol ships stopfEci at the sarnc time by Captain Saris in the Red Sea was " 153 -^ect from stem to stern, brfeadth 42, height 31, burden 1,200 tons; the mainmast 108 feet, the mainyard 132, The English ships of that age {[611) vvere 300 or 350 tons at most." ^

Calicut also in the i6th century developed into a great shipping centre. The foreign traveller Varthema has left a very interesting record uf shipbuilding in Calicut, giving details about the materials and parts of ships, their mames, and the time of navigation, from which we make the following extract:—

First they make their vessels, such as are open, each cf 300 or 400 butts And when they build the said vessels they do not put any oatum between one plank and another in any way whatever, but they join the planks so well that they keep out the water most ey^ellcntly. And ti>e;7 they lay on pitch outside, and put in an immense quantity or iron ujils. Do not imagine, however, that they have not any oakum, for it comes there in great abundance from other countries, but they are not accustcmi-T to use it for ships. They also possess as good timbers as ourselves ami in greater quantit>' than ivith us. The sai/s of these ships of theirs a'e made erf cotton, and at the foot of the said sails they carry another sa"\ and they spread this when they are sailing in order lo catch more wind; so that they carry two sails where we carry only one. They also c£jr/ (i«Mi?w'made of marble, i.e. a piece of marble eight palmi long and two palmt every other way. The said marble has two large roprs attathr:ti to it, and these are the anchors. . . . The time of tkdr navigation is thi;-. From Persia to the Cape of Comerin, eight days' voyage from Caiicu': towards the south. You can navigate through eight months in the year, i.e. September to April; from May to August the sea is very stormy. . , As to the names of their ships, some are called Samitichi^ and these are flat-bottomed. Some others, which are made like ours, that is in tbt-

' Piirchas, i. 349-350; Dr. Vincent's Commerce of the Ancients, vol. ii., p. 38.

203

INDIAN SHIPPING hDttom, they a l l Capei. Some other quick ships are jcaUed J^artss^ and they are Ijoas of teai paces each, and are all, of one piece, tmd go with cnrs maJe of i^ane, and the mast also is made of cane. There is also artother kind, uf vessel which ^oes ^vith a sail and oars. 'X>iGse are all made of one piece, of the lergth of twelve or ttrirteeri'pacK each. The (jjening is s« ziarrow that one man cannot sit by thejside of the other, tut one is obliged to go before the other. They are sharp at both ends. These ships sxe called Chaheri^ and go ei^er with aj.saS or oars more swiftly than zra galley,/?<;?/•«, or brigantine.^ !'

L I

^ Tmveh y Vartkenm^ etEted by G. P. Badger '(Hakluyt Societj-), pp. i52ff. I;

204

MAHOMEDAN PERIOB

CHAPTER II.

T H E MOGUL PERIOD : THE REIGN OF AKBAR.

W E now reach the age of the Moguls, under whom the poHtlcal unity of India was nearly attained after the lapse of centuries, and an imperial naval establishment was founded and maintained, espe­cially in Bengal, the home of Indian shipbuilding.

Previous to Akbar we have hardly any record of Indian naval activity except perhaps the two exploits of Babar, the one in A.D. 1528, when Babar fought a naval battle on the Ganges near Kanauj, in which he seized about thirty or forty of the enemy's boats, and the other achieved on the Gogra, on which the army of Kharid collected 100-150 vessels and gave Babar battle.

The government of India under Akbar, however, as might be naturally expected, gave a great impetus to Indian shipping and shipbuilding, especially in Bengal. The main source of our information is of •ourse the Ayeen-i~Akbari, that well-known store-^ u s e of accurate details regarding the life and vrork of Akbar the Great. According to Abul-Fazl, tiiere were framed elaborate regulations for the organization of the Naval Department or Admiralty, tke " office of Aleer Behry " as it was called. These regulations will be found to be remarkably akin to,

205

^ INDIAN SHIPPING, h

and in scne respects will be even thought to have been an± cipated by, the rt^ulatioiji's governing Chandra Gupta's Admiralty about h 1,900 years earlier, "7Jich have been, as we have 'ialready seen, preservcil for us in tliat monumental Sanskrit work, the Artimsastra of Kautilya. [i

Akbsrs Adniiraliy had, broadly speaking,/d?/i'r ftmdio}^ to perform. The first was' to see to the supfiy s / ships and boats for the purpose of navigatjzn, and supervise tkeir building. Vessels were birii; of various sizes and for \'arious purposes. There "= re those built for the transportation of elephant!, and tho^ of such construction as to be employ^l in sieges,-while others were meant for the conveya3rce of merchandise. There were also ships which served for convenient hab^tattons. The Emper?! had also pleasure-boats tiuilt ^ t h con­venient apartments, and others on which there were floating markets and flower-gardens. E\"-er)'' part of Akt^r's empire abounded in ships, but the chief centres of shipbuilding were Bengal, Cashmeer, and T:*a. In Allahabad and Lahore also ^vere constm^ited ships of a size suitable for sea voyages. Along"'fce coasts of the ocean in the west, east, and south rf India afeo, large ships were built which were sdtable for voyages. |'

Ttx second (Sixty of Akbar's I'Adntiralty was regarong the supply of men, of efficiemt mariners who knew the nature of tides,,'the depths of

205

MAHOMEDAN P E R I O 0

channels, the coasts to be avoided, and the character of the prevailing winds. Every ship required officers and men of the following titles and descrip­tions : (i) The Nakkoda, or commaader of the vessel, who directed the course of the sJiip; (2) the Maullim (the mate), who knew the sounding's, the situation of the stars, and guided the ship safe to her destination ; (3) the Ttmdeil, who was the chief of the khelasses or sailors; (4) the Nakhoda-khesheb, whose duty it was to provide fuel for the people and assist in lading and unlading the ship ; (5) the Sirheng, who had to superintend the docking and launching of the ship ; (6) the Bliandarec, who had charge of the ship's store ; (7) the Keninee, or ship's clerk, who kept the accounts and also served out water to the people; (8) the Sukangeer, or helmsman, of whom there were sometimes twenty in a ship; (9) the Pimjeree, whose duty it Avas to look out from the top of the mast and give notice when he saw land or a ship, or discovered a storm rising, or any other object worth observing; (10) the Goomtee^ or those particular khelasses who threv/ the water out of the ship; (ii) the gimncrs, wb ^ differed in number according to the size of tlv ship ; (12) the Kherwah, or common seamen, wb ; were employed in setting and fm-ling the sails and in stopping leaks, and in case of the anchor sticking fast in the ground they had to go to the bottom of the water to set it free.

207

"^ INDIAN SHIPPING

The tki^d task of the Admiralty was " to watch the riven^ for which an active, resolute iTKin was appointed^ who settled everything relative to the ferries, regialated the tonnage, and provided travellers with boats on the shortest notice. Tho'se "who were

LI

not able to pay at the ferries passed over gratis, but no one was permitted to swim across a river. It was also the duty of this officer to hinder boats from traveigflg in the night except in cases of necessity. N'or was he to allow goods to'.be lanced anywhere e^siept at the public wharfs. Altogether the functions of this officer very nearly corresponded to those of Chandra Gupta's -srr w^ or Superintendent of Ships. V

The/our^ duty of the Admiralty was in regard to the imposition, realization, and remission of duties. Akbaris said to have remitted duti'es equal to- the revenues of a kingdom. Nothiing was exacted upon exports and imports excepting,',a trifle taken at the poriswhich never exceeded 2^ per cent, and was regarded by merchants as a perfect remission.^ \\

The Ayeen-'^Akhari'^ also gives some details regarding the rv^r tolls in Akbar's time :— \

For every boat was-eiwrged R. i per kos at tlie rate of j,oob vans provided the boat and thsrnen belong to one and the same owner, ^But if the boat belongs to aneiaer man and everything in the boat to the man

i '

1

^ Ay£en-i-Aih^^Q,\^^^V£^% translation, pp. 193 fif. ^' ^ 3lochmann's translation. \'

208 t

MAHOMEDAiV PERIOfe

who feas hired it, the tax is R. i for everj' A kos. At ferry places an elepF j iit has to pay jod. for crossing; a laden car:, ^.; ditto, empty, id.\ a laden camel, d,; empty camels, horses, cattle wit' \ thii\ things, \d.; ditto, empty, \ii. Other beasts of burden pay ^qd.^ which in-Iuded the toll due by the driv^T Twenty people pay id. for .crossingj but ther are often taken gratis.^

As regards details relating to the devclopmeDt of shipping in Bengal, we have to refer to the abstract of Ausil Toomar ytimnia'^ (original established revenue) of j&ngal as settled in behalf of the Mogul Emperor Akbar, about the year 1582, by Raja Todar Mall, in which v.e find specific assignnients for naval establishment. Some perganas were definitdy assigned for main­taining the Imperial Now\ia.ra (flotilla). Under the head of Omieh Nowwara we have mention of a naval establishment conEisting, at the time It was established by Akbar, of 3,000 vessels or boats, but it was afterwards reduced to 768 armed cruisers and boats, besides the number of vessels required to be furijished by the zemindars in return for the lands they held as jaigeer. The whole expense of manning the fleet, including the wages of 923 Fringuan or Portuguese sailors, was esti­mated at Rs. 29,282 monthly, which, with con­structing new vessels and repairing the old, amounted annually to Rs. 8,43,452. The fleet was

^ Blochmanu's translation. 2 See Grant's "Analysis of the Finances c? Bengal," in the Fifth Repori

of the Select Committee on the Affatrs of tk East India Company, vol. i. pp. 245, 246, 270; and Taylor's Topographer^Dacca, p. 194.

2 0 9 P

^ [NDIAJST S H I P P I N G ! r

frincipally stationed at Dacca, as its headquarters. i*om whkh was performed its functions for guard­ing the coast of Bengal against the then verv frequent incursions of the Maggs and other foreign jiicates or invaders. Under the royal jurisdiction of the Nowwara or Admiralty of Dacca was placed the whole coast from Mnndelgaiit (neai-ihe conftaience of the Damodar andnRupMarayan) to the Emipdar of Balesore, which was also liable to the in\'a^an of the Maggs. In facty the ordinary established rental of the wiole country vras then almost entirely absorbed in jaigeers and protecting the sea-sDasts from the ravages of the Maggs or ArrakaoEse, aided by the Portuguese,iwho anhabited the port of Chatgaon, and who, in' the hope of benefiting through their commerce, had dso been allowed to make a settlement at ; HuglL The jaigeers that were assigned to the Daces district for the support of these military |estabishmerts of the country -were computed: to comprise nearly one-third of its extent. The Nowwara jaigeer, Tiiiich was the principal assigrment in the (fetdct, included the best " lands of the Neabut, and was subdivided into numbers of snrEall Taluks, which w-ere granted toj; the boatmen and arliikers of tke fleet.^ Besides the pergaiias

* Top^^raphy and Sitdistics of DcEca, by Taylor (print'j:d by ord:r of Governmi^it, 1840).

2 1 0

MAHOMEDAN P E R l O b

assigned for the support of the Nowvvara, a fruit­ful sburce of revenue for the support of the na\nal establishment was derived from the Mheer Baree, which was a tax on the building" rjf boats varying from 8 as. to R. i 4 as., accord­ing to the size of the vessels. It was levied upon all boats arriving at or leaving the naval headquarters whose crews were not residents ( f the district.

A boat proceeding to Moorshidabad was charged at the rate of 8 a:i. per oar: tp Calcutta loa^.; and to Benares R..I 8 as., while boats arriving from these places were taxed at the rate of i, 2, and 4 rupees per boat. The Mehal was originally confined to the city, but it afterwards estend'Si to the, country, where it was exacted by the zemindars and farmers from every boat that passed their estates. It was considered useful in Kading to the'detection of dacoits, as a registry of the boats, manjee-i. and boatmen belonging to each district was kept by the zemindars.^

I

As already pointed out, the naval establishment at Dacca was necessitated by the depredations of the Arrakan pirates, both Magg and Feringi, who used constantly to come by the water route and plunder Bengal. "They ciuried off the Hindus and Moslems, . . , threw them one above another under the, decks of their ships . . . and sold them to the Dutch, English, and French merchants at the ports of , the Deccan. Sometimes they brought the captives for sale at a high price to Tamluk and the port of Balasore, which is a part of the imperial

^ Taylor's Topography of Dacca^^^. 198, 199.

2 1 1

INDIAN SHIPPING

•dominioiLs.'' With, regard to their power it is said that " thdr canaons are beyond nurnbsrir^, their flotilla exceeds the waves of the sea." 1 Their ships were so strongly made of timber with a hard core that " cannons could not pierce them." ^ They were sxich a terror iD the Bengal navy that ''whenerer loo warships r-f Bengal s^hted four ships of the enemy, if the distance separating them was great the Bengal crew sho-E^ fight byilight."^ i'.

The n-aterials for the building; of the Roya!l Nowwara. :aine from Sylhet, uHaich was then of great importancE from its natural growth of ship-trmbers, irhich coatd be built into vessels of different sizes.^ The shipT^rds from the M a ^ and Eeringi fleets were towarrds the souSi at Sandwipa, a part of the kingdom cf Arrakam The Venetian traveller, Cesare di Fedrici, writing about tbej' year 1565, states that 200 ships were laden yearly with salt amd that aich was the abundance of niaterials for shipbuilding^ in this part of tlie country that the Sultan of Gonstantinople found it cheaper to have his vesselsljuilt here tkan at Alexandria.^

There was quite a large variety of vesoels built,

1 Fiom the xnriemporary Persian account of Siihab-ud-din Talish in MS. Bodleian 5S-1, SacJmti and Ethis Catalegtie, eotry ^40, transited by Professor Jadunaii Satkar in "Ca&J.A.S.B. for June, 1907.'

2 Ibid. 3 ji^^^ \ 4 ^y^_

* Fifth Repis^eft/ie Sdeci Committee, vol. i., pp. 444-5.

^ Taylor's T^^graphy of Deem. '

212

iMAHOMEDAN PERIOD

and stationed at Dacca. Besides the 768 war-boats making up the Nowwara, there were state-bai^es for the Viceroys, and two vessels, magnifi­cently fitted up, had annually to be dispatched to the Emperor at Agra, though afterwards, 'i'i'hen the Mogul Government declined in vigour, and the Nawabs of Bengal became virtually independent, these state-boats, though avowedly sent for the use of his Majesty, never reached higher than Murshid-abad. The state^^barges were distinguished by different names according to the figures on their prows, as " Mohrpunkee," from that of a peacock, " Muggurchera," of an alligator, etc. Boating was then a general and favourite pastime with the rich as it was with the Nawabs.^

Besides Bengal, the province of Sindh was a great centre of Indian shipping. Abul-Fazl informs us that in the circar of Thatta alone there could be found 40,000 vessels ready for hire.^ Lahori Bandar in those days was an important seaport on the Indus, and the following account of the harbour regulations in force there given in the Tarikh-^i-Tahiri is very interesting :—

Between the town of Thatta and Lahori Bandar is a distance of two days' journey, both by land and by water; beyond this it is anothe- day's

^ Taylor's Topography of Dacca, pp. 98, 268. ^ " The means of locomotion is by boats, of which there are many kinds,

large and small, to the number of 4o,ooo."'—Jarret's translation of the Aycen-i'Akhari, vol. ii., p. 338.

