A GUIDE TO THE SOURCES OF JEWISH LAW · 2019. 11. 5. · Guide follows the development of the laws of bailment (shomerim). The principles of bailment in Jewish law are found in the

A GUIDE TO THE SOURCES OF JEWISH LAW

A GUIDE TO

THE SOURCES OF

JEWISH LAW

BY

Prof Nahum Rakover

The Library of Jewish Law

Library of Jewish Law

Ministry of Justice

The Jewish Legal Heritage Society

Foundation for the Advancement of Jewish Law

©

The Jewish Legal Heritage Society P.O. Box 7483 Jerusalem 91074

Printed in Israel 1994

No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, elecrtonic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the

publisher

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Chapter One: SOURCES

I. Scripture A. In General B. Biblical Commentary C. Translation of the Bible and Commentaries D. Halakhic Midrashim E. Commandment Lists

II. Mishnah and Talmud A. Mishnah B. Commentary on the Mishnah C. Tosefta D. Talmud E. Talmudic Commentary

1. Commentary on the Babylonian Talmud 2. Commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud

F. English Editions of the Talmud G. New Hebrew Editions of the Talmud H. Sages of the Mishnah and Talmud

III. Geonic Literature

5

9

13

15 15 22 23 26

33 35 40 43 46 46 48

50 55 56

59

IV. Halakhic Literature A. Codes

I. Mishneh Torah

CONTENTS

Commentary on Mishneh Torah English Translation

2. Tur Commentary on the Tur

3. Shulhan Arukh Commentary on Shulhan Arukh

4. Arukh haShulhan B. Halakhic Glosses Following the Order of the Talmud

I. Rif and Commentaries 2. Rosh and Commentaries

C. Rabbinic Decisions

61 61 61 65 67 67 69 71 72

75

77 79

I. Responsa 82 2. Decisions of Israeli Rabbinic Courts 84

Chapter Two: MODERN SCHOLARSHIP 85

I. Books and Studies 87

II. Journals and Collections 91

Chapter Three: REFERENCE BOOKS AND SERVICES 93

I. Encyclopedias

II. Indices to the Responsa Literature

III. Biography

IV. Bibliography

V. Reference A. The Talmud and Rabbinic Decisions B. Parallel Passages Within the Talmud C. Rabbinic Literature and the Bible

6

95

100

104

106

108 108 108 109

CONTENTS

VI. Dictionaries A. Hebrew B. English C. German

VII. Abbreviations

VIII. Anthologies A. Halakhic Dicta B. Responsa

IX. Modern Law A. Jewish law in Contempory Legislation B. Jewish law in contemporary Judicial Desicions

X. Support Services

Appendices

I. Bailees law, 5727-1967

IL Tractates of the Mishnah and Talmud and their abbreviations

Index

7

110 110 JIO 110

112

113 113 113

114 114

114

117

119

121

125

127

INTRODUCTION

A Guide to the Sources of Jewish Law is designed to assist anyone with a need to study or work with the main sources of Jewish law. Concentrating on the most fundamental works, the Guide introduces the sources, shows their internal structure, how they relate to one another, the type of material to be found in each source, and how such material is located and cited. As no modern research guide exists to introduce the novice to Jewish law, A Guide to the Sources of Jewish Law was conceived to fill the void.

In order to demonstrate how the fundamental works are used, the Guide follows the development of the laws of bailment (shomerim). The principles of bailment in Jewish law are found in the Bible, elucidated in the Talmud, and presented systematically in the codes. In this, they are typical and, therefore, instructive. The Guide traces this progression from Scripture through the Talmud and codes, demonstrating the interpretation of the biblical text in the exegetic literature, and the development and application of the laws of bailment in the responsa. With the help of A Guide to the Sources of Jewish Law, the interested reader can learn to find, for example, the halakhic ruling that emerges from a talmudic discussion or the talmudic sources for the rulings of the codes. Since the Israeli Bailees Law, 5727-1967, draws upon the concepts and principles of Jewish law, the study of bailment in Jewish sources has the added advantage of relevance to current legislation. 1

For the text of the Bailees Law, 5727-1967, see Appendix I. See also N. Rakover, 'Shomerim,' Encyclopedia Judaica, 1971, XIV, 1455-1458.