2 1 3

INDIAN SHIPPING

march to the s a . There is a amall channel (called iidr m tha language of Thatta) Garnmunicating with the port which is unfo;rdaDle. Beti^en the port and ife ocean there is but one inhabited spot called Suimiani. Hfere a guard txlOTiging to the ZMir Bandar, or port master, with, a loaded piece of ordnaKC, is ahvays slaiioned. Whenever a ship erters the q::«ek it intimates its approach by firing a gun, which is respouioitD by the guard-house, in nrder, by that signal, to inform the people it fiiE port of the arrival OTEE strange vessei. These, again, instantiy'send w«rd of its arrival to the Eseachants of Tfeitta, and then, embarking on boats, repair to the place ^^sre the guard is posted. Ere they reach it,, those on the kiok-out have steady Inquired kito Ae nature of the ship. Sjery vessel a»d trader nitsl undergo this qiEstiohing. All concerned in the business now go in tlisr boats {ghrab^ to the mouth of the creek, If the ship belong to th&3)art it is allov?ed to move up and andior un^er Lahori !fehdar; if it ttJoMg to some other part it can go no ferther—its cargo is transferred intiEDaats and forwarded to the city.' | I

We m ^ now refer to some of the naval engage­ments of Akbar's reign. In 1580 RajajfTodar Mall, who had b a ^ directed to fit out 1,000 boats ^ishti) and ghr(& at Agra, was sent by the lEmperor to settle, the xevenues of Gujarat.^ In i[59a Akbar sent Khan-L-Khanan against Mirza Jani Btg of Thatta, wis j}retended to independence', whereupon the Mirza- sent 120 xrmed ghrabs and 2CQ beats against hen. In eadi 'of these ghrabs there were carpenters for quickly repairing the d'amages that might be xaused by _guns. Some ofj Jarrl Beg's ghrabs were manned by Feringhi soldier's. Jani Beg was event!Filly defeafed, fled, and \\^s .puisued till he offered terms, givmg up to the imperial general \}sm\.y ghrtxbs among ©ther things.^ In,! 1574 Akbar

1 Elliot, vol. i^ p. 277. "^ Ibid^ vol. dii.^p. 37c-'-\-

J^id,, vol. i., pp. 247-52, Tarikh-i-Masumi, 3 _ __ .__ __ _ _

i 214

MAHOMHDAN P E R I O D

opened his long-continued campaign against Beliar 2nd Bengal and sent the Khan KhRn3.a Munun Khan with the imperial forces agamst Daud, who was putting up near Patna and Hajipur. The Emperor determined to personally direct the opcni-tions, and embarked with a huge fleet, carrying "all his equipments and establishments, armour, drums, treasure, carpets, kitchen utensils, stud, etc. Two large boats were specially prepared for his own accommodation." When he reached Patna by boat he gave orders for the reduction of the fort of Hajipur, and " Khan Alam was se»t off with 3,000 men in boats with the materials required for a siege." After the fall of Hajipur, Daud fled in a boat, and Patna fell into the hands of the Emperor, who appointed Khan Khanan to the government of Bengal, giving him all the boate which he had brought down from Agra, with a large army. But Benga] was not easily pacified. The Mogul jai-girdars in Bengal and Behar attempted to defy Akbar's authority. The Afghans also availed themselves of this opportunity, took up arms, and made themselves masters of Orissa and part of Bengal. Finding that the A%han and Mogul officers were defiant, Akbar appointed Hmdu governors of Bengal, of whom Todar Mall v.'a ' the first. The second was Raja Man Singh of Jaipur, who ruled Bengal from 1589 to r6o4.

It was during Man Singh's viceroyalty that v/e

215

INDIAN SHIPPING,

-find a remarkable outburst of naval activity in Eastern Bengal, and proofs of a naval organi2ation that was bdng slowly and silently built i p by the efforts of J:iome of the independent Hindu landlords of Bengal, while the Mogul Government was busy establishing the Nowwara at Daccai' The chief centres of this Hindu naval activity were Sripur, Bakla or Chandradwipa, in the south-east of the modern district of Backergunj and ',, Chaffidikari, which is Eientified with' the &ugor island. The Lord of Sripur was Kedar Roy, who fvas quite a naval genius but haidly sufficiently knov/n. He lad many men-of-war kept always in readiness in his shipyaxis and naval stations. In 1602 he recovered 6ie island of Sandwipa from 'the Moguls and placed its govenwnent in the hands of the' Portuguese umder Carvalius. This, however, roused' the jealousi? and alarm t)f the King of Ai*rakaiT, who' forthwith dspatched 150 vessels of war;, large and; small, to c£i]qiier Sandwipa. Kedar Roy, equal to ' the occasion, at once sent 100 vessels of'war in aid of his allies. In the battle that was fought the allies of Ke^ar Roy came off victorious', and they captured 145 of the enemy's vessels. Tlie King of Artakan fared equally ill in his seconci attempt against Kecirr Roy's allies, although he dispatched as many as 1,000 war-vessels against them. But • Kedar Roy had to face a more powerful I'enemy in ; anc^er direc£on about tlie same time. For Raja

216 I;

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

Man Singh, the then Viceroy of Bengal, was con­vinced of the necessity of extinguishing the power and independence of Kedar Roy, and sent Manda Roy with loo war-vessels for the purpose. But in the battle that was fought Manda Roy was slain. This, however, only incited Man Singh to make a second and far stronger attempt to subdue Kedar Roy in A.D. 1604. Kedar Roy, equipped with fully 500 men-of-war, first took the offensive and besieged the Mogul general Kilmak at Srinagara, but was eventually himself taken prisoner after a furious cannonade. He was brought before Man Singb, but soon died of his wounds.^

Bakla also was another important centre cf naval strength in Bengal under the famous land­lord Ramachandra Roy. His escape with his life from the clutches of Protapaditya of Jessore, in a boat furnished with guns and propelled by 64 oars­men, is a well-known fact. The reputation of Ramachandra as a hero was fully maintained by his son and successor, Klrtinarayana, \ 'ho was

^ Takmilla-i'Akbamaina^ in Elliot, vol. vi., pp. j66 ff. ^ Cf. the following passage from the Ghatakakdrika. the Sansicri..

chronicle of the period :—

^rr^^i wfei^T^T ^Tin^Tf»n:rw<rT 11 For information regarding Bengali maritime activity of this period I arei

indebted to Srijukta Nikhilnath Roy's useful work on Protapaditya in Bengali.

2 1 7

INDIAN SHIPPING |.

equally skilfiul in naval warfare, and succeeded in ousting tb£ Feringhis from their settlements near the mouths of the'Meghna. His alliance was courted e ea by the JMawab of Dacca'.

But by far the most important seat of Hindu maritime power of the times in Bengal vvas that established at ChancEkan or Saugor J'sland by the constructive genius of Protapadit)'a, jithe redoubt­able ruler of Jessore. Ntimbers of men-of-war were aiwa^^ to be found ready for "battle and in a seaworthy condition at that naval station. There were also three other places where Protap built his shipyards and dockyards:' these were Dudhali, Jahaja-ghata, and Chakasil, where his ships were l)uilt, repaired, and kept. |i

But the maritime activity of Bengal in this period foiM>d its scope not only in war, but also in the gentier arts ot peace. Foreign writers and travellers who visited Bengal in the|ii6th caitury

* speak m high terms of the wt alth flowing from her brisk sea-borne trade and the greatness and magni-iicence of some of lier ports. Purchas describes Bengal as "plentiful in rice, wheat, sugar, ginger, long-pcp^r, cotton, and silk, and enjoying also a

-.c . "very who-lesome air." Varthema (1503-1508) says of Bengal: "This country abounds rnore in grain, flesh of every kind, in great quantity |pf sugar, also of gingei;, and of gj eat abundance of cotton, than any country in the world.". Ralph fjitch, probably

218 fi

MAHOMEDAN P E R I O D

the first English traveller to Bengal (1586), mentions some of the ports and marts of Bengal. One of these was Tanda, where there was " great trade and traffic of cotton and cotton cloth." Another was Bacla, which " is very great and plentiful, and bath store of rice, much cotton cloth, and cloth of silk." The third was S'ripur with its "great store of cotton cloth." Of the fourth, viz. Sonargaon, he says; " Here is best and finest cloth made of cotton that is in all India. . . . Great store of cotton cloth goeth from here, and much rice, wherewith they serve all India, Ceylon, Pegu, Malacca, Sumatra, and many other places." Satgaon was another great emporium of Bengal for foreign commerce, and is thus described by Fitch: "Satgaon is a fair c'liy for a city of the Moors and very plentiful of all things. Here in Bengal they have every day, in one place or other, a great market which they call ' Chandeun,' and they have many great boats which they call 'pencose,'wherewithal they go from place to place and buy rice and many other things; their boats have 24 or 26 oars to row them, tliey be of great burthen. . . . " Bengal was also noted for her salt trade, the centre of which was Sandwipa, whence "300 ships are yearly laden with salt."

But perhaps the most important commercial centre of Bengal in this period was the city of Gaur, the history of which may be traced as far

219

INDIAN SHIPPING r

back as the days *f Pala and Sena kings. As the place-^¥as surroiaided on all sides bj rivers ,it naturalij- gave a grest impetus to boat-building and maritime .activity, o£ which the first proofs we get are in t t e time of the Pala kings. In the Kalimpur copper-p'atE inscriptk^n of Dharmapaladeva there

, is a refereace to bridges^ of boats built for the transport nf armies^ and also to an Officer called Tarik, \i'ii0 was the general superintaident of boats. In some of the copper-platei, inscxiptioas of the Sema kings, also, there is mention of naval

• force as ar" element cE" their military orgaaization.^ Under the Musulman kings of Bengali, Ga»r con­tinued to grow in prosperity and importance. "VVe have already seen how in the 15th ceritury ambas­sadors froTi China to IBengal and frorri Bengal to' Qiina used to carry presents as tokens of mutual' friendship iDctween the sovereigns of bodi the countries.^ In the i6th century, under d>e rule of the Husi^ain Shah dynasty, the city attained its greatest sp4ccidour. Kussain Shah (1498-1^0 A.D.)

rTfV«T •^^TfTTC " ^ ^ f^^^in"^, i.e. " Now from his jrojal camp of victary, pitched Et Pataliputra, Vfhere the manifold flests of bo^s pra-cee(Eng on the pah of tke Eh^irathi make it seem as if a saies of mountain-tops feid been snnk le build anotiier causeway."—E£.. Ind., vol. iv., 1896-97-, p. 249. _ ' \

I

^ ^frar^^THRI • * • I ^ I'

3 See p. 197 <itiiis work. \

, 220

l!

MAPIOMEDAN PERIOD

himself maintained a powerful fleet, with which he once invaded Assam.^ In Hunter's Statistical Account of BengaP there is a story related about one Shaikh Bhik of Gaur, a cloth merchant, who once " set sail for Russia with three ships laden with silk cloths, but two of his ships were wrecked somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Persian Gulf." Accounts of the magnificence of the city are given by foreign travellers who visited Bengal about this time. Varthema (1503-1508) mentions how from " the city of Banghella " (Gaur) sail every year " fifty ships laden with cotton and silk stuffs." De Barros gives the following description of the city, based on the accounts of Portuguese tra\^ellers who visited it in the reign of Mahmud III. (1532-1538 A.D.) : " The chief city of the kingdom is called Gaur. It is said to be three of our leagues in length and contain 200,000 inhabitants. The streets are so thronged with the concourse and traffic of people that they cannot force their v ay past. A great part of the houses of this city are stately and well-wrought buildings." Manuel de Faria y Souza^ wrote: " The principal city Gouro, seated on the bank of the Ganges, three leagues in length, containing one million and two hundred

' Blochraann's "Koch Bihar and Assam," in the/zL^.^ . , 1872, Parti,, No. 1.

• Vol. vii., p. 95. ^ Portuguese Asia, Stevens, 1698, vol. i., ch. ix,, pp. 415 ft".

221

j extant. We account con-

INDIAN SHIPPING I -

thousand families, and well fortified.; along the streets, \ lmch "are wide and straight, rows of trees to shade the people, which sometimes in such numbers ±hat some are trod to death." Besides these foreign, notices of the prosperitjfi cf Gaur we have also- some native accounts still have: already made extracts from the tained la Kavikankmta Chandi of the ad^sentnres of the mepchant Dhanapati, who liv^d many years in GauT, and of his son S-rSmanta, who sailed in

- ll quest of 15s father to Sinhala in shipsjo: lOO yards length amd 20 yards breadth, with prows shaped Kke Mafem, or the head of an elephant or a lion. In one of the old folk-songs of GamMdr^a,^ belonging to Maldc district, there is _an interest'ing reference to anotte: merchant of the name of Dhanapati, who sailal. from Delhi to Gaur in ships that occupied 5Q much of the river that there was scarcely "^vsf room left for bathing or taking water/ According to Malda local tradition, ipreserved in some aid Bengali MSS., there were sevenal Arab merchants- who settled, in Gaur for purposes of

^ IFor air -account of these songs, see Mr Haiidasa P ^ f s learned article in the a^ml of the Bmi^ya Sahitya Faris/iat.

tf ^51^ ntc^ \f "m^ \ 222

MAIIOMEDAN PERIOD

commerce. One of the MSS. gives a glowing description, through the mouth of Chamban Ali, A merchant from Bagdad, of the port of Gaur as seen from the opposite side of the river, and of the innumerable ships and boats, testifying to the vastness of its ma:ritime trade. Some light is thrown on the growth of the shipbuildin^e indnstry of Gaur by an old Bengali MS., a poem, called Manasdmangald, by Jagajjibana. The merchant Chand Saodagar summons to his presence the master-craftsman named Kusai, and orders him to build for him fourteen boats at once. Forthwith goes Kusai with his many apprentices to the forest, where he fells all kinds of trees for materials to build the various parts of the boats with. There were soon hewed out three or four lacs of planks which were afterwards joined together by means of iron nails.^ It is also a significant fact that some very old masts of ships have been unearthed in some of the villages, in the neighbourhood of Pandua through which the Mahananda once flowed.-'

^'m f^fH ^ i t ^ f e f ^ ^ II

f&f^^ f3:«T jplfsT fff^ f^r^ f?r r ^ For some of the references given above I am indebted to .he

courtesy of Mr. Haridasil Palit, v/ho has devoted himself to the study of the antiquities of Gaur.

223

INDIAN SHIPPING

•. CHAPTER III. || '!

, THE- JVIDGUL PERIOD {ccmtmued): FROM THE , R E I G E OF ' AkBAR TO THAT OF AuR-VNGZEB.

WE-hayc now given an account of thejdevekxpment of Indian shipping and shipbuilding] in the reign of Akba" and of the contributions made to it not only by feis Governonent but also by private: efforts, by independent Hindu and Makomedan rulers. Nor was this development checked after Akbar's death, bnt continued through successive reigns.

After t"he death of Akbar in 1605,,Islam Khan, Governcrxjf Ber^al, transferred the seat of govern­ment frocL Rajmahal to Dacca, and jincreased the Nowwara, or fleet, and artilfery, which had been established in the time of Akbar in order to check

I ' I

the ren^^-ed aggressions of tlie Afghans and Maggs. As stated in the contemporary Persian account cif Shihab-ud-cfin Talish, " in Jcdtangir's reign th:i: Magg pirates used to come to Dacca for plunder and abduction, and in fact donsidered the whole oT Bengal as their jaigir." ^ I: Islam Khan shortly aftEnvards defeated the combined forces of the Rajaiiof Arrakan and the Portuguese pirate

» j.A.S^B^ vol. ill., N.S., pp. 424» 425.

224

MAHOMHDAN PERIOD

Sebastian Gonzales, then in possession of Sandwipa, and commanding an army of i,ooo Portuguese, 2,c)oo sepoys, 200 cavalry, and; 80 well-armed vessels of different sizes, who both made a descent upon the southern part of the province, laying wa- te the country along the eastern bank of the Megna

In the 7'eign of Shak •Jakan, in A.D. 1638, there began a trouble from a new quarter. Even during the closing years of Akbar's reign, the tribes on the eastern frontier of Bengal, belonging to Kuch Behar and Assam, began to cause trouble. In A.D. 1596 an expedition was sent against Lachmi Narayan, the ruler of Kuch Behar, who commanded a large army consisting of 4,000 horse, 200,000 foot, 700 elephants, and a fleet of 1,000 ships {Akbanimna). In 1600 xin imperial fleet consisting of 500 ships was sent to encounter the fleet of Parichat, ruler of Kuch Hajo, in the Gujadhar river, who was defeated and taken prisoner {Padishandmd). But Baldeo, brother of Parichat, fled to Assam, and having collected an army of Kochis and Assamese, attacked the imperial army, as well as a fleet of nearly 500 ships, and defeated the whole force. At last, in 1638, the Assamese them­selves made a hostile descent on Bengal from their boats, sailing down the river Brahmaputra, and had almost reached Dacca when they were met by the Governor of Bengal, Islam Khan Mushedy, with the

1 /.A,S.B., 1872, Part i., No. i, pp. 64 ff.

225 Q

INDIAN S H I P P I N G ; .

Nowwara. An enga^ment ensued in which 4,000 of them wcE slain and ifteen of their boats fell into the

I '

hands ofAe Mogul Government. The Maggs also were conlinfuing their depredations iri, the southern parts of A e district. " The established rental of the country was at this time alrnost entirely absorbed m jaigirs assigned to protect the coasts from therr ravages, and such was the 'redujced state of tke revenues t h ^ Fedai Khan 'obtained the g"overnnicirt on condition of paying' ten lacs of rupees a ^^ear; viz., Bve lacs to the Emperca: and the same ann to Noor Jehan Eegum lin lieu of the imperial dues; while, on the invasion of the Assamese, it is said that not a single rupee was remitted t« DelhL" Matters instead of improving became wnrse and worse owing to the continued dilapidation of the Bengal fleet on the one liand and the giawing power of the Magg'and Feringi Meets on ihe other. When, in AJD. 11639, Pnnce Shuja wae appointed viceroy, " great confusion was caused b^^ kis negb'gence; and the extortion and violence nf the clenks (mutasaddis)], ruined the pargannafe assigned for maintaining the Now-warrah (fteet). Many (naval) officers and workmen kolding _^gir or sfipend were overpov^^ered by poverty aicd starvation." I

la the retg?i of AttrangBch, when. Mir Jumla came to Bengal as vaceroy in 1660, r|emovmg the seat of government ^a in to Dacca, lie began '* to

226 !;

!!

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

make a new arrangement of the expenditure and tankhah of the flotilla, which amounted to fourteen lacs of rupees."^ With a view to guarding against an invasion from Arrakan, Mir Jumla built several forts about the confluence of the Luckia and Issamutty, and constructed several good military-roads and bridges in the vicinity of the town. In 1661 Mir Jumla marched against Kuch Behar, and easily annexed the kingdom, when the Raja Bhini Narain fled. In the following year (1662) he embarked on his conquest of Assam with a large force consisting of infantry and artillery and the Nowwara. About 800 hostile ships attacked the imperial fleet, the cannonade lasting the wdiole night. The Nawab sent Muhammad Munim Beg to assist the fleet. This decided the fate of the engagement, resulting in the capture of 300 or 400 ships of the enemy with a gun on each. The Assamese burnt some 1,000 and odd ships, many of which were large enough to accommodate 80, 70, and 60 sailors, including 123 bachhari ships, like which no other existed in the dockyard at Ghargaon, The imperial fleet used in the engagement con­sisted of 323 ships, viz.:—

Kosahs 159 Jalbahs 4S Ghrabs . . . . . . 10

' MS. Bodleian 598, 'mJ.A.S.B., June, 1907. ^ Tayloi's Topography and StaiisHcs of Baaa, p. 76.

2 2 7 Q 2

INDIAN SHIPPING;'

Parindahs "Bajrahs Patilahs 3albs Fatils Bhars 'Calams Rhatgiris Mahalgiris Palwarahs and »ther small sJjips

Total .

7 4

50 2

1

I

2

10

5 24

35;

It was after all a pyrrhic victory, for a terrible sickness spread among -the troops,;; carr^ ing off many naval officers and men, including Mir Jumla himself. At the death of Mir Jumla, the Eiengal flotilla \ v s utterly rmined, and, taking;advantage of this, tke pirates, early in the year 1664, appeared oefore Efecca, " and defeated Muna vTA a Khan, Zemindar who was stationed there with the relics

ii

of the INEoanA ara—a few broken and ijotten boats— arid hcfft the high title of Cruising Admiral {Sardar-i-S'airah,'' and "the few boats that sti ll belonged to

• the Nowwara were thus lost, and its name alone Temaine^ in Bengal." l a 1664 S'haista Khan "became-rfceroy; and resolving to suppress piracy at any cost devoted all his ene i ^ to the.rebuilding of the flotSEa and the creation of a new one. The contempn-ary Persian manuscript of I the Bodleian Library af-Ves some interesting details 'regarding the

^ Fathiy-'eclv-i-ibriyyah, translated by Bbchmann xiXha.J.A.S.B., 1872, Tart i., No. r, pp. 64-96. j |

228 I,

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

meartS adopted by Sbaista Khan to revive the Nonvwara. "As timber and shipwrights were required for repairing and fitting out the ships, to every mauza of the province that had timber and carpenters bailiffs were"sent with warrants to take them to Dacca." The principal centres of ship-btiilding at that time appear to have been Hut ii Baleswar, Murang, Chilmari, Jessore and Karibari, where " as many boats were ordered to be built and sent to Dacca as possible." At headquarters, too, Shaista Khan did not for a moment "forget to mature plans for assembling the crew, providing their rations and needments, and collecting the materials for shipbuilding and shipwrights. Hakim Mahammad Hussain, mansabdar, an old, able, learned, trustworthy, and virtuous servant of the Nawab, was appointed head of the shipbuilding department. . . . To all ports of this department expert officers were appointed. Kishore Das, a well-informed and experienced clerk, was appointed to have charge of the pargannahs of the Nowwara and the stipend of the jaigixs assigned to the naval officers and men." As a result of this activity and the ceaseless exertions of the Nawab, we find the magnificent output of as many as 300 ships built in a very short time and equipped with the necessaiy materials.

To secure bases for the war against the Feringis of Chatgaon, the Nawab posted an officer with 200

229

INDI^:^ SHIPPING;;

ships at Sangramgana, where the Ganges arM the BrahmapTHtra unite, and anotlier at Dhapa, Kith loo ships, to Iselp the former whea required. Then the island of Sandwipa was conquered by defeating Dilawwar, a runaway ship-captain of Jiihangirs time. At4his time a. section of the Feriiigis under their leader, Captain Moor, deserted io the Mogul side. Tfce imperial fleet was placed under Ibn Hussain. It consisted of 288 ships,' as described beloiv:—

Sbrabs . SaH) Susa -. Jalba . 3aclihari Parenda . Not specified

r Fbtal .

. ': 2 1 1

• ,157 - !; 95

. S 6

• i -s 1

. 28S

Ibn Hussain ad\anced wnth the Now^^^ra by the sea i»xo-operatian with tke army advancing by knd, the Nawab himself arranging to supply the expeditionary force constantly with proviaons. The first naval battle was fought on a stormy sea. The Arrakan^ were pui to flight and i' ten ^hrabs ^captured. The two fleets, witi larger!'sbij^ ^^ in faced each other, and spent the night in distant cannonade. In the morning the imperial fleet advanced towards the enemy, with sails in the first line, then, the gharJbs, and last the jalbas and kusas side by side. The Arrakanese retreated into

' • • 2 3 0 I'

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

the (3feirnafuli river. The Moguls closed its mouth and then attacked and captured the Arrakanese navy, consisting of 135 ships, viz.:—

Khalu . Ghrab Jangi Kusa Jalba Balam

2

9 22

12

. 67(68?) 22

Besides Bengal there were other parts of India in the time of Aurangzeb in which there was a marked development of Indian shipping and maritime com­merce. Thomas Bowrey, an English traveller to India during A.D. 1669-1679, has left a very valuable account of countries round the Bay of Bengal, in which are given descriptions and representations of ships and boats, ivhich are "among the best of the kind for this period." The great trading and shipping centre of the time on the Coromandel coast was Metchlepatam (Masulipatam), of which the inhabitants " are great merchant adventurers, and transport vast stocks in the goods aforesaid, both in their own ships as also upon fraught in English ships or vessels." Among' the mis­cellaneous papers at the end of the Diary of Strenysham Master there is, pp. 337- 339, an

^ A Geog3-aphtcal Acmvnt of Countries round the Bay of Bmgal, i66q-1675, by Thomas Bowrey, edited by Lieut.-Colonel Sir Ric;hard Carnac Temple, Bart., C.I.E., Series II., vol. sii. (Hakluyt Society publication).

2 3 1

INDIAN SHIPPING,

" AccouLt of the trade of Metchiepatam.'' by Christopter Hoiton, dated 9th Jan. if>j6~j]. He says: "Arriving first in 1657, at which time I found ths place in a very flourishing condition, 20 sail of ships cf burden belonging to the native nthabitauts here constantly employed on voyages to Airacan, Pegu, Tanassery, Queda, Malacca . . . Moca, Persia, and 'the Maldive Islands.^ I

The King of Golconda also had a mercantile marine. THe had several ships "that trade yearly to Arra-sm, Teaiassry, and Ceylon to piu-chase elephants for him and his nobility.j They bring in some of his ships from fourteen to tv/sify-five of these vist creatures. They must of necessity be of very •onsiderable burthens and built exceeding strong.'" Bowrcy also saw a ship belonging to the King ol Golconda, built for the trade to Mocha in the Rec Sea, " which could not be, in' my judgment, less tha-T 1,000 tons in burden."^ j' -.^_

Naisopore, 45 miles north of > Masmh'patam, was alsa one of tke important shipping centres. It " abcundeth well in timber and conveniences for the builtHng and repairing ships " (p. 99). Morris, in his Godavari District, says, "the;place was well known more than two centuries ago for its docks for the auilding and repair of large vessels." In a

^ A Geeg-^kkal Accsunt of Cojmines rmind t^eBay&f Se7!gal,^^.'j2 S.

•232 1''

MAHOMEDAN P E R I O D

" Generall" from Balasor, dated i6 December, 1670, the Factors at the Bay \wote to the Court {Factory Records, Misc. no. 3) that they had ordered a ship to be built at ** Massapore " in place of the " Madras Pinnace"; they added, " W e should ourselves have built another but that neither timber nor workmen are so good as at Massapore." ^

MadapoIIum was another shipping centre where "many English merchants and others have their ships and vessels yearly built. Here is the best and well-growMi timber in sufficient plenty, the best iron upon the coast; any sort of iron-work is here ingeniously performed by the natives, as spikes, bolts, anchors, and the like. Very expert master-builders there are several here; they build very \Nt\\, and launch with as much discretion as J have seen in any part of the world. They have an excellent way of making shrouds, stays, or any other rigging for ships." ^

iBowrey refers to a sort of " ship-money " imposed by Nawab Shaista Khan of Bengal on the mercan­tile community to build up the naval defence or power of the countr)^ Thus, not satisfied that all, both rich and poor, should bow to him, but wishin;^ the ships upon the water should do the like, the Nawab would every year send down to the mcr-

^ A Geographicai Account of Cou?iiries romid i/ieBayof Be?iXiil,^^.-]2 h, ^ Ibid., pp. 100-5.

INDIAN SHIPPING il

chants in Hugli, Jess<a*e, PipH, and Balasore for a 'skip or t\va in each rspeCtive place of '400, 500, or 60D tons, ttT he very wdl built and fitted, even as if they were tD voyage to sea, as also 16, 20, or 30 galleys for to attend iiem, the Moor's;', governors harving strid orders to see them finished with all speed, and gunned and well manned, and sent up the Ganges ^ high as Dacca. ',.

Of the Navrab's mercantile marine Bowrey says thai it consi^rs of about " 20 sail of ships of con-sidorable birien that ainually trade to!' sea from Dacca, Balasore, and Pij3i, some to Ceylon, some tC' Tenessarim. These fetch elephants, and;'; the rest, 6 or 7, yeadj go to the Twelve Thousand Islands, called the MaEives, to fefch COWTICS and cayre (coir), and most coiMmonly do make profitable voyages."^

Lastly, Bowrey gives an account of the various kinds of ships and boats tihat were then built. The Massoo/a boats, used in feding and unk-di^g ships or vessels, " are built very-slight, having no'.'timbers in them save * thafts ' to hold their sides together. Their planks are very broad and thinj sewed togetlier with coir; they arecflat-bottomed " and most proper for the Coromandel roast; for " all albng the shore the sea runneth high and breaketh, to', which they do buckle and also to the gromid where they

- 1'

,1

^ A Geographical :lccount of Ceuntries rotmd the May of Ben^^ pp. 179-8*. r

2 Ibid, 1

234 1

'k' ^ £^ ^ HJ 1.'^ I I -

A PATEIXA.

AN OLOAKO.

A BUDGAROO. [To-^hc^/. 2 ^ .

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

strike."^ "There is another kind of boat called the catamaran, made of four, five, or six large pieces of buoyant timber " upon which they can lade three or four tons of weight." In Bengal, Bowrey noticed " great flat-bottomed vessels of an exceeding strength which are called Patellas and built veiy strong. Each of ti em will bring down 4,000, 5,000, or 6,000 Bengal maunds." Bowrey also mentions several sorts of boats that were in use on rivers. The Oloako boats are rowed some with four, some with six oars, and ply for a fare. A Bttdgaroo, a pleasure boat, was used by the upper classes. A Bajra was a kind of large boat, fairly clean, the centre of which formed a little room. The Purgoos which were seen for the most part between Hugli, Pipio, and Balesore were used for lading and un­lading ships. "They will live a long time in the sea, being brought to anchor by the sterne, as their usual way is." Booras were " very floaty, light boats, rowing with twenty or thirty oars. These carry salt, pepper, and other goods from Hugli downwards, and some trade to Dacca with salt; they also serve for tow-boats for the ships bound up or down the river." Lastly, there were the " men-of-war prows" which were used in the Malaya Archipelago.^

1 A Gepgraphieal Account of Countries round the Bay of Bengal, p. 43.

INDIAN SHIPPING |;

Dr. Fiyer, who visSed India about the year 1674, has also left some imteresting details abotit Indian ships and ioats. He describes the Mtissoola as " a boat wheran ten men paddle, the twolaftenmost of whom are t ie steersmen, using their paddles instead of rudder: tlie boat is not streDgther>ecl with knee-timber, as ours are; ihe bended planks are sewed together Twth rope-yarn of the cocoeland caulked with dammr (a sort Df rosin taken out of the sea) so artificiaBy that it yfelds to every ambitions surf." ^ He describe catamarans as foirned of f,' logs lashed to that adv-antage that they waft all their goods, only having a 52il in their midst, and^-padcjles to guide Oiem." Di- Fryer was landed .at Masuiipatam by one of the country boats, which he '(describes as being " as large as :one of our ware-baa^s and almost'ceftliat mould, sailing with one sail like them, but^iaddling \^th paddles instead of spreads, and Z2XVY a great burden with little troubie; out­living either ship or English skiff over the bar."

On tie west cost also there were important

* Earl^ £s:3rds of British India, by J. T. WheeJeri p. J4. Major H. Eevan in his TfaTty Years v^ India (1808-1838), p. 1I4., ?oLi, speaks of the Masula bait as " admiral)^ contrived to resist the irnpetus of the surf in the road^sad of Matlras. It is built of planks oT wood sewed together with sun^ a gjeeies of trane,and caulked with coarse grasSjjiota particle of iron being UEeflii the entire eonstruction. Both ends'are sharp, narroir, and tapering to a point so as easily to penetrate thej;surf." Bevan also remarks, " l i e baild (rf the boats all along the coast of India varies according- to tic localities fei ^liich they are destined, and each im^culiarly adapted to tkL' omture of the coast on ^Thich it is used."/ ^ "'f

236 ii

A PUKGOO.

^

A BOOR A.