9

INTRODUCTION

Wherever possible, the Guide directs the reader to the most recent editions of traditional sources, which are generally more accessible than older editions owing to improved graphics, the presence of introductions, notes and comments, and the translation of Aramaic passages. The Guide also explains the use of bibliographies, dictionaries, lexicons, and modern studies.

In 1980, the Israeli Knesset passed The Foundations of Law Act, thereby terminating the formal relationship between Israeli and English Law, and establishing in its place a connection to 'the principles of freedom, justice, equity, and peace of the Jewish heritage.' This change posed new challenges to the legal community and provided an impetus for lawyers, jurists, and legislators to delve into the Talmud, codes, responsa, and commentary.

At the same time, Jewish law has gained increasing recognition outside Israel. In the academic community, particularly in the United States, a number of special chairs in Jewish law have been established, and as a result, the demand for study materials in English has expanded rapidly. There is also a growing interest in non-Hebrew-speaking countries in the contribution Jewish law may offer to society at large.

These developments stimulated the publication of works designed to help the members of the legal and legislative communities, as well as scholars and interested laymen. In recent years, the Library of Jewish Law has published nearly twenty volumes, including works of original scholarship and aids to study and research.

In addition, the Library of Jewish Law has recently published several volumes in English: Jewish Law and Current Legal Problems, Maimonides as Codifier of Jewish Law, Modern Applications of Jewish Law, and The Multi-Language Bibliography of Jewish Law (see pp. 90, 106, 114).

A Guide to the Sources of Jewish Law, the Library of Jewish Law's newest publication in English, translates Moreh Derekh biMekorot haMishpat halvri, prepared by the author in 1983 (with the assistance of Professor Aaron Kirschenbaum and Dr. David

IO

INTRODUCTION

A.Frankel). It has been specially adapted, however, to the needs of the English reader. To the extent possible, sources are quoted in English, and each section records the names of the relevant English translations, studies, reference books, and periodicals. Thanks are due to Chaim Mayerson for his assistance in translation.

For full bibliographical information on works cited in the following pages as well as the names of additional books and articles on an extensive range of topics in Jewish law, and information on sources translated into languages other than English, the reader is encouraged to consult 'Jne Multi-Language Bibliography of Jewish Law (Jerusalem, 1990; seep. 106).

It is my sincere hope that the present work will assist not only lawyers, legislators, and jurists, but also anyone interested in questions of justice, morality, and the application of Jewish law in our time.

Jerusalem January 1994

11

Nahum Rak over

Chapter One

SOURCES

I. SCRIPTURE

A. In General

The principles and rules of Jewish law are based on Scripture. While some rules are mentioned quite explicitly, others are only implied. All are elucidated in the teachings of the Tanna'im and Amora'im - the Rabbis of the Mishnah and Talmud - and presented systematically in the codes. Thus, over the generations, a comprehensive legal system has developed based on Scripture as elaborated by exegesis and amplification.

The Pentateuch is the foundation on which was built a comprehensive legal system that embraces every sphere that is of concern to any modern legal system.

As an example of the general method and development of Jewish law from its source in Scripture to its consolidation in the works of the Later Authorities, we will trace the development of the laws of bailment (shomerim). These are based on Exodus 22:6-14 (see Figure I).

B. Biblical Commentary

The meaning and significance of the biblical text is discussed in the writings of the commentators. The earliest commentaries are actually translations from the original into Aramaic, a Semitic language widely spoken in ancient times. These translations, known as targumim (targum in the singular), were highly interpretive. The best known are Targum Onkelos, Targum Yonatan hen Uziel, and Targum Yerushalmi.