MAN-OF-WAR PROW. \Tofai.- p. =36.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD

shipping centres in Aurangzeb's time. According to Dr. Fiyer (1672) Aurangzeb had at Surat four great ships always in pay to carry pilgrims to Mecca free of cost. These vessels were "huge, unshapen things." He also noticed at Surat some Indian ships or merchantmen carrying thirty or forty pieces of cannon, and " three or four men-of-war as big as third-rate ships, " as also frigates fit to tbv.- or sail, made with prows instead of beaks, more useful in rivers and creeks than in the main." The captain of a ship was called Nacquedah (Pers. nakhida, ship-master) and the boatswain Tindal. Some of the larger Indian ships at Surat, of which the names are also known, fell a prey to the pirates that infested the whole of the western coast, and became a Xtir\h\t szo\\rg& to the Indian trade in the time o^ th^Emperor Aurangzeb, just as their brethren on tire west coast, the Magg and Feringhi pirates, were harrying deltaic Bengal. Thus in August, 1691, a ship belonging to Abdul Guffoor, who was the wealthiest and most influential merchant in Surat, was captured by pirates at the mouth of the Surat river with nine lacs in hard cash on board. Soon afterwards another ship, named Futieh Mahmood, with a valuable cargo, also belonging to Abdul Guffoor, was similarly seized by an Englishman called Every, who was the most notorious pirate of the time. A few days after the capture of the Futteh Makmood, Every took off Sanjan, north of

237

INDIAN' SHIPPING i

Bombay, a ship belomging to the Emperor Aurangzeb himself called the Gtmj Stmaie (" occeeding treasure "). According to Khafi Khan, the kistorian. the Gtmj Suwak was the .largest ship belonging to the port of Surat She,;carried eight gUQS and four hundred-matchlocks, and was deemed so strong that,she disdained fhe help of a convoy. She was annual^ sent fo Mecca, carrying Indian goods to Mocha and Jedda. She was returning to Surat with ths result of tfiie season's trading, anounting to fifty-teo lacs of rupees in' silver and gold, with Ibrahin Khan as her captain, and jwhea she had come Avfihin eight CEr nine days^om Surat she was attacked and seized by the English pii-ate ° sailing in a ship of much smaller size, and nothing a third or fourtk of the armament," Another capture of Ever}^ was the Rampwra, aCambay ship with a cargo valued at Rs. 1^,000. Siivaji "also, as we,shall presently see, used to intercept these Mogul ships plying betweex Surat and Mecca by means of the fleet which OE fitted out at his ports built'on the coasts.^

During the same period a great impetus to Indian shipping and maritime enterprise was given by the ^ea t IVtahratta leader, S'ivaji,^ who liberally

^ Ear^y- Records cf BrrHsh hidia, by J. T. "Wheeler; :me Pirates cf Malabm-^ by Colonel J. Bjdilulph. ^

•^ ^ Cf. Z>Bflrs History of the Maiimitas^ p. S5 : " Having seen the advantage- , . . derived from a fleet S'ivaji used'great exertions to fit out a nianns. He r^uitt er strengthened Kolaba,,repaired Scverndroog

238

MAHOMEDAP^ PERIOD

patronized the shipbuilding industry. The growth of the Mahratta power was accompauied by the formation of a formidable fleet. Several docks were built, such as those in the harbours of Vijayadoorga, Kolaba, Sindhuvarga, Ratnagiri, Anjanvela, and the like, where men-of-war were constructed.^ In 1698, Conajee Angria succeeded to the command of the Mahratta navy with the title of Darya-Saranga. The career of Angria was one long series of naval exploits and achievements rare in the annals of Indian maritime activity, but unfortunately " dis­missed in a few words by our Indian historians."^ Under him the IvWiratta naval power reached its high-water mark. Bombay had to wage a long half-century of amateur warfare to subdue the Angrian power. It would be tedious to relate all the details of their long-continued conflict, but we may mention soifl^ of the more important events. In the name of the Satara chief, Angria was master of the whole

and Viziadroog, and prepared vessels at all these places. His principal depot was the harbour of Kolaba, twenty miles south of Bombay." Also, " History of the Konkan " in the Bombay Gazetteer^ vol. i., Part ii., pp. 68 foil. : " Shivaji caused a survey to be made of the coast, and having fixed on Malvan as the best protection for his vessels and the likeliest place for a stronghold, he built forts there, rebuilt and strengthened Suvamdm^, Ratnagiri, Jaygad, Anjanabel, Vijiaydurg, and Kolaba, and prepared vessels at all these places." ,

I 1 Cf. DufFs History of the MakraUas, pp. 172: "The Mahrattas continued in possession of most of their forts on the coast; they had maritime depots at Sevemdroog and Viziadroog, but the principal rendezvous of tlieir fleet continued, as in the time of Shivaji, at Kolaba."

3 Col. Biddulph in The Pirates of Malahur.

INDIAM SHIPPING

coast from Bombay to ~Vingorlaj and, with a fleet of anned vessels carrying thirty and forty guns apiece, ke .soon became a menace to the Europeam trade of the we^xoast. In 1707 hfe ship a.ttacked the Bombay fri|eate, which wa:§" blcsvn up after a brief aigagemenC. . In 1710' he seized and fortified Kanhery, and his- ships foughi the Godoipkin for two days. In 1712 he captured the Governor of Bcanbay'skBcied yacht, andfoufht two East India-raoi bound Isr Bombay. In 1756 he raa!de prize'of four private-^ips frorh-Mahim, an Easti IncMaman named Sticmss, and a Bengal ship named Otter. Th^n follo i d,- successively,>'^^peditions against Ghsriah, Kashery, ar>d Colaba, which all proved abortive and ineffectual againsC the power of the Anj^rian flc±. In 1729 Conajee Angria died, and was succeeded at Seyerndoorg by ''Sambhuji Aagria, who carried o.»' his predatory policy for nearly thirty jears. In 1730 theJVngrianjjsquadron-of four grabs and fifteen gallivats destroyed the galleys Boii^^ and Bengal off-Colaba. \ In 1732, .five_grabs anil three gallivats stacked |the JEast Indaman OBdham. In 1735 a valuable East Indfaman named the De^by, with a greatji cargo of navai stores, ^ I into Samhhuji's hands. |[ In 1738 a Dutch squadron of seven ships-of-war and seven sloojfi was repiised from Gherriak. In i^^o some

, fifteen sail of Aagria's fleet gave battle to four ships returning from China. The same year Sambhuji

240

MAHOMEDA¥^ PERIOD

attacked Colaba with his army and forty or fifty galHvats, but was opposed by the English. In 1743 Sambhuji died, leaving his predatory policy to be continued by his successor, Toolaji. His greatest success was achieved hi 1749, when Toolaji's fleet of five grabs and a swafm of gallivats surrounded and cannonaded the Restoration, the most efficient ship of the Bombay Marine. "Toolajee had now become very powerful. From Cutch to Cochin his vessels swept tlie coast in greater numbers than Conajee had ever shown. "' The superior sailing powers of the Mahratta vessels enabled them to ke^P out of raft'ge of the big guns, while they snatc5ed prizes within sight of the men-of-war." In 1754 the Dutch suffered a severe loss at Toolaji's hands, losing a vessel \o2.^Q.d. with ar^imunition, and two- large ships. The next year the English and Peshwa formed an alliance against him, and jointly attacked Severndoorg, which was reduced after forty-eight hours' fighting. Then followed the well-planned expedition led by Admiral Watson and Clive against Ghei'riah, resulting in the burning of the Angrian fleet, consisting of "three three-masted ships carr^'ing twenty guns each, nine two-masted carrying from twelve to sixteen guns, thirteen gallivats carrying from six to ten guns, thirty others unclassed, two on the stocks, one of them pierced for forty guns." The following is a very interesting description

241 R

INDIAN" S H I P P I N G

by an eye-^tness of Angria's fleet: |" His fleet consisted of grabs aaid gallivats. . . . 'The grabs have rarely more tlian two n^asts. . . I They are very broac nn proportbn .to their length. . . . On the main dsck under the-^forecastle are mounted ti-uD pieces ^i cannon of nine or twelve pounders. which poirt forwards through the portholes cut in the bulkhted and firs Dver the prow; jthe cannon of the ^^rc^si^e are from six to nine pounders. The gallivxs are large -row-boats rarely exceeding seventy ton^' The gallivats are covered with a spar deck, rrade for lightness of split bamboos, and these only carry petteca roes," which are, fixed,,on sv^avels in ifie gunnel of the vessel; but those of the largest 5126 liave a fixed deck on which they mount six cr eight pia;es of cannon, from two t6 four pouiders. They iave/orty or fifty||stout oars, and may fe rowed four miles an hour.|t Eight or ten grabs ^rd forty or fifty gallivats, crojwded with men, genei^ly composd Angria's principal fleet, desthied to attack ships of force or'.burthen."^ The fall ©f Gherriah meant the extinctic^ of

II

Mahratta lo^al power, which had been the terror of the coast fona whole haif-century. ;| .

- Bifmb<^ Gazdieo-^ vol. i., Part ii., p. S9.

242

>V^ *

LATER TIMES - J ; '

CI-IAPTER W.

LATER TIMES.

WITH the rise of the British power following upon the decline of the Mogul Empire after Aurangzeb, Indian shipping naturally received a great impetus at the hands of« Englishmen. It appears to be quite forgotten that for nearly two cepturies and a half British India maintaMed a navy of respectable size and of admirable efficiency. This navy has behind it an interesting: 3-nd inspiring record of

' many brilliant achievements and much solid and useful work, especially in marine surveying. Colonel the Hon. Leicster Stanhope, in i83|^ said : " Never was there an imstance of any ship of the Bombay Marine (as it was then nanled) having lowered her flag to an enemy of equal force." The history began in 1613, when a squadron was formed at Surat to afford protection from the aggressions of fee Portuguese and of the pirates who infested the Indian seas. The naval establishment was put on a -permanent footing in 1615, and it attained respectable dimensions by the second half of the 17th century. In 1669 the Court of Directors ^pointed Mr. W. Pett as their shipbuilder at BcEmbay,. whither the estar blishment w^s previously ren»ved. It was then

. 2 4 3 R 2

INDIAN SHIPPING

desigii^t^d as the Bombay Marine. N buikling-. yafd^&S maintained at Surat till 1735, when most

of "the.work was transferred tdBomTDayJ where the establishment had been greatly enlarged. This was the.bcgimiing of the association of'the ernikient Parsi shipbu3.ders with the Indian and! Imperial

'r\ JSFavy services. Lowjee Nassaranjee, -the faranan '' vof Surat ^igyard, followed 'the establishment from ,' Surat to- BoLnbay. The history of this dockyard

is th'at'of the rise of a "talented"' Parsi family. ' The ,\s^ze 6f*th£ >ard was increased in i757.( In 1771 . Lowjee antrndiiced into it kis ,two grandsons, .; Framjee.MaiiSEckjee and Jamsetjee Bom'enjSL In

• ' 1774"Lowjee diod, succeeded by these t\vo worthy • followers, -who soonjbuilt two ships of 900 tois. It was uri3er ti>e supervision of these talented Parsi

, shipbuilders .that, in this yard, besides I those for • , .the"Bom&y Marine, there wer^ built in | the latter • part of the iSth and earlier part of the 19th century

for the Royd Navy nine ships of the line, seven frigates', amd 3cx smaller vessels. Thus, |" in aS02, the Admiral&r ordered men-of--war for ttie Kaig's Navy to be oscEStructed at this spot. The}*" intended to have sent Qut a European builder, but |the r»tHts

iof Jumsetjee being made known to their [lordships, they ordeied hdm to continue as master-buikler;" The excellent construction of two frigates and aline-'Qf-battle ship "spread the fame of this worthy Parsi

'•'over Erjp Iamcl. . The under-mentioned Parsls held" 244 V

LATER TIMES

in successively the appoifitniEnt of head b i ^ ^ j the" Bombay Government Dockyard from i / ^ Up to'1837:—

From 1736 to 1774. 1774^, 1783 1793 .) 1805 1S05 „ i8ir 1811 „ 1821 1821 „ 1837

Lowjee Manseckjee and BoflafjXijee Framjee and Jamse't^ee Jamsetjee and Ruttonjee Jamsetjee and Nowrojee Nowrojee ?pd Cursetjee

The degree ©f efficiency which. this doclc5''afrd reached under these Tarsi shipbuilders will ' be also evident from the statement of a visitor, who, describing Bombay in 1775, said: "Here is a dockyard, large and wcll-cootrived, with all kinds 'of naval stores deposrted in proper warehouses: and . . . forges for making anchors. It boasts such a dry dock as is, perhaps, not to be mm in any part of Europe, cither for 'size or convenient situation."^

Lieut.-Col. A. Walker^ thus wrote in 1811 of the Bombay docks and Borabay-built ships:— "The docks that have recently been constructed at Bombay are capable of contairiing vessels of any force. Bombay is our grand naval arsenal in

^ T/ii History of the Ifc?{an Navy, in two voJumes, by Lieutenant C. R. Low, LN.^ Bombay :Times^ i8th May, 1839; Papers relating :•: Shipbuilding in India, by Jolai Phipps (1840), late of the Master Atteni'i.n' Office; Sir Cyprian Bridge on " India and the N'a%'y," in the Lon'JIcn Spectator of April 9th, 1910

^ Considerations on the Affairs of India, written in the' year 131 (445—vi., p. 316). . ,

245

, INDIAN SHIPPING

India."' Baanbay was possessed of great natural fadiiilies fffl-ihe construrtion of ships, foKi '* situated as sHe is between the foEsts of Malabar and Gmjarat, she receives supplies of timbdr with everyj\\dnd that bIows ..vv Beades, the teak-wood vessels of Bombay were greatly superior to t te oaken walls of Old England. Eieut.-Col. A. Walker wrote, tin TSSII :

;:'.'It is calculated that every ship in the|Navy of Great Britain ns renewed evo^y twelye yea'rs. Tt is well kTiown ffeat teak-wqcd-buitt ships last iifty years, and upsn/ards. "Many ships Bombay-built after •i;unn;inglGurte,eh or fifteen years have b^n ^brought, into the Navy und we»e considered as strong'^as evec The Sir Edwc^d Hughes per­formed, r*^-believe,-eight ^aoyages as an Iridiaman before*" she was purchased for the Navy. No EuropelDuilt Indiaman is capable of going more than sije-ivoyages with- safe^." Bi* Bombay-built ships were superior to those built elsewhere not only- in point of durability but also in that of die^apness. " Siiips built at Bombay," observes

^ The late Sister NJB^itii related to rae the mtfirestiag and agnificaia but hardly known fact that'sjch of our oM ivoodea ships as stiH jsuri'ive Xfor tiie seasoned wooi oT'which our shipsare built has a definite length of life) have passed at second and third hand into the c«ast trade of'North­western Europe, and ate s * ip be met mtE in NT)rvrays Scotland, Hbiland, and other little countries cm the seaboard. And so the good old sail shipping which'steam shippaig has weeded eut frem everywhere elsejin the <v6rld, still lingers on in Ia*a, and to her i ^ v e n the chance of r ev i^g it and giving'jt b cU to a worll which cannot outgrow its need.

246

LATER TIM

the same writer, " also are executed by one-foHrth cheaper than in, the docks of England, so th%r the English-built ^hips requiring to be renewed every twelve years, the expeiise is quadruple."

The East India Company also helped ta build up the Bengal Marine, thus continuing, in a "sense, the work of the Mogul Emperor in connection with the Nowwara. But a very calamitous event led them to revive shipbuilding in Bengal: it was the famine produced in the Carnaiic by Hyder Ali-s invasion in 1780, which necessitated the transport of grain from Bengal to the English settlements on the Cororaandel coast, l^he first efforts in ship­building were made in districts like Sylhet, Chitta-gong, and Dacca. Mr. Lindsaf, Collector of Sylhci in 1780, had one ship built of 400 tons burdeii, and also a fleet of twenty ships, whicH he sent ^ Madry ^ loaded with rice on the occasion of tM'famine,^ But Calcutta soon became the centre of regular shipbuilding. The earliest specimens of regular Calcutta-built ships were produced in the year 1781. From 1781 to 1800 inclusive, thirty-five ships, with a total tonnage of 17,020, were built on the Hug.li, chiefly at Calcutta; in 1801, nineteen ship were built, of 10,079 tons; in 1813, twenty-civ ships, 10,376 tons. Includingthe above, from 180: to 1821 both inclusive, there ~were built on tb'

^ Assam District Gazetteer^ vo]. ii. (Sylhet), p. 155.

247

INfilAN SHIPPING

H^g]i^237 ^ p s , of 105,693 tons, whichj. reckened, at an averse: cost.of 200 rupees per ton, makes*

' the ' enormotis sum of two crores of rupees and upwards- a considerable part of whidi sum was absorbed in the faymmit of wages to native qrti^cers mid- labbttrers, to the great bene'tit of the countiy/ \

The first ck^ dock constructed at Calcut1:a was a small one at tke Bankshall in 1790 for the Govem-mfent pilot ves^ls; .subsequent to which |several large docks wece constructed at Howrah and Sulkea; in 1803 .the Kidderpore dock was founded by Mr. W. Waddell, lite Company's first master-Builder, who-was succeeded by j . and R, Kyd, and who for j:iearly -thirty yearns ;built and repaired all the Company's B a i ^ vessels and constructed a'.igreat many^ fine.ships, tjrenty-four in number, and vessels for indilviduals.^ • li

About the materials of which the Bengal sh^ps were constructed^ Antony Lambert thus wrote in 1802;- They coi^Bt of teak timber and planks, imported from Pegu ; smtl and sisoo timber from Behar, Oudh, and 1te inexhaustible forests that skirt the hills which form the northern boundaries of Bengal and Behat. The ribs, knees, and breast-hooks or "die fr2Kie of the ship," are composed

. ' \\

^ -Papeis^Edatuig to Sldpi0lding in India, by John Phipps, Introduction. "^ Ibid. ' ' \

248

generally of sisoo timber, the beams and inside planks of smtl, and the bottoms, sides, decTcs, kfels, sternposts, etc., of teak. The excellence of teak for the purpose of shipbuilding and its durability are too well known to require any description, although Pegu teak is not reckoned equal to what grows on the Malabar coast and near Surat. 01 skoo ancl smtl timber, the former is admirably adapted to shipbuilding from its size, form, and firm texture, and as it produces crooked timbers and knees t)f every shape and dimension for vessels of full foi'ms and of any magnitude, even for- a ship-of-M'ar of,the first rate;- and that of the latter furnishes exxellent beams, knees, and, inside planks.

Lord Wellesley, the Governor-General of India, was able, in 1800, to thus testify to iht^rowth and possibilities of Calcutta as a shipping centre :—

The port of Calcutta contains about 10,000 tons of shipping, built i i India, of a description calculated for th,Q conveyance of cargoes. From the quantity of private tonnage now at command in the port of Calcuttr., from the state of perfection which the art of shipbuilding has already attained in Bengal (promising a still more rapid progress and supporttjd by abundant and increasing supply of timbers), it is certain that this port w 11 always be able to furnish tonnage to whatever extent may be required *or conveying to the Port of London the trade of the pnvate British merchants of Bengal.

From a " Register of Ships built on the Ilu^ii from 1781-1839 (including Calcutta. Howrah, Sulkea, Cosipore, Tittaghar, ^idderporc, and Fort Gloucester)," it appears that the total number o: ships built was 376. The greatest building year-

249

-INDfAJSr SHIPPING |

jvere 1801, i3i3, and i^6,Avlaen 10,079,10,376, arid 8,198 tons respectively were put in. 'J

j' The Indan Navy, which was thus created and built up by die efforts of the East India'^Comjmny,

' took an active part In the first and secoqidi Burmese wars and the first China war. A great deal of its

• service was performed ontside local Indian waters, in the Persiaa Girif, in the Red Sea,, and on the shores of East Africa. It also protected and faeiKtated tte trading operations oflj Indian

• • merchants witL distant ports. | - ,The d'eeliix-'of the Indian Marine besfan after

i8i(&,,no large ships havaig been b.uilt after that date. It was finally abolished in Aprilj 18^ ,

.shortly after the assumption of the Government of 'India by the Crown. ij • A very interesting account, together with very

fine sketches of the typical Indian {Hindu), ships " that were in use Ti the earlierpart of the igth century,

• is given by a Frenchman, F. Baltazar Solvyns ' (1811) in his Les Hindmis^ (tome troisi^mej! In_

his introduction tD this work he remarks :— In ancient rimes the Indians excelled m the art of constructing ive^els,

and the present Hindus can in this respect still offer models to Europe—

' . i \ This lare work is to oe Found in the sjilendid library of Mr. Abaain-

dranath Tagore, the rencEmed Bengali artist, to whom I also owe the reproductions from the Sculptures of Borohudur. The Brench reprint was issued 1808-12 ; .there is s\ earlier reprint published by Orme, London, 1804, but ndther is complee. The original folio edirion of 1799 has 250 coloured plates. ','.

250 \

LATER TIMES

so much so that the English, attentive tp everything which relates to naval arcliitecture, have borrowed from the Hindus many improvements which they have adopted with success to their own shipping. . . .The Indian vessels unite elegance and utility, and are models of patience and fine workmanship.

He has described some of the typical Indian vessels. A Pinnace or Yacht was a strongly masted ship, divided into two or three apartmenlf, one for company, another for the beds, and a third as a cabinet, besides a place called varandah forwards for the servants. Ballasor, the principal entrance of the Hugli, is described as Uein^ frequented by different sorts of vessels, 3piti parj^pu-larly by larg^-ships from Bombay, Surat, and @%er parts of the western coast. The vessels from the Ganges were called Schooners, which were veiy well fitted out and " able to make a voyage to Europe," their pilots being "very skilful." The Grab was a ship with three masts, a pointed prow, and a bowsprit; its crew consisting of a Nicodar or captain and a few clashies or Moorish sailors. The grabs were built at Bombay, their pointed prow signifying Hindu construction. The Bangles were the largest Indian boats, some of them carrying four thousand or five thousand maunds of rice. Brigs were ships that came from the coast of Coromandel and Malabar, bringing to Calcutta the produce of those countries. To the coast of Coromandel also belonged the Dony, with one mast, resembling a sloop. Its deck consisted of a feu

251

INDIAN SHIPHIlSfG

pitiflks fasten^ on each-" ide .fi, I t was. badl^;^^^jged. PaMooas, la^ly, were these ships that di&ce.d from other vessels by iheir being; clincher-Built; *' tlie boards are CTE upon the other, fastened s, by little pieces of- iroi_in the form of cramps. The yard is always withcirt sail, and the sails are hoisted and lowered by.b'jocks."- s'

252

riXNACE. \Tof.i--f

GRAB.

\ToMc p. r:

r.

- 5 ^ . . - . . . ' ' ' ' % ^ - - ^ --Jg/ii«rc-

rA'I'TOOA.

I 7fl /aa- p. i5-'-

DONY. VIoJ.i .'/'.

JiKICK.

[Tofuc/: - .

- ^ 1

GONGLUSION.

• • . J . , , ,

r THUS Kasfc^tssed'away* one of .the great national iridu5tries-%jflii4jiaftefa lo^-and brilliant history, covering, aS vVfe h ve seeR,*iL petfiod oi more than twenty centuries. It was undoubtedly one of the triumphs of Indian civilization, the chief means by which that civilization asserted itself and influenced other alien civilizations. .India now is without this most important organ of national life. There can hardly be conceived a more serious obstacle in the path of h^r industrial development than this afeost complete extinction of her shipping and shipbuild^' ing. And. yet India certainly is one of the countries which can ill spare a national, indigenous shipping. The sea-borne trade of India is continually expand­ing, with the result of increasing our dependence <jn foreign shipping, and for this we have, on a rbugh

iffistimatg, to pay a price pf about 25 crores of rupees a year. We have trade relations with every quarter e: Vthe globe, not only with the Asiatic mainland but also with Europe and Africa on one side and Australasia and America on the other.

253

INDIAN SHIPT^ING \

'Tke total value of this"' trade is about 344'2 crores' of rupees, that of imports being. 162-8 crores andf-€3^orts 182-'^ crores, and'the entire trade lies at the' iiercy of iLreign shijyers, who are at liberty to!' impose an »s whatever freights they wish to chargei, 'for the use of their ships. Even in the niatter of .«ur coastal or inter-portal tnade, which is alsoj: expanding, iiggregating in vahie about 46*37 crores' of rupees, 3 policy of free trade is pnrsaed, throwing it open to the shipping Qf all the world, instead of' reserving" it,-as altno^ all othet countries do, for the national shipping, so that about 85 per cent i apprpprisLtei" by foreign shipping, leaving only one-Sife37enth to -thc . native. * Similarly our entire pas--

- '• -y's^ng^r frafiic is in the hands of foreign shippers: 'ir\,N":6ur "NiaiiGiriedan .pilgrims ta Mecca and other '•.v"-p1aces ; our' emigrants and immigrants, numbering ;> ,Dh-an average ^more than 25,000 per year; our

. pas'sengerslhatvoyageiwithin Indian limits, number- . ^ iiig over 15 lacs every year; and, lastly, the outgoing

• l^nd reljeviig British soldiers of the Indian Army, ' imimbering more than ' 25,^00 every year their

: transpqit costing, annually about 55J lacs of ^\ ,'irupees^all these "havs to vo3^ge iu foreign ^ips,, • '^^lile even, in the matter of the conveyance of mails

|-"there is no Indian steamship company that can ' ' ' ' • " 2 5 4

CONCLUSION

take up the work and appropriate the yearly postal

subsidy of 7"8 lacs of rupees that now goes to a

foreign company. The extent of our dependence

will be evident from the fact that in the oceanic

trade, of which the total tonnag^e is 11,800,000 tons,

our indigenous shipping represents only 95,000 tons,

or only about ' 8 percent.; while of the aggregate

tonnage of 29*61 million tonS^i-nJhe.intfer-portal

trade, only 3*24 million tons is oup own, and Over

89 per cent, foreign. Our national shipping at the

present day means only 130 vessels of under 80 ton^^

each, used in the oceanic trade, and 7,280 in the

inter-portal trade of the country of under 20 ton

each, making up in all the insignificajit number. ( I

7,410 vessels, large and small, for a countr^^ ofrathu;

a continent, whose seaboard extendi "^ver a'^eng'h

of 4,000 miles aJid upwards. Our shipbuilding iv w

is so contracted as to give employment to c Ay

14,321 men, who build only about 125 galbats a ytp'

in shipyards, of which the number is now red'.^-f'

to only 48, while the -aggfiSgate capital y:^r

invested in shipbuilding may be estimate

between 5 and 6 lacs of rnpee^.

It goes without saying that in the present si •.

of things it is idle to expect that Indian in .!> ;

and commerce can advance by leaps and b^u:

255

INDIAI^" SHIPPING

handicapper'i as they are. by tbe want of a fully developed .""ndian shipp-ing. I t therefore behoves Governmen- and all who are interested in the material progress of India to be fully aJive to the importance and necessity of reviving and restoring on modern limes; a lost industry that rendered suc& a brillaant service in the past, and with which ai-e- so vitally hcund up the prospects of Indian econonrii: advancement.

256

( 1

INDEX ,1—SUBJECTS.

Activity, maritime, evidences of, wherefrom to be derived, 6 „ „ loreign evidences of, 6, 7 ,, „ Indian evidences of, 6., 7 „ „ real historical narrative of, how to be buiTt up, 8

Adaptations from Tamil words, 89 Admiralty Boarcf *f Akbar, 205, 206, 208, zio

„ ,j J, Chandra Gupta, 104-112, 206 Age, Golden, of maritime activity, 40 Alexandrian fl*a, 100 Anchors, marble, 203 Antonine perfiaS, 117 Applied chemfetry,!achievements in, in ancient India, iSo

„ jf. /discoveries in, 180, iSi Arabians, monopoly of commerce by, 94, 95 Art of shipbmlding m India, treatise on, 19 Articles ormerchandise stamped with royal stamp, 136

„ ,r Roman trade, 123-125 Aryans, mirations of, 11 Augustan period, 117

B

Bakla, centre of naval strength in Bengal, 216, 217 Banias of Western India trading on Persian coast, 87 Bengal, home of shipbuilding, 205 Bengali Marine, 247 Bengdi art, influence of, on Nepalese art, 157

„ artists, 157 ,,. characters on Japanese sculptures, 155, 156 „ literature, oldest record of maritime activity in, 159, ifn „ reformers, 155

257 ::

INDEX I.—SUBJECTS

BhSfshuni Or^r , establisiimeat of, in China, i66 Birds in vessels: used lo show which way flie wind lay, 7 3 Board of Admiralty, 104 Boat-hire, custom of, 61 BoatSc registry of, z n

„ trailer, 192-. 193 Bodyguard of Tatdl kings, izS Bombay-built ship^ ckeapnes^ of, 24:6 '

jr ti durability-dDf, 246 . Bombay Marine, 24.4 Bottomry^ custom ofleiiding money-on, 61 Broach, distributing csntie of India, 33: Buddhism, extension tJ, 3

„ the first of Cie world-religions, 2, 3 Byzantine-jsicperors, 127

-c Cabins of slaps, 26 • Calcutta-buift ^ ip , first, t ^ Calcutta, shipping centre in, 198 Cane used for masts and osars, 204 Canoe, 32 Centre of naval strength, Bai;la, 216

„ „ shipbuildihg in Ausoigzeb's time, n 29 Cities which flourished on Indian trade in Sdomoa's period, 94 Civilization, spread of, in Java, 49 Classes of wood, 30-Qlassification of SWJB, 2t, 22.

„ „ wsod, 20 Xoins, Andlira, 51

„ Kurumbar, 51 „ Roman, 119^130, 127

Colonies, Indian, in Java, Sum^ra, etc., 4, 171, 16-3 „ of Romans In Jndia, 139

Colonization of Ceylon, 42, 43, 70,^57 Colony, Bengali, in Cochin China, sgj Colours recommended foe painting -vessels, 25 Commerce, relation of, to flipping, & Commercial activity of India, 22, 23

„ centre at Gaar^ 221 CoBiTECtiori of India with foreign countries, 59 Cotton, in Japan, introduction of, throwjh Indians, 174

2-SS

INDiiX I.-^SUBJECTS

^ D Damascus swords, i8 i D ^ in birds between Babylon and Benares, 77

„ „ horses, 77 LtecHne of Occidental traJe, 126 Oecorations of ships, 35 Dependence on foreign siiippmg, 253 Depository of metallic wealth, India, 84 Devices of Indian sculpture to indicate water, ^S Docks in Calcutta, 248"

„ ofMahrattas, 239 Dockyard in Agashi, J02

„ at Bombay 243 „ of Kedar Roy, 316 „ at Narsapore, 332 „ of Protap5,ditya, 218

Drain of gold into Xndia, 83, 84, 122 Dravidian words i'a Hebrew test, 92 Duties payable by shipowners to the king, 61, 198, 200, 208, 233

E

Economic system of ancient India, 179 Edict, marine, of Asoka, 114 Egyptians with Arabians hold monopoL? of conimerce for yoo years, c-. Embassy from and to Persia, 40

„ to China, 177, 195, 197 European alliance first entered into, 138

„ influence on India, 3 Evidences >»f Indian maritime activity, literary and nonumeiita', !':•

andforcign, how arranged, 6 Expansioa of India, 11

„ „ closing years of, 39

F Ferry f^s, 106 Fish, irjn, 48 Fishinc: license, 106 Fleet wf Ahmed Shah, 200

„ „ Alexander, 100-102 „ „ Angria, 239 „ „ the Cheras destroyed, 175

259

\ JNDEX \ I—SUBJECTS

-Fleet of the Cboias, 175 \ Dhanapati, 158 \

„ , „ Gujai^, 201 \ „ 'ImperiaL organization of, 40 „ of Mahraud, 301

\\ „ ,-,' Portugiese, 201 ',1 .)) ' Raja of Vishalgad, 200 •' „ » Shaista iSran, 328, 329 \S, „ Sivaji, 238, S39 ^ Flower-sc'entSj artificial imitafion of, iSi Foreign influence on india, 3

\',, travellers, provision fcr, in Mautya Empiae, 112 Fringuan or Porti^ese sailors, 209 \

,Gaur, commercial centre at, 219, 320 \ Goldidigging'aiits of Tibet, 96, 97 \ Gbldeii Age of maritime activity, 40' \ Graeco'rRornan influence on India^ 3 \' Greater \Indiaj ''43 \

\ \ « \ • •

,Harboupregulations under the Mautyas, i o 6 - i n Hebrew text, Dravidian words in, 92 \ Hellenic influence on India, 3 \ Hides, dressing of, 191

„ tt-ade in, 191 Hindu compass, ^jl\ Ifincfu' element in Java and Samatra, 261 Hindo^Javanese sinp, 45-4S Hindu" settlement, •133

• \ ,1- - I India, art of shipbuilding in, treatise on, 19.