15

EXODUS XXIJ

CHAPTER XXII

I. If a thief be found breaking in, and be smitten so that he dieth, there shall be no bloodguiltiness for him. 2. If the sun be risen upon him, there shall be bloodguiltiness for him-he shall make restitution; if he have nothing, then he shall be sold for his theft. 3. If the theft be found in his hand alive, whether it be ox, or ass, or sheep, he shall pay double. • 111 • 1 4. Jf a man cause a field or vineyard to be eaten, and shall let his beast loose, and it feed in another man's field; of the best of his own field, and of the best of his own vineyard, shall he make restitution. ~ 5. If fire break out, and catch in thorns, so that the shocks of corn, or the standing corn, or the field are consumed; he that kindled the fire shall surely make restitution. fr 6. If a man deliver unto his neighbour money or stuff to keep, and it be stolen out of the man's house; if the thief be found, he shall pay double. 7, If the thief be not found, then the master of the house shall come near unto 'God, to see whether he have not put his hand unto his neighbour's goods. 8. For every matter of 1respass, whether it be for ox, for ass, for sheep, for raiment, or for any manner of lost thing, whereof one saith: 'This is it,' that cause of both parties shall come before God; he whom God shall condemn shall pay doub!e unto his neighbour. ~ 9. If a man deliver unto his neighbour an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast, to keep, and it die, or be hurt, or driven away, no man seeing it; 10. the oath of the LORD shall be between them both, to see whether he have not put his hand unto his neighbour's goods; and the owner thereof shall accep: it, and he shall not make restitution. 11. But if it be stolen from him, he shall make restitution unto the owner thereof. 12. If it be torn in pieces, let him bring it for witness; he shall not make good that which was torn. fl 13. And ifa man borrow aught of his neighbour, and it be hurt, or die, the owner thereof not being with it, he shall surely make restitution. 14. If the owner thereof be with it, he shall not make it good; if it be a hireling, he loseth his hire. ,r 15. And if a man entice a virgin that is not betrothed, and lie with her, he shall surely

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0

Figure 1: Exodus 22:6-14, with commentary of Dr. J. H. Hertz, The Pentateuch and Haftorahs (London, reprinted frequently since 1937).

CHAPTER XXII 1, breaking in. lit. 'digging through.' The

houses were built of clay and cross-beams, and the thief dug a_ hole in the wall.

no bloodguiltine.,s. The thief would only do this in the dead of night, and it could not be considered murder if the owner killed the intruder who, it is assumed in both ancient and modem codes oflaw, would not hesitate to take life.

2. be risen upo11 him. i.e. upon the thief. If the burglary takes place after daybreak (Ibn Ezra, Nachmanides), the slaying of the thief is murder, because it is not absolutely necessary to take his life.

for him. The murdered thief. he shall make restitution. He who steals in

the daytime; likewise, the thief in the night who is caught in the act and not slain (Herxheimer).

for his theft. The Rabbis add that if the value of the stolen animal was less than the price of a slave, the thief may not be sold. If the thief is sold, it can only be for the 'theft'; i.e. the price of the stolen article, and not for the four-fold or five.fold fine which is imposed.

3. double. He must return the stolen animal and give the owner another as a fine. This rule was extended to all stolen articles.

4. eaten. By cattle. let his beast loose. Wilfully sending his cattle

to graze in a field which did not belong to him. If they wandered there, without any culpable negligence on his part, he is not liable.

of the best. When estimating the damage, the best of the injured man's field is to be taken as the basis of calculation of the value of the whole.

5. /ire break out. i.e. a man kindles a fire in his own field, and the wind carries sparks into a neighbouring field and a conflagration is caused.

6. deliver. A man asks his neighbour to take charge of valuables as a favour. He may wish to go on a journey, and in his own interest requests a person to safeguard his property.

it be stolen. i.e. the trustee affirms that there has been a theft.

7. unro God. As in XXJ, 6. Having solemnly sworn that he had not embezzled what had been entrusted to him, the trustee is free from all obligation. In the event of his having perjured himself, his punishment would come from God Himself.