„ a single' country,' 1 „ ^cQlonies^of.in Rladagascac,, etc., 4 „ commercial activity of, 4, 5 „ connection of, vrith foreign countries, ^9 „ depository,of metallic weaMh, 83 ,j European ipfluence on, 3 „ expansion of, 11 % „ , „ ,-, closing years ef, 39 \ „ foreigri influences orv, 3 - \

X

ENDEX I.—SUBJECTS

India, geographical umty of, r „ Graeco-Roman infiuence on, 3 „ heart of the Old World, 4 „ intercourse the making of, 2 „ Iranian influence on, 3 „ mistress of the Eastern seas, 5 „ normal trade route from Persian Gulf to, 89 „ region by itself, i „ trading establishments of, 4

Indian civilization, tran^ilantation of, 39 „ commerce with Arabia, 90 „ „ „ liabylon, 74, 86-92

„ Sgypt, 91 „ contingent in Xtxxes' army, 95 „ exports and imports. 82, 179 „ Marine, abolition of, 350

decline of, 350 „ missionary activity in China, 166, 167 „ Ocean, navigation of, 131 „ precious stones highly valued in Mosaic period, 91 „ rice, peacocks, sandal-wood, exported to Greece, 88 „ ships, description of, in the 15th century, 46 „ ships superior to the Portuguese, 202 „ teak in Ur, 85, 87 „ tribute to Darius psid in gold, 96

India's intercourse with foreign countries, 40 „ monopoly of spices, 83 J, supply of gold fhrough commerce, 83

Indigotin, extraction of, 181 Insurance, marine, 61 Intercourse as much a potent factor in the making of India as isobtion, 3. 4 Invasion, naval, of Puri, 40 Iron not to be used in the build of sea-going vessels, 21 Iron fish, 48 (nole) Islands, conquests of, by the Pandavas, 57

Jaigeer, Nowwara, 21D Java, Indian colony in, r63

,, Era, foundation of, r4g

K

Kalinga people, traces of, in Singapore, 149-15 r

261

JNMX J.—SUBJECTS.

Lead coins of the Andhras, 51 Li^houses for s&ipsj 157

M Majdicha-yantra crfisti-ioachine, 48 (note) Ma^gascar, Indiancdlony in, 4 Ma^apolhim, iron, manufactory at, 233 Magnet, 48 (notej MaEratta fleet, under Angria, 239 MaWaar, Key of Hind, 188 : Man-of-war built atSurat, 244 MamjscriptB, Catalsgne of Sanskrit, ig (note) Marfjle anchors, 203 Marioe edict of A^ta , 114 Marine insurance, 6z Marfthne activity, evideices of, whence derived, g-ra

„ „ fordgn evidences of, 6 p „ Golden Age of, 40 „ „ indian evictences of, 6

„ iirthe days of I^ro and Augustine, 129-122 „ main Evidences of, 11 „ c S s t evidence in tbe Rig-V^ede^ 53 „ proofs of, 8 „ the real historical narrative of, tow to be built up, „ oldest record of, in Bengali liteiature, 157-160

cities to pay sjiecial taxes, 106 trade alluded tD in astronomical works, 62

,j in xiiTrol and animals, 60 Marts-^f Bei^l , 116, i r j Maur^ royai mono\p\^ m shipbuilding, ro2 Meer Baree, 211

„ Behry, functions of, 206-208 '1 „ „ office 0^ 2333 '\

Metalsfor decorative purposes, 25 Monastic system in China, foundation of, 166 | Monopiily, India's, in spices, 83

„ in shipbuilding, Maurjci royal, 102 MonsosQ, discovery of regularity of, by Hippalus, 123 Mosaic period, 91 ; Mummiis wrapped in-Indkin muslin, 91 Municipal commission, TUIES framed by, for fordgna-s, i i s • Mysticid ^Buddhism ia China, foundation of, 173 I

262 '

IM DEX I.—SUBJEC'I'S

N

Names of classes of Indianlships and boats Agraraandira, 26 Bachhari, 230 Bajra, 228, 235 Balam, 228, 23 Baiigles, 251 Bhar, 228 Boora, 235 Budgaroo, 235 Capel, 204 Catamaran, 234 Chaturi, 204 Dirgha (VishesaJ, 23 Dony, 251 Frigate, 244 Gallivals, 240 Ghrabs, 314, 227 Jalbah, 227, 230,; 231 Jangi, 231 Khalu, 231 Kosah, 227, 230 Madhyamandiri, 126,-37, 42 Malialgiri, 228 Man-of-war prowj 235 Massookj 234 Mohrpunkee, 213 Muggurchera, 213I Oloako, 335 Pahvara, 228 Parinda, 228, 230 Paros, 204 Patil, 228 Patila, 228 Pattooas, 252 Pinnace, 251 Purgoo, 23s Rhatgiri, 228 Salb, 228, 230 Samanya, 22 Sambuchi, 203 Sarbamandira, 26

263

INDEX I.—SUBJECTS

Names of clases o£ Indian ships and boats, [covtimied) SdiODciMr, 251 TJnn tal (Vishesa), 23 Vlshesa, 23

Names of Imfiarrabips and boats:— Cha»depana, r6o Chandapata, i&a Choiamukhi, i^o DerTTyi 240 •ui^a^ara, 160 Tutteh: Mahmood, 237 GargaprasSd, 159 Gocolphin, 240" Gowaiakhi, 160 Gu^'-Smvaie, 238 HajKEirava, 159 Mffiihukara, 160 Xandj, 165 Dc-chanij 240 Ottec 240 Ei^avallava, 159 R^inpura, 238 Hcsteradon, 241 S^arafena, 159 Sai ikshachunL, 160 Sinhamuldii, 160 Sir Edward Hughes, 46 SUCCESS, 240

Ifernes of tiie officers of ships:— Bhandaree, 207 Darya-Saranga, 239 IS,tra-rasmi-grahaka, 169 GoGintee, 307 Gunners, 207 ' l a a n e e , 207 Sicrwah, 207 Maallim (the mate), 207 M e r Behry, 206 tfacquedhah (shipmaster), 307, 237 N^hoda-Ithesheb, 207 Niyamaka, 109 Punjeree, 207 Siasaka (captain of a ship), 109

264

INDEX I.—SUBJECTS

Names of the officers of ships {continued) :— Sirheng, 207 Sukangeer (helmsman), 207 Tindal (boatswain), 237 Tundeil (cKef of sailors), 207 IJtsechaka, tog

Names of Indian voyagers to China, 165-167 Narsapore, dockyard, etc,, at, 232 Nautical instruments of the Hindus, 201 Naval activity of the Cholaa, 175

„ „ in Eastern Bengal, 216-318 „ architecture, Hinpu, imitated by English, 351 „ battle in Ri^-Veda^ Rdmdyana, and Raghitvania, 53-60 „ „ of Ahmed Shah of Gujarat, 200 „ „ „ Balban, igo

„ „ Babar, ^05 „ „ „ Firoz Shah Tuglak, 196 „ „ „ Shaista Khan, 328 ,, ,, „ Sultan Mahmud, 187 „ „ „ Timur, ^96 „ Department, organization of, 105 ,, engagements in Akbar'a reign, 214-219

establishment at Dacca, 210 „ expedition against Kuch Behar, 225 „ „ to Assam, 226 „ headquarters at Dacca, 310 „ invasion of Puri, 40 „ power of the Angrias, 239

Navigation, art of, forming part of education of Kalinga princes, 144 „ in Indian ©cean, proof of, 8

Number of passengers n old Indian ships, 28, 29, 4^, 69, 70, 71

O Ocean-going vessels, 23, 40, 73) Officers in ships, 20; Ordinary ships, 22 Outrigger ship, 48

Palace of Chola king, 137 „ „ Nebuchadnezzar^ 87

Parsis as master shipbuilders at Surat, 244 Peacocks exported by Hindu merchants to Baveru. 74, 93

265

INDEX I.—SUBJECTS

P-earl, artificial mamfecture of, 68 „ fishery, 64, 68, 123, 190, 194 „ „ chief centres of, 68

Peisiaa influence on kidia, 3 Kracy^ 169, 185, rS6, 187

a action taken against, by ShaUta Khan, 2:^ 3 in Asoka's time, 113

I^Ecelain, Indian, 197 Poets of Bengal, 21^

,j old Indian, 1 31, 132, 134 51 South Indian, 135, 136

Port-taxes, 106 Prehistoric trade rektions of India, S5-95 ProH's of vessels, 25 Puri, naval invasion of, 40

Q

Queen of the Eastern seas, India, 8r

•R

Sajput sailors, 194 Re^stry of boats, 211 Regulations, harbour, 106-iir Revival of Occidental trade, 127 Rismg Sun, the Land of the, 156 Rivcr-toUs, 208 Rocking-seats as prevention against sea-sickness, 3^ Roman coins, iif, 120, 127 RorBan soldiers as gus^ds, 128 Rome, political connection with, 137

„ references to- in Sanskrit and Pali literature, 130 „ intercourse \Yith, how explained, 139

Saadii, earliest evidence in sculpture of shipbuilding in, 32 San^rii Manuscr^ts, Catalogue of, 15

,j origin of words in Malaya language, 146 Scents, flower, artificial imitation of, sSi Sea-gulls, 47 Sea-route between Indian and Persian coasts, 7 2 Sea-Toyage, oldest representation of, 36 Selling of captured men by PortuguesB phates, 211

266

.NDEX I.—SUBJECTS

Settlement, Hindu, 133 Shipbuilders, salaried -servants of Maurya Government, 102 Shipbuilding, capital investtd in, 255

„ centres of, 206 „ in Bengal, 246 „ materialy for, at Bassein, 202

„\ „ Sylhet, 212 „ monopoly of, by the Maurya kings, 102 „ treatise on the art of, 19

Ship-coins, description of, 49-51 Ship-commerce, art of, forrung part of the education of Kalinga prirces, 144 Ship-tax, 2CO Ship-money imposed by Staista Khan, 233 Shipping centre at Agashy 202

„ „ at Bakla,'2i6, 217 „ „ in Bengal, Kashmir, and Tatta, 246 J, u at Calicut,' 198 ,j „ „ Masulipatam, 237 ., „ „ Narsaporo, 232 „ „ „ Saugar Island, 218 :, .1 » Sindh, 213 „ „ „ Sripur, ^16 „ „ „ Mahratti, 239 „ Indian, proofs of, 8 ,, in the Andhra-Kushan period, 132 „ „ „ Maur}a period, 100

Ships, construction of, 192 J, guidance of, 201 I ^ Indian, classification of,'2i, 22 ^ „ sailing as far as Zanguebar, 191 ^ „ used in naval warfare, 26 „ names of, 203 ,, ordinary, 23 „ protection of, 198 , repair of, 193 , size of, 193, 193 J, „ „ in Pali works, 28 ,, „ „ in Sanskrit works, 19, 20, 21 „ special, 23 | „ varieties of, described by Bowrey, 231

Ship-}'ards of Maggs, 211 Silk, supply of, from China, 5(5

weighed with gold, 83

267

INDEX I.—SUBJECTS

StreamcB, use of, 48 SuperintEndent of ^ips under the Maurj^s, 105-112

T Tamii kings, bodrguaids of, 12S

„ \words, adaptations from, S9 TantrisM, Buddhstic, 173 Taxes, port, 106

„ Tor buildiMg &f boats, 212 T e ^ far shipbuilding, excellence ef, 249

J, Indian, in Ur, 85, 87 Temple dedicited to Augustas, izg Tolls, 2 08 Tonnage of ancknt Indian vessels, 103 Trade in jewels irith West-Asiatic and European cotmtries, 82

,, Occidentpi, decline of, 126 ,, „ revival of, 127 „ route from Persian GulfSo India, 89

Trading centres of Bengal, 161, 218-222 Treatise on the art of shipbuilding in India, ig Tribute to Darte, in gold, by India, 96 Timglda (silver money), 194 Turkish vessels built at Sandmpa, 212

U "Ur, Indian teak m, 85, 87 Use of Gupta and White-Huna coins in Madagascar, etc, 183

y Vessels built ai Dacca, 212, 213

„ used in naval warfare; kind of, 26 Voyage, trading, undertaken by Hindu merchants, 8 V-oy^es made by Indian merchants to Babylon, 88,

W Woods, classifisation of, 20 AVoadwrights, village of, 74

Y Yav^na colorc^ isS

,, origiiml se;nificanceof, 121 », soldiers as bodyguairis to Tamil kin^, J28

268

INDEX I I—PROPER NAMES.

A

Abanindranath Tat^ore, 250 Abd-er-Rcizzak, 13, 198 Abu Bakr, 195 Abul-FazI, 14, 205, 213 Abul-Feda, 189 Achaemenides, 3 Aden, 191 Adzeitta, 71 Afghanistan, 84 Africa, 4, 5,89, 97, 133, 201 Agashi, 202 Agastya, 68 Agatharcides, 11, 131, 194 Agni, 55 Agra, 213, 214 ^ Agramandira, 26, 41 Ahmad Shah, 200 ^ Ahmedabad, 200 Ajanna-Jataka, 78 Ajanta, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42,' 43 Aji Saka, 151 Akbar, 14, 205, 208, 209, 214, 224 Akbar-nama, 225 Alaric, 127 Al-Biruni, 13, 56, 187 Albuquerque, 201 Al-Biladuri, 13, 185 Alexander, 3, 9, 82, 95,106 153,186 Alexandria, 95, 120, 186, : Al-Idrisi, 13, r88 Allahabad, 206 Amaravati, 149

America, 83, 98 Amitodana, 165 Ammianus Marcullinus, 139 j\nahilavada Patan, 169 Andaman, 176 Andhra, 10, 50, 116, 119, 179 Andhrabhritya, 35, 38 Anga, 144 Angria, 239-242

' Auguttara Nikaya, 73 Anjanabel, 239 Antonio, 158 Antony, Mark, 139 Anurddhva, 24 Arabia, 4, 6S, 78, S J , 89, '/O, T2C,

^ 133. 163, 191 Arachosia, 112

1 Archipelago, 5 Aria, 112

i Ariake, 134 I Arjuna, 57 ! Aromata, 134 I Arrakan, 150, 211. 224

Arrian, 100, lo i , 102, 186 ArthaSastra, 10, 1C4, 206 Aryappadai-Kadantha-N''ediinj-Chil-

liyam, 128 Asia, 4, 5, 131, J51 Asoka, 10, 113, 114) 116, I2C, i 6 i ,

162, 178 Assaconi, l o i Assam, 221, 225, 2 = 7 Asvins, 27, 54 Athens, 88, 138

269

t^'DEX II.—PROPEU fCAMES

Aufrecht, Prof,, 19 Augustus, 118, 1-19,. i;22, 126, 129,

137, 13S Aurangzeb, 14, 13, 224, 226, 231 Ausil Toomar Jumna, 14, 209 Australasia, 253 Australia, 5, 98 Avanti, 137 Awaji, 174 Ayeen-i-Akbari, 34, 205, 208

E Baalbek, 94, 180 Babar, 205 Babylon, 74, 77,82, S5, 86, 87, 88,

89, 94 Babylonia, 86, 87 Backeigunj, 216 Bachhari, 230 Bactria, 139 Bagdad, 186, 2?^ Bidimjmi, 300 Bahrein Gulf, i63 Barra, 188 Bajra, 328, 235 Bakare, 122, i£4, 134 Bakla, 216, 217 Balanis, 228, z j i BaLasore, 210, ECL, 233 Balban, X90 Baldeo, 225 Bali, 145, 171 Ball, Prof, v . , g i , 97, 98 Bamian, 153 Bandru, 201 Banga, 144 Banghella, 221

Bangiya Sahitya Eaishat , 222 Bangles, 251 Banlcsball, 248-Baufii Dasa, 155 Barendra, 157 Barygaza, 132, 1 3 ^ 134, 138

Eassein, 69, 132, 202 Eaudhayana, 59 Eaveru, 74, 78, 90 Eaveru-Jataka, 74, 87, SS Bawaj-ij, 18S Bay of Bengal, 15, 30, 71. 7^. K^.

143,145,146,150, ^i^tm,n^ Be^ni, 24 Behar, 175, 215 Benares, 77, 78, 211

, Bengal, 11, 14, 65, 14.3, i43) S^* I 5 5 J »59. 175. ^89, 19S, 236,215

Berenicoj 120, 134 Bevan, Major H., 236 Bhagalpur, 30, 157 Bhandasee, 207

Bhandaiiar, Dr., 117, 133, 150 Bhars, 2:28 Bharu, 75 Bharukachchha, 29, 74, 75i 77- ^^t

Bhaya, 22 Bhik, 221 BhikshLBni-Nidana, 165 Bhima, 22 Bhim KJaiain, 227 Bhoja, 19, 20, 21, 68 Bhojajanuya-Jataka, 78 Bhqjapara, 171 1 Bhiibaiieshwara, 37 Bhujyu, 27, 54 Bible, % 91, 92, 95, 119 Birs Nimrad, 87 Bitpal, 157 Black Sea, 120 Blochmann, 15, 221 Bodhidharma, 166, 173 Bodhisattva, 39, 78 Bo<ihisit1,vava.dana Kalpalsta, 10,

113 Eodhiscna, 173 , Bodleian, 15 Bombay, 35, 200, 238, 245.^4^

270

I N D E X I I .—PROPER NAMES

Baoras, 235 Borneo, 4, 171 BoTobudur, 12, 45, 49, 15!!, 157 Bowrey, T., 15, 231 Brahmaputra, 225, 230 Brajakishora Ghosha, 145 Brajendranath Seal, Dr., Bridge, Sir Cyprian, 245 Broach, 188 Buddha, 29, 33, 71, 72, 143 Buddhagat, 145 Budgaroo, 235 Biihler, Dr . ,8 , 53, 58, 74;87 Burgeas, 69 Bun-na, 11, 30, 76, 97, 137, 142 Bussora, 186 Byzantium, 56

Caesars, 117 Cairo, 199 [ Calcutta, 211, 247 CaldWell, Dr., 93, 98, 134 Calicut, 14, 195, 197, 198 C-ambaet, 191 Cimbay, 191, 195, 200 Cambodia, 4, 39, 149, 169', 182 Canton, 166 Capel, 204 Ci^racalla, 126, 127 Carnafuli, 231 C^rimtic, 247 C'sn'alius, 216 Caspian Sea, 120 Casshis, 138 Catamaran, 235 Cathay, 12, 163 Ccsare di Fedrici, 212 Ceylon, 29, 30, 34, 42, 44, 67, 70,

103. 113. 133. HO, 142. I'-fSi ^^"> 185, 195

Chach, 153 Chach^nama, 13, 14

Chakafiri, 218 Chaldaea, 85 Chalukya, 147 Chamban AH, 223 Champa, 30, 76, 157 Chanakya, 105 Chandeun, 219 Chandi, 158 Chandikan, 216. 21S Chandradwipa, 216 Chandra Gupta, 104, 112, i r4, i t 6 .

152, 178, 182, 206 Chandrapana, 160 ChandrasvSml, 67 Chand Saodagara, 15S, 159, 223 Chao Jukua, 170 Chapa, i6g Chapala, 22 Chatgaon, 210, 230 Chaturi, 214 Chaul, 133, 201 Chavada, 169 Chavakam, 143 Chembur, 132 Cheng-Ho, 197 Cheng-Kuan, 170 Chera, 135, 175 Cherala, 135 Chersonese, 30, r68 Chia-Tau, 166 Chilappathikaram, 12S, 136 Chilka Lake, 145 Chilmari, 229 Cliina, 4, 13, 13, 39, 50, 56, C^y 83,

89, 140, 141, 155, 162, 17c, 173,

i77> 195 Chittagong, 247 Chola, 13, 137, 143, 175. I7V Chotamukhl, 160 Christ, 144 Chu-fan-chih, 170 Chula Punna, 71 Chyrse Chersonesus, 78

371

I N D E X II .—PROPEE: NAMES

Clandius, 120 Cochinj 241 Codiin China. 1 jo , 157 Coilum, 191 Coimbatore, u g , V24, ^25 Gop Zofar, 2 en Cofendiophonta, 133 Conorin, CafE, 203 CoEStantinople, 3iz Constantine, 13* Conti, Nicolo, 4 5, 199 Corbulo, 139 Couea, 155 Coromandel, :[ I, pD, 51, 131, 133,

142, 231 CoBir, 199 Ccsmas, 12, 16& Ccsmas IndicDpleu^es, 140 Cossipore, 2 ^ Crawford, 1415 CtEsias, 9, 9S, eg Ctesiphon, 94 Cunningham.-3.5 Curse tjee, 245 Csrtius, 100, lor Crtch, 168, 165 Cyrene, 113

D rfebhcii, 202 Dacca, 14, so$, 211, 313, 224, 225,

228 l i ikhan, 94 Damascus, izc , iS i , 190 Damodar, 210 Dandi, 66 Danuj Roy, ico Darius, 3, 84, -56, 97, 180 Da^akuraaracturrta, 66 Diud, 215 Davids, Rhys, 78, 88, 89 De Barros,'«5. 221 Deccan, 40, 7*, 119, 211

De Cou*o, 14 Dehli, iSg, 190, 223, 226 Deir-el-!Kahaii, 90 Del mar, 84 De Souzs, 221 Deval, 1-68, 185 Dhanavnddhi, 65 ; Dhanapati, 158, 159; 221 Dhapa, 330 Dhar, 19 DharinS, 24 Dharmakrama, 166 Dhaimapaladeva, 220 Dhamr, 132 Dhfnian, 157 Digba Nikaya, 73, 88 Dilawira.r, 230 Dinescliander Sen, 156 Dicdorns, 103 , Dipavffiasa, 72 DlrghJj 23, 23 Dirghika, 23 Diu, 169, 201 Dony ,=s i Dows, X33 Drakes, 40 Dravi(fian, 6a, 89, 92, 98 D u d h ^ 218 Duff, =39 Dulva, 145 Durg»."ara, 160 Dvaraia, 66 Dwarba, i6g

E. Edom, 94 Egypt, 5°. 78, S3, 85, 90; 91, 94,

Ekdala, 196 Elara, 137 Eniot; 13, 14, 15, 51, 146 Elotl^ 92, 94 Elphmstone, 142, 14S

272

INDEX. ! [ .—PROPER NAMES

Eir.odus, 10 r England, 158 Epiphania, 94 Erukkaddur - Thayan - Ki nnanar -

Akam, 135 Erythraean Sea, u , 131, 1^9 Eihiopia, 141 Eudaimon, Arabia, 134 Euphrates, 120, i63 E'jrope, 56,82,83,95, 125, B02, 246 Ensebius Pampheli, 139 Ezion-Geber, 92, 94

E

Eadai. Khan, 226 | Ea-Hien, 11, 46, 48, 161, 165, 172 Eathiyyah-i-ibrij7ah, 15, 228 Fergnsson, 149 Eeringhi, 15, 211, 226 Eiroz Shah Tughlak, 196 Fitch, Ralph, 15, 218 Flonis, 138 Foalkes, Rev. T., 72, 94 Ernmjee, 245 Eramjee, Manseckjee, 244 Fringnan, 209 Erobishers, 40 Eryer^ Dr., 15, 236

G Galbats, 255 Galfvats, 240 Gambhira, 222 Gamini, 23 Gandhara, 117, 152 Gaii^aprasada, 159 Gangaikonda-chold, 175 Ganges, 2, 28, 65, 70^ 75. i33 ^77.

161, 144, 134, 137, 205 GarMiara, 22 Garbhim, 24 Ganida Purana, 68

Gatvara, 23 Gaur, 2r9, 220, 222 Gautama, 60 Gedrosia, 89 Germanac, 138 Ghatakakarika, 15 Ghiyas-ud-din Azam Shah, 197 Ghiyas-ud-din Baiban, 189 Ghrab, 214, 227 Gloucester, Fort, 240 Goa, 20Z

Gobi, 97 Godavarl, 149, 232 Gogra, 189, 205 Gokarna, 64 Golconda, 232 Gonzales, Sebastian, 225 Gooarakhi, 160 Goorntee, 207 Gotamiputra, 35 Grabs, 351 Grant, 209 Great Bear, 103 Greece, 50, 88 Griffins, 99 Griffiths, 38, 41 Guardafui, 134 Gujadhar, 225

Gujarat, 40: 4Si 49J *34, 15°. i^9, 194, 201

Gunabhadia, 166 Gunavarman, 165 Gupta, r i , 39, 163 Gurjjaras, 152, 169

H Hadrian, 117

I Haimadesha, 68 Hajipur, 215

^ Hajjaj, 185 I Hakluyt, 199 I Haraza, r68 . Hasarava, 159

273

INDEX It.—PROPER N^AMES

K i r i d ^ a Palit, '2 23 Pfcteha, 12, 65 Ifaishavardhani., n , 40, r63, 3:70, l-festinapur, 66 Hatasn, go Hayell, 45, 47, 157 Hceren, 90, 97 Hdiopolis, 94 Herodotus, 9, ^ , 96, 97, g^ Hewitt, 85, 86 Hjcronimo di Santo Stefano, I4J I 99 Hifnalaya, 2 •Kmd, 188 Kndusthan, igD gypa lus , 123 Ha-a, 168 Hkam, 92, 93 Hitopadefia, 6 j Hmen Tsangj. i i» 12, 38, 1G2, 168,

169 Hiwanti, 164 Hblland, 246 Hbriuzi, 156 Ifcrmuz, iaOyj^4, r jo Hoti, 164 Hotton, ChrisEopker, 232 Bowrah, 248 Huang-hua-h»-ta-chi, 167 Hughes, Sir Edwird, 246 Hugli, 210, 229, 348 "Humboldt, 56 Hunas, 152, 168 Hunter, 144, 145 Hussain Sha&, 220 Jtydaspes, i«>, 101 Hyder Ali, 247 Hyrcanian, 139

Haones, 121 Ibn Batutaj 394 Ibn Hussain, 230 Ibrahim Khan, 238

Ham, 175, 176 India, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9. i^, 34,1)

39. 4A 55.58. 68, 72,^2^83, 85,^ 86, SS, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94. 95. 95," 97> ?9. icr2, 112, 1 1 3 - 0 9 . I2D,'| 128, 129, ISO, 134,137, 139, 14J,'

144, 145, ^55.^6^* 1 6 ^ '^1^' ^73J;' 17S, 180, 205, 231

indiaj South, n . 36 i. Indian Archipelago 3, rSz i, Indian Ocean» 8, 53, 68, 133, 142^

143 ' '• Indies, 158 Ii>do-Aryans, 2 Indo-Chinese, 164, Indo-Scythians, 139 i, indr^ELStha, 130 Indus, 2, 3 t49 .S6,93 , 97,J03, l o i ,

^3^ 134. 139, 153. 185,106, 213 Irak, 188 |. I r awa^y , 143 Islam Khan, 224, 225 Ispahan, 168 ; Issannitty, 227 lialj:. 56 ;i I-Tang, 13, 162, 170, 171

'1

J Jag^Bibana, 223 , jagsinath, 36 'I Jaguagar, 189 • Jahaja-gbata,';2i8 Jahangir, 224, 230 | Jaipmi, 215 I Jaltak, 227, 230, 231 ; Jamljudvipa, 29 Jamsetjee, 244 • !, ^msetjee Bomanjee, 544. '; JatEika-Jataka, 29 ' Janghala, 24 Jatigi, 231 , I'l jaism, 3, 4, 39. I55. ^5^f ^7°. ^73. -^1-74 •;

274

INDE

Jaiolfa, 34, 69, 73, 74, 87T

X I I . - -Pg .OPER NAMES

Ja7;a, 4, 6, 12, 39, 41 . 4|5, 46, 49,

56, 148,-. 149,* i5°i 389

Jaj-gad, 132 Jedda, 238 Jessore, 217, 318, 229 Jhelum, 196 Jnanabhadra, 170 Jogue, 138 Juian, 139 Juinna, 189 juiJcSi i^i lunnar, 132 Jastlnian, 139 Jyo.174

K

Kabul, 118 Kadaram, 176, 177 Kaddaram, 143 Kadphiaes, 118, 138 KaLvarta, 27, 57 Kakasu Okakura, 163 TCalakam, 137, 143 Kalidasa, 64, 65 KaliBga, 11, 71. i44» MS Kalrnga Hupurani, 177 Kalingapatan, 144 KalBena, 132 Kalyan, 132, 140, 147 Kamara, 135 Kanakasabbai, v . , 177 Kana-aka, 36 ICanauj, 40, 305 Kandalur, 175 Kancarpaketu, 67 K.jne, 134 ICcnbery Caves, 35, 132 Kanishka, 117 Kankan, 169 Kaisa, 37 K-aribari, 229

5^, 152,

' '

1

1 1

1

, ,171. 177

'

1

1

i

1 '-

! - ^ } 2

Kasbioir, 67, 84 Kathasarit Sagara, 6y Kathiawar, 152 Kau, 166 Kausambi, 66 Kautilya, 10, 104 Kaveri, 129, 136, 344 Kavikankana, 159, 222 Kaviripaddinam, 129, 135, ry,, 143 Kedar Roy, 216, 217 Keidi, Major J. B , 179 Kennedy, 86. 87, 35 Keranee, 207 fCetakadasa, 159 Kewmo-lo, 167 Xhaberis, 136 JOiafi Khan, 238 Xhalu, 231 "Khan Alam, 215 Khan-i-Khaiian, 214 K-harid, 205 Khegan, 138 Ivhegas, 138 Kherwah, 207 Khurasan, 188 Khusni II . , King of Persia, 40 !'Ciao-tchoa, 164 Kidderpur, 24S Kii, 174 Kilmak, 217 Kirtinarayaua, 217 Kishora Das, 339 Cishtiha-i-bandakshan, 196 Khngs, 14s, 146 Kolaba, 239

Koppenes, lo i Kosala, 71

1 Kosah, 227, 231 1 Kolumba, 134 1 Kounagara, 134 j Krishna, 37, 66, 144, 149

Exishnaswami Aiyangar, 177 1 Xshatrapa, 164

75

IJ3:)EX l l . ~ P R O P E R KAMES

ICshemananda, i g Kshanendia, lo, 113, 114 KshuJra, 32 Kucli Behar, 221- 225, 227 KucE Ha-jo, 225 Kudduvan, 135 Kuea-lum, 174 Kufa, 168 Kulwtimga, 177 Kuraedera, 173 Kundaka-KucclL-Sindhava^ataka,

77 TCummbar, 51 Kusri, 223 Kusiian, 3J 10, TI.6^ 139, 140, 179 Kwai-Vuen, 12,165 Kyd, J., 248 Kyd, R., 248 Kyashu, 174

Laecadives, 17C Laeouperie, Prd , -16^ Lafekh, 97 LakDre, 206 Labori Bandarc2-i5 LaJchnauti, 189: 1:96 Lambert, Antony, 248 Lang^ga, 164 Lanka, 130, 164 L i ^ e u , 90, 91^57 Letas, 152 Laiormant, gc Lerarit, 120 Liraurike, 133 LSadsay, Mr., -24^ Lohita S a g a r a t ^ Lo-hu-na, 172 Lda , 23 tasxdon, 249 Lmv, Lieut.j £45 Lmvjee Nassaranjeej 244 LD-yang, 167

I Liichnij Vaiayan, 225 ! Luckia, 227

i ^^ I Macedonia, LI.3 |- 'Machin-iS3

Ms-dagascax, 150, 189 Mf-dapallum, 233 Madhulara, 160 Madhyama, 22 Madhyaxaandira, 26, 37^ 42 Madras i .p , 749, 236, 247 MadurET, 49, 119, 126,137 MagadEa, 71, 137, 152 Maggs,:=io, 211, 212, 234, 2z6 MSgha, 66 Mababtiaiatfli 57, 58, 130 Mahajaaaka-Jataka, 30, 75, 77 M a h a l ^ i s , 228 Mahaisuida, 223 Mahapmi, 130 Maharusti-a, 39, 134 Maha'tairocfaanabhisanibodlii Sutra,