8. trespass. Here the equivalent of embezzlement.

whereof one-saith. Either the owner or a witness comes forward and identifies something which is in the possession of the trustee or the thief as the lost property.

this is it. The thing lost. condemn. Convict. If it is the trustee, he

refunds the article and another of the same value. If the trustee is acquitted the witnesses who falsely accused him must pay him double the value of the lost article.

9. be hurt. By a fall, or an attack by another animal.

driven away. i.e. carried off by raiders.

10. shall be between them both. Shall decide between them. The trustee swears as to how the animal was hurt.

put his hand. To make an improper use of the animal, against the wishes of the owner, whereby it received its injury.

accept it. The oath, as fully acquitting the suspected trustee.

11. stolen. As distinct from its being carried off by a band of marauders, against whom he was powerless. In the case oi theft, it was assumed that the trustee, who was paid to take care of the animal, had not done so sufficiently.

12. bring it for witness. Produce the tom flesh as evidence.

13. aught. An animal.

14. be with it. It is then the duty of the owner to take care of his animal.

he loseth his hire. Or, 'it is reckoned in its hire.' In accepting money for the use of the animal, the owner must take the risk.

CHAPTER ONE: SOURCES

The more familiar form of biblical commentary developed during the Middle Ages. The best known of the medieval commentators are Rashi and Nahmanides (Ramban):

Rashi (1040-l 105), R. Shelomoh Yitzhaki, lived in France and is considered the greatest of the biblical commentators. His commentary on the entire Bible is clear and concise and seeks to present the plain explicit meaning of the text (peshat). It is often based upon the Midrashim (early homiletical interpretations of Scripture), the Talmud, the Targumim, and philological analysis of the Hebrew language.

Nahmanides (1194-1270), R. Moshe ben Nahman, also known by the acronym Ram ban, 2 lived in Spain. Unlike Rashi, Nahmanides does not restrict himself to a verse by verse interpretation of the text, but rather takes a more global approach to the subject matter. His commentary also includes reactions to the interpretations of his predecessors.

As an example of biblical commentary, we bring the comments of Rashi and Nahmanides on Exodus 22:6 (Rashi's comments appear

in Figure 2, those of Nahmanides in Figure 3).

On verse six, 'And it was stolen from the house of the man,' Rashi notes, 'According to his statement.' By his short comment, Rashi explains that the verse describes not the establishment of fact but rather a claim made by the bailee. Accordingly, the sense of the verse is, 'When the bailee claims that it was stolen from his house ... .' On the verse's conclusion, ' .. .if the thief be found, he shall pay double,' Rashi adds, 'to the owner,' to indicate that the fine is paid to the property's owner and not to the bailee.

Nahmanides relates to a difficulty within the passage. Whereas in verses 6-8, the bailee is not liable to pay for property entrusted

2 The practice of referring to various authors, particularly medieval halakhic authorities and biblical commentators, by acronyms is quite widespread. Hundreds of such acronyms exist, and it is often difficult to know to whom they refer without referring to a lexicon of abbreviations. Among the most familiar acronyms are those mentioned here: Ra sh i-R. Shelomoh Yitzhaki; R a m b a n - R. Moshe hen Nahman; and R a m b a m - R. Moshe ben Maimon, Maimonides.

18

F.::oiodu~ XXJI. 5-8 .

.... , nol extend and cause d1m1ge. (I) ll'tt:i n•:,0 :im AND IT IlE STOLEN OUT OF

THE MAN'S HOUSE - i. t. according lo his stattment&), 0,,.,, rn:, .,ic· tH IF "rHE THIEF BE FOUND HE-the thief-SHALL PAY i:rlll' DOUBLE 10

the owner (to the bailor not to the bailee)'). (7) :ii,:, 11:to• 11', 011 IF THE THIEF BE NOT FOUND then this bailee - who is n•:,:i .,,, '"lhe owner of the house" fo,· tl,e time bting (since the bailTTW!nt i, then in hi■ possea,i11n although he is not really ils uwner) - 1h~II come, ',11 ,,i',, AND SHALL APPROACH UNTO THE o•:i',ic - thr. judge., to put hi, ca■e 1g1in!l the olm,r and to 1weu unto him that he hu not rut forth his handa agoiMt his propcrtyl). (8) i,11111 i:,, ',:, ',p FOR ALL

NOTES 1) l\a1hi me1m that ••11:, n•:io ~m is a •tatemenl made b1 the man: he says.

"h has been alofon from me". The words cannot mean ''if a man gives ~n article lo another lo mind and ii has admillcdly been stolen"'. For if this wne ""· !here is no rea,on why, in the e,·enl of the thief not being Jisrnvered, Scripture 1hould in,iat, in the nexl verse, thal the boilce should 131,.e an o•lh that l,c hu not converted it lo his own ,ne, 1ince ii b admitted that it has be.,n stolen from him.

') The Talmud divides bailees into lour elas,es: (1) 0.ll'I '1!>11:' "gratuitous bailee" (vv. 6-8): one who keeps challels on l,~hal( 0£ the bailor without receiving payment therdor. He himself may not use the articles entrusted lo hi, ch■rge. He tacitly agrees lo gu■rd the thing ~ntrustNI lo him with reHonlhle cue, and he is lial.,le for the want oC carr which e,·ery pru,lent man would, under

the circumalances, Ide of his own property. Thi, want 0£ due care is ct.ll•d :"lll'1111l. h ia nYUmcd U,at occul'l"tnccs 1uch II lholl a,Ml los, (:t1')Ml :,:,•ii) can h" l_{UardcJ n111i111I l,y the u10 oF an uerage dcgrte of dilig,mcn. ([ the bailee claims that thr article enlru11.ed lo hiin was eilhPr stolen or 10,1 and lhll it wu not due lo <"■relesmcu on hi• part, lie must lake an oalh lo sulr.,lanlinlo hi• dl'fl'nc1,. (2) ie111' ~=• "bailee for paymrnt" (,·.-. 9-12): one who tacitly u1l<lertokes tu fl'Uord the l,oilmenl penonally and continuously. lie tlterefore has lo prulecl the bailmeul with particular and personal care (cf. B. Mebio. 93 I,) ond is liable in c•te of lh!!Ft or loM. lie is nol, however, respon,il,le for accidtntal \o,s (1•0:n11), a·gain,t which he could not have guarded by the clegN!e of diligence expecled of him. (B) ',1001' "borrower" (n. 13-14 1): une to whom chattl'ls are lent gnti, for hi, own uae. In \hi, cue, since the bailmcnl is for IM bencJil or the bailee a lone, he is held lo be liable for 1011 from what11ver cau,e, eyen from accident (l'DJIJC). (C!. M. Jung, The Jewish Law of Tlu,£1, p. 40 fF.). (') i:n111 "hirer" (v. 14 b); where the bailee hires the chatt.els for his own u,e. His liability i, actorcling lo I\. Meit· the same H that of a c,n ii,1111; acoording lo Rabbi 1 ehuda Lhe same as that of 1 "'"' '\tl,111 (cf. B. Metsia 80 b).

Figure 2: Rashi's commentary on Exodus 22:6-7, The Pentateuch with Targum Onke/os, Haphtaroth and Prayers for Sabbath and Rashi's Commentary, translated by M. Rosenbaum and A. M. Silberman (London, reprinted frequently since 1930).

RAMilAN

so, then -- according to the opinion of the Sage who says 205 that a thief who broke into a house and took some of its vessels and

went out, is free from paying for them, because he acquired them

with "blood" 206 - we must say that the second half of the verse

which slates, he .fhall mahe restitution; if he have nothing, t:heii he

shall be sold for hfr theft., refers back lo a previous verse [i.e.,

Verse 37 in the precccding chapter]; zf a man steal an ox etc. A simila1· case is the verse, ,-Jnd also unto thy bondwoman thou shalt:

do likewise. 207

The plain meaning of the verse is known to be as follows: If a thief dug through into a home at dark, and was found there at night, he may be killed; but if the sun shone upon the thief and somet)ne saw him and recognized him, he may not be killed, but

he must pay for what he stole and took from there at daytime. The meaning of the term hashemesh (the sun) is "in the sight of

those who saw hirn." Similarly, in the sight of this sun 208 means "openly." The reason for this law is as we have mentioned, that one who comes at night will kill the householder, [and therefore the householder may kill him] , whilst one who comes at daytime will flee from him [ once he is recognized].

6. IF A MAN DELIVER UNTO HIS NEIGHBOR MONEY OR VESSELS TO KEEP. This section [Verses 6-8] speaks of an unpaid guardian, therefore He has freed him from payment in case the mone¥ or vessels arc lost or stolen, as is the Tradition of our Rabbis.

20 Scripture mentioned it without specifying what the

case is because those who guard money or vessels generally do so

{20:i) The op1111on is that of Rav {Sanhedrin 72 a). {206) Hacl he been found by the householder while still in the house and he were killed by him, the householder would be free from punishment. (207) Deuteronomy 15: 1 7. This is to be connected with Verse 14 there, which states that the master must present gifts to a manservant who goes out free, and here it slates that the same must also be done to a maidservant. But it docs not refer to the first half of that verse [ l 7] which speaks of the piercing of the ear of a manservant, since that law clo"s nol apply to a woman. (208) II Samuel 12:IJ. (209) Baba Mr.tzia 94 b.

Figure 3: Nahmanides'eommentary on Exodus 22:6, Ramban (Nachmanides) Commentary on the Torah, translated by R. Charles Chavel (New York, 1973).

EXODUS XXII, MISIIP ATIM

without reward. The second section [Verses 9-12] speaking of a

paid guardian mentions an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast, 210 because it is the customary way to give over cattle into

the hands of shepherds who pasture them for payment..

AND IT r.m STOLEN OUT OF TI-IE MAN'S HOUSE. Rasbi

explained it as meaning that it was stolen out of the man's house "according to his statement," meaning that this is what the unpaid

guardian claims. 211 Scholars have brought parallel cases in Scripture [ as proof to Rashi's explanation j. Tims: If there arise in the midst of thee a prophet; 212 Hananiah the son of Azzur the prophet, 213 for he is not referred to by that epithet ["prophet"] as a true description, but only because he claimed to be so. But there is no need for this. For Scripture is stating that if it was

really stolen out of the man's house and the thief be found, he shall pay double; and if the thief be not found, 214 they shall come to court and the guardian shall swear concerning the stolen

article whether he have not put his hand unto his neighbor's goods, 214 and he whom the court condemns as the thief of this article shall pay double,215 as the court will not convict anyone and make him pay double unless he stole it, since the law of twofold restitution applies only to a thief, as He said above, If the theft be found in his hand alive ... he shall pay double. 216

7. WHETHER HE HA VE NOT PUT HIS HAND UNTO HIS NEIGHBOR'S GOODS. In the opinion of Rashi this means that the guardian is to come before the judges to swear that he has not put his hand to his fellow-man's goods [i.e., that he is not guilty

(210) Verse 9. (211) It cannot mean that it was admittedly stolen, for then how could Scripture say in the next verse that if the thief was not found, the guardian must swear, since it is admitted that it was stolen from him? Hence the verse must mean that he claims it was stolen. {212) Deuteronomy 13 :2. The case there speaks of a false prophet. The term "prophet" must therefore be understood as "one who claims to be a prophet." (213) Jeremiah 28:1. [The reasoning is as in the previous Note.} (214) Verse 7. (215) Verse 8. (216) Verse 3.

21


to him, the bailee of verses 9-12 is. Nahmanides, based upon the Talmud (Baba Metzia 94b), reconciles this seeming contradiction by noting that the first case is that of an gratuitous bailee (shomer hinam) while the second is that of a hired bailee (shomer sakhar ). Since this is not readily apparent, N ahmanides explains that it may be inferred from the object of bailment in each case. Money and vessels (verses 6-8) are generally guarded for free, while cattle and sheep (verses 9-12) are usually entrusted to shepherds who pasture them for payment.

Reproduced below (Figure 4) is a page from the classical edition of the Hebrew Bible known as Mikra'ot Gedolot. It contains the commentaries of Rashi and N ahmanides as well as the Aramaic translation Targum Onkelos.

C. Translation of the Bible and Commentaries

The standard English translation of the Bible, The Holy Scriptures (Philadelphia, 1917), is that of the Jewish Publication Society. It employs the somewhat archaic style of the King James Version of 1611. The Holy Scriptures has been reprinted numerous times in various formats. A two volume version with Hebrew and English on facing pages was published for the first time in 1955.

In recent years, there have been a number of departures from the traditional style of the King James Version. The first of these was the Jewish Publication Society's new translation of the Pentateuch, The Torah (Philadelphia, 1962). This translation not only employs modern English, but also reflects recent advances in biblical scholarship. The Jewish Publication Society's new translation of the Prophets was published in 1978 and its new translation of the Writings (Hagiographa) in 1982. The three volumes were subsequently combined under the name Tanakh (Hebrew for Bible). Another modern English translation of the Pentateuch is The Living Torah (New York, 1981), by A. Kaplan. This translation reflects the traditional rabbinic interpretation of the text and contains brief explanations as well as maps, pictures, and diagrams.

22

[. Scripture

The commentaries of both Rashi and Nahmanides are available in English. The Pentateuch with Targum Onkelos, Haphtaroth and Rashi's Commentary, by M. Rosenbaum and A. M. Silberman contains a scholarly and thorough translation of Rashi 's commentary, as well as extensive notes. For those interested in developing facility in reading Rashi's commentary in the original, there exists an inter-linear translation, The Pentateuch and Rashi's Commentary (Brooklyn, 1949), by A. Isaiah and B. Sharfman. Both translations of Rashi have been reprinted many times and remain readily accessible (The Rosenbaum-Silberman translation of Rashi is shown

in Figure 2). Ramban (Nachmanides) Commentary on the Torah (New York, 1973) is C. Chavel 's translation of N ahmanides (Figure 3 shows

a sample of Chavel's translation).

Another useful, and extensive commentary on the Pentateuch is that of R. Samson Raphael Hirsch. R. Hirsch (1808-1888) wrote his commentary in German. The Pentateuch (New York, 1971) is Isaac Levy's translation to English.

There also exist a number of eclectic commentaries in English. The Pentateuch and Haftorahs (London, 1938), edited by the chief rabbi of Great Britain, J. H. Hertz, contains an extremely popular commentary along with useful essays on various biblical topics (an excerpt of the Pentateuch with Dr. Hertz's commentary is shown in Figure I). The Soncino Chumash, by A. Cohen is part of The Soncino Books of the Bible. It collects and summarizes the interpretations of the classic Jewish biblical commentators, including Rashi, Nahmanides, Seforno, Rashbam, and others.

D. Halakhic Midrashim

The biblical commentaries of the Second Temple period are the halakhic 3 Midrashim (sing. Midrash). These works seek to explain

3 Halakchic Midrashirn are distinguished from aggadic Midrashim (see below). The word ha/akchic derives from the Hebrew Halakhah, a term used to refer to the entirety of Jewish law.

23

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Figure 4: Exodus 22:6-12, Mikra'ot Gedo/of. Shown together with biblical text are the Aramaic translation of Onkelos, and the commentaries of Rashi and Nahmanides.

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and define the biblical commandments and to find scriptural sources or support for those laws practiced on the basis of oral tradition and not mentioned explicitly in the text. Halakhic Midrashim exist on four of the five books of the Pentateuch. Genesis, containing almost no legal material, has no halakhic Midrash. Three of the best known halakhic Midrashim are Mekhi/ta deRabbi Yishma'el on Exodus, Sifra (also known as Torat Kohanim) on Leviticus, and Sifrei on Numbers and Deuteronomy.

Above, we saw verse 13 of our biblical passage, 'If a person borrows from a friend and it breaks or dies ... , surely shall he pay.' From this verse, Mekhilta deRabbi Yishma'el concludes, based on the principle of inference from minor to major (kal vahomer ), that a borrower is responsible to pay the cost not only of property that has broken or died, but also of property lost or stolen (see

Figure 5). A second type of Midrash is the aggadic Midrash (Midrash

aggadah). Such collections are homiletic rather than legal and use the biblical text as a springboard for teaching wisdom and morality. The best known of these Midrashim are:

Midrash Rabbah. Collections of homiletical interpretations of the Pentateuch and the books of Esther, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Song of Songs, and Ruth (the five megillot). Each one is named for the book it interprets, e.g., Bereshit Rabbah, Esther Rabbah.

Midrash Tanhuma. A collection of homiletical interpretations of the Pentateuch attributed to R. Tanhuma, a fourth century Amara from Eretz Israel.

Yalkut Shimoni. A thirteenth century compilation of aggadic Midrash covering the entire Bible, assembled by R. Shimon haDarshan of Frankfurt.

E. Commandment Lists

According to an ancient tradition, the Pentateuch contains 613 commandments. Throughout Jewish history, various works have been written to catalogue and explain these commandments. Three such works are:

26

I. Scripture

Se/er haMitzvot, by Maimonides (R. Moshe ben Maimon), lists the commandments and divides them into positive and negative categories. Each commandment is briefly explained and its biblical source cited. (The excerpt reproduced in Figure 6 is from Positive Commandment 242: The Law of the Unpaid Bailee.)

Semag. The name Semag is an acronym for the words Sefer Mitzvot Gadol (The Great Book of Commandments). Semag was written by R. Moshe of Couey in the 13th century. It lists each commandment together with its biblical source and cites relevant teachings of the Talmud, Midrashim, Geonim, R. Alfasi, Rashi, Maimonides, and the Tosafot. Semag is one of the sources for halakhic rulings.

Se/er haHinnukh. Attributed to R. Aharon Halevi of Barcelona (13th century), Sefer haHinnukh lists commandments in their order of appearance in the Bible. The discussion of each commandment centers on four points: (I) biblical source and definition according to the Talmud; (2) rationale; (3) observance, as formulated by R. Alfasi, Maimonides, and Nahmanides; (4) application -when and where the commandment is operative and to whom it is addressed.

Sefer haHinnukh contains three commandments concerning bailees: commandments 57, 59 and 60, dealing with the obligation of the court (beit din) to adjudicate cases of gratuitous bailees, hirers, hired bailees, and borrowers (the excerpt in Figure 7 is from

Commandment 60).

27


127 TRACTATE NEZIKIN 16

And If a 1vfan Borrow Aught of I-Iis Neighbour. Scripture removes the borrower from the category of the bailee, treating his case as a subject by itself.

OJ His Ncif!,hbour. This tells us that the borrower is not liable unless he takes it out of the owner's territory.

And It Be Hurt or Die. I thus know only about that which is injured or dies. How about that which is captured? Behold you must reason thus: Here "dying" is mentioned and there (v. 9) "dying" is mentioned. Just as there when "dying" is mentioned the law regards being injured or captured like dying, so also here when "dying" is mentioned we should regard being injured or captured like dying. How about theft and loss? You can reason by using the method of kal va~iomer: If where one is not liable for death one is liable for theft and loss,9 is it not logical that here where one is liable for death one should surely be liable for loss and theft?

The Owner Thereof Not Being with It, He Shall Surely A1ake Restitution. If the Owner Thereof Be with It, Ile Shall Not Malw It Good. Scripture here tells us that if when it went out from the territory of the lender into the territory of the borrower, the owner was with it, even if only for a little while, the borrower is not liable. But if the owner was not with it the borrower is liable.

9 In the case of a bailee for hire.

Figure 5: Mekilta de-Rabbi Ishmael on Exodus 22:13, translated by Jacob Lauterbach (Philadelphia, 1935).

28

l. Scripture

ltl 1,P'fli Nn