Maha^l]q)0?ej 37 Mahatraiiso, 29, 69, 70, 71, 156 Mahi-sasaka-Vinaya, 165 Mahmiid, 102^ 153, 187, 201, 221 M a h r ^ a , 238. 239 Mahiiiiij 13, 196 Maislc>-j General F. C , 33

i Maisoliaj, 134 • Malafear, 86, Q3, 117, 123,131, 133, I 134. iSS

Malaoca, 11, 133, 134, 146 Malava, 152 Ma\a^^a, 149, 172

J Maiayn .irdiipelago, 56, 143, 163,

I 171. 189,235 , Mal*mn Pen-nsolar, 4 Maidiih, 222 Maldives, 176, 360, 232

t Manasa, 158

276

INDEX II.—PE.OPER NAMES

Manasamaiigala, 159, 22 Mandagora, 132 Maiida, 147 Manda Roy, 217 Mangarouth, 140 Mangulura, 124 Manillas, 150 Manipallavam, 143 Manjanik, 186 Manjistha, 181 Uanju 6ri, 172, 173 Wannai, 177 Man Singh, 215, 217 Mansura, 189 Manthara, 22, 24 ManUj 60, 61 &Iaraiel de Faria y Souza, a'21 Manusa6hita, 57 M Marcellinus, Ammianus, 133 Marco Polo, 13, 133. ^9° Markandeya Purana, 64 Marsden, 146 Martaban, 146, 176 Maruvar-Pakkam, 136 Massoola, 234 Master, Strenysham, 23 Mafcima, 176 Matsya, 34 Manllim, 207 Mairy-as, 9, 10, 100,

I f 2 l\IcCrindle, 9, 140 Mecca, 198, 202, 237 Me(£terranean Sea, 95 M e ^ , 185 Meer Behry, 205 Meer Eundar, 214 Megasthenes, 92, 102, 104 Meghna, 218, 225 Meheran, 189 Melizeigara, 133 Mendang Kumulan, 151 Merivale, 126

io2j' 105,

Mesopotamia, 94 MexicOj 158 Middleton, Sir H., 202 Mikwa, 174 Milinda Panha, 164 Minayef, 74 Ming, 197 Ming-shih, 197 Mir Jumla, 226, 227, 228

3Iirza Jani Beg, 214 ^Mlechchhas, 57, 128, 129 TVIoca, 232 IMocha, 232, 238 Mogallanna, 167 Moghul, 224, 225, 230 Mohr Punkee, 213 Mokha, 134 Molesworth, 48 Mommsen, 124 Mongols, 3 Stonoglosson, 134 Eoor, Capt., 230 Elorapura, 70 Eorris, 232 Mouza, 134 Itfuchiris, 11, 135 Muggerchera, 213 Ivkihamraad Hussain, Hakim, S25 Muhammad ibn Kasim, 186 Maktipura, 67 Ivfiiltan, 187, 196 Manawwai Khan, 228 Mhndelgaut, 210 Miinim Beg, 227 Monim Khan, 215 Marshidabad, 211, 213 Mfficat, 195 Meulipatam, 150, 232 Muririkolu, 123 Muziiis, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129,

Mj=»s Hormos, 120 Mywre, 175

277 T 2

H ^ D E X I I .—PROPEE 3"AMES

NabonMus, 87 Nacqu«dah, 237 Na^s , .34 , 114 Nagapuram, ^45 Nalihofla, 207 Nakhoda-kheshdi, 207 Nakkararam, i ^ i Nakkirar, 121 NakuLi, 57 Nalopatana, 14'* Nandi, 165 ^faJ^kmg, r65 " '-Nan-Maran, l i t Narayanadeva, igS Narsapur, 232 Nfiarehus, 100 Nebuchadnczzir, S7, Nellq'nda, 12<E . J32 N"epal, 153, 157. Nero, 122 I2Z , :EZ6 iSctftar, 172, 15^ Nicdlo Conti,-4S, 133, 199 Nih«i-ko-Ia, 17^ Nikbilnath. R^j:, 217 Nileswar, 12^ NJlgiri, 129 NUkanthaj. 114 Nit^ataba, 67 Nisedita, 246 Niaamud<£a Ahmed, 187 Norway, £4C Nawrojee; 245 Nowwara, 14,^09, 212, 227 'Hun Jehau, 226

O Oaranar-pQEKi, 135 Oiierio, Friai, 194 Okelis, 134 Ok)ako, 235 Ophir, 92, 93 Ctrhet, 168

Orissa, 36, 145, 175, 215 Ormuz, »95 Orosiua, C38

OuangrE-wuentse, 153 Oudh, 145, 1S9 OXUS, E20

Faddiimppalai, 136 Padishanama, 225 PadiyuTj 124, 125 Padra^ani , 35 Padma Purana, 158 Paitamaha, 130 Paithazn, 132 Pala, 220 Pato. Kings, 210 Palar, 52

i Palelat, 30, 71 Pa le^ne , 94 Pali, 3

Palla«?a, 10, 51, 114 Paltti^ra, 120, iSo Pal\airahs, 227 Palyan, 170 Pau"3iasiddhantika, 130 Pandava, 27, 57, 59 Pandion, 138 Pandua, 223 Panaya, 70, 12S, 137 Parfiyan, sg, 70, 121 Par^yavataka, 68 Patg-kola, 197 Pacje-ab, l o i Pa»-yu, 167 1 Pajalaukika, 68 Pasmat i , 167 Pacuneswara, 201 Pa^sava, 6& Parichat, 225 Parindah, 228 .' Parb, 8z

278

INDEX II.—PROPER NAMES

Paropanisadai, r i s Parti, 140 Patala, 22, 131 Pataliputra, 114 Patil, 228 Patila, 228, 235 Patoa, 66, 78, 215 Patraputa, 32 Pattooas, 252 Paulisa, 130 Pegu, 4, 144, 146, 147 176 Pencose, 219 Pennar, 53 Periplus, 11, 92, 116,122,129, 131,

139. 140 Periyar, 135 Persia, 4, 40, 65, 68, 1J20, 141, 163,

i6g, 202 Persian Gulf, 8, 68, 72, 74, 87, 8g,

94, 100, 131 Peshwas, 15 Peshwar, 140 Petra, 95 Pet t ,W. ,24S

Ph'ayre, Sir A. P., 11, i45) 146 Philadelpliia, 48 Phillips, G., 163 Phipps, John, 245 Phoenicia, 78, 95 Pillay, 121, iz8, 143 Pipli, 234 Pitaka, 73 Pithan, 132 Pliny, l i , 84, 97, 103, 116, 122,

124, 131, 140 Poorna, 73 Portugal, 202 Porus, 138 Poudopatana, 140 • Praams, 134 Prabhakaravardhana, 152 Prambanan, 151 Prithvi Raj, 67

Prome, 146, 176 Protapaditya, 217 Ptolemy, 11, 101, 121, 134, ^35)

139, 140, x6i Ptolemy Philadelphus, 120 Pukar, I I , 129, [35 Pun, 90 Pundra, 144 Punjab, 3, 84, 97, 140 Punjeree, 207 Punna, 30, 71 Punya-Upachaya, 170 Purchas, 21S Purgoos, 235 Puri, 36, 40 Pyard, 202

R

Raghu, 28, 64, 65 Raghunandana, 55 Raghuvafisa, 28, 64, 65 Rajavallava, 159 Rajamandri, 147 Raja-raja, 175 Rajavalliya, 28, 69 Rajendra, 175 Rajendralal Mitra, Dr., 19 Rajmahal, 234 Rajtaraiigini, 68 Rakshasis, 44 Ralph Fitch, 15, 218 Romaka, 130

Ramayaiia, 27, 55, 57, i45 Ramchandra Roy, 217 Raphael, 44 Rassam, 86, 87 Ratnagiri, 239 Ratnavali, 65, 72 Ratnodbhava, 66 Ravana, 55 Rea, Alexander, 50 Red Sanders, 71

^79

INDEX H.—PROPER NAMES

Red Sea, 92, 94.131,134, 14^ 362,

232 Rfiid, J., 47 Rfiinaitd, 56 Rhatgiris, 228 Rhinocolura, 95 R^-Veda,^ 9, 53, 85, 93 Robertson, Dr., 101, 102 RebinsDn, Sir H,, cp R*maka, ro, 130 Remalci-Jataka, 33c Reme, no , 50, 82, 1:16, i i 8 , 1 ^ ,

327,125, 137, i ^ , 139, 179 R.Sh)^ma Sastrt. 104 RiidratSman, 164 Rnijukokushi, 17J Rum, i«8 Rigtnarayan, 210 RlBSia,:22I Rmtonjee, 245

Saddhammanagani, 146 S a ^ l , 70 SagurafaiSj 159 Sagura island, 216, 218 Saledeva, 57 Sahara, 153 Saif-ud-din Hamza Shah, 197 Said, 1,35, 150, 152 Saknritala, 65 Sakya, 165 SalSbham, 69 Salbs, 22i8 Salan, 124

Sanmntapasadika, 166 SambucH, 203 Samuddar-Vanija-jaata, 25, 74 Sarmidrasura, 67 Samurai, 202 Sanchi, 32,33. 34t35

Sancharam, 39 Sandwipa,2i6, 225 Saughabhsara, 166 Sanghavarman, r66 Saiigrama VijayoUunga Varmarij

176 SangramgEEra, 230 Sankshachora, 160 Sankha-JaCika, 30 Sadyukta-E^ama, 166 Sa yutta Nikaya, 73 Sanuki, 174 Saraju, 185 * Sarbamancira, 26 Sardar-i-SarraJ, 228 Saris, Capt , 203 Sarmanes, £38 Sassanians,j:39, 152 Batakarfli, 35, 38 SatgaoHj i d , 219

Sau'rastra, S Sayce, Dr., 85, 86 Schiem, 96 Scotland, 246 ' Scythian, 49 Sebastian Gonzales, 225, Seleucia, 9^" Semirantts, 102 SemuUa, 132 Sen Kings, 220 Septuagint, 78 Serendip, i ^ , 187 Severndoorg, 240 Sewell, 50, M 6 t ShahabuddiLL, ig6

' Shah Jehan, 325

Shaista Khacj 228, 229, 233 Shihab-ud-dia Talish; 212, 224 Shiva, 124 Shuja, Prince, 226 Siam, 39, 150 Sicily, 56

380

INI EX IL—PROPER NAMES

bilabhadra, 156 Siiihavahu or Sinhaba, 69 Sinae-Rbman China, ij^o Siiidabad, 186 Smdh, 3, 13, 14, 78, 140, 153, 183 Sindhu, 168 Sindhuvarga, 239 Singapore, 146 Siihala, 29, 31, 44, 72^ 157, 222 Siiihamukhlj 160 Siiihapura, 69 Sirheng, 207 Sister Nivedita, 246 Sisapalavadha, 66 Sita, 55, 56 Sivaji, 15, 238 Smith, Vincent, 113, 125, 127, 129,

Sobira, 78 Socotraj 133, 190 Solomon, 8g, 91, 92, gj Solvyns, F. Baltazar, 25I0 Soraadeva, 67 Somnatb., 153, 169, 185 Sonargaon, 16, 219 Sophir, 78 Soratha, 168 Srayasti, 71, 73, 73 Sri-Bhoja, 171 Bii-Harsba, 152, 169 , Sri-Visbaya, 176 biimanta, 158, 222 Srinagara, 217 Sripm', 216, 219 ^ri Raja Indra Chola, ,i 7 7 Stanhope, 243 St. J Dhn, R. F, St. Andrew, 146 Strabo, 11, 101, 103, 104, 120, 131,

137 Strenyshara Master, 23 Suhanu-Jataka, 77 Suimianij 214 Sukangeer, 207

Suleiman, 187 Sulkea, 248 Sumatra, 4, 56, 143, 150, 171 Sumena, 194 Sunga, 165 Sungshih, 13, 177 SupEira, 69, 88, (50, 132 Supparaka, 30, 71, 89 Supparaka-Bodnisat, 29 Supparalca-Jataka, 75 Surat, 134, 140, 202, 237 Suryya, 130 Sussondi-jataka, 77 Sutta Pitalca, 73, 88 Suvama, 71 Suvarnabhumi, 30, 145, J 6 I , 171 Suvarria Island, 56 Suvarndrug, 239 Suy, 167 Suyshoo, 167 Suvarna Dvipa- 56 Sylhet, 212, 247 Syrastra, 134 Syria, 93, 113, 188

T

Tabakat-i-Akbati, 1S7 Tadmor, 94 Taka-kusu, 12, 171 Taklcolam, 176 TakraiUa-i-Al^b3,tna.ma, 13 Takola, 176 Talaing, 144 Tamilakam, iiB, 135 Tamolitta, i6r Tamo,. 167

Tamralipta, 31, 72, 161, 1G2, 17; Tamraparni, 68 Tana, 191 Tanda, 219 Tandulanali-Jatakaj 77 Tao-lin, 173

261

I N D E X I I .—PROPER NAMES

Tapoosa, 30, 71 Taprobane, 103 Tarani, 23 Tari, 23 ' Tarik, 220 Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, r3j 196 Tarikh-i-Tahiri, 21,^ Tarnasarf, 133 Tarshis, 53 Tata, 206

Ta-tcheng-teng, 17:2 Tatta, los TavernicL, 150, 180 Taxila, ro i Taylor, &? Tcharitrapoura, 161 TenjikUj 174 Tennassaree, 232 Thana, 153, 191 Tharakhetra, 145, 176 Thatta, rg6, 213 Thebes, go Theophrastus, 92 Tiberhis, I J 8 , 125

Tibet, 3, 97, 153 Tien-shon, 173 Tientes, 164 Tigris, 153, 186 Timur, 196 Tinnevelfy, 190 Tiperrahti9o Tissara, ^ 6 Tittagarh, 249 TodarmaD, 209, 215 Tosa, 174 Trajan, 1^8 Trankee, 134 Trapagga, 134 Tripitaka, 165 Tripitak Acharyya,; 166 Tripitak, "Chinese, 12 Tripoly, 158 Tsang, 162

Tsi-chao, 197 Tughril Khan, 189 Tugra, 26^ 54 Tundeil, 207 Timg-kia,. 197 Tumour, 29, 70, 71 Tyndis, 124, 132 Tyre, 56, 92, 95

U Ujjaini, 167 Uman, i85 Unnata, 23 Ur, 85, 87 U r Bagas, S5 ITrdha, 24 Usnisa Vijaya Dharmi, 156

V

VaitSl Deul, 37 VajrabodH, 172 1 Valahassa-Jataka, 29, 75 Vaiaha, 172 VambamiHra, 68, 130, ISD, T 8 I Vaj^ha Puiana, 63 Varthema^ 14, 15, 133, 203, 2r8 Vaitriharis 67 Vanina, 53, 54 "Vasco de Gama, 201 Va^shtha, 35,54, 130 Vajralepa, 180 Vecaval, i58 VespassTLj 127 Vidura, 27, 59 VifciaT, 39, 71 Vijaya, 28, 42, 44, 69, 70, 157 Vijaya Durgaj 239 Vitramavahu 65 Vinaya (Filalu), 73 Vincent, Dr., l o i , 153 ViMcent Smith, 50, 55, H 2 , 138 Vindhya, 179

282

INDEX II.—PiiOPER NAMES

Vindusarovara, 37 Virgil, 93 Vishalgad, 200 Vishnu, 34 Von Bohlen, 90 VrJhat-Sanhita, 62, 130, 180 Vrilisha-Ayurveda, 20

W

Waddle, Mr. A., 24S Walker,'Lt.-Col. A., 245 Wassaf, 13, 188, 195 Wellesley, Lord, 249 Wheeler, J. T., 236 Wilkinson, 91 Wn, 167 Wun, 165

Xathroi, 102 Xerses, 93

X

Yajiiavalkya Saihita, 62 YajHa Sri, 50 Yamato, 173 Yatratattva, 55 Yavana, 11, 66^ rar, 12S, 129 Yavana Dvipa, 56 Yeats, Dr. J., 56 Yemen, 90 Yudhisthira, 130 Yuktikalpataru, 19, 21, 24^ 25, 35,

37, 41, 43, 164 Yule, 13, 168, T94 Tung-hsi, 172 Tung-lo, 197

Z

Zanguebar, 191 Zarnian-K-hegas, 138 Zend, 86

A ^^

• I. \ - '

283

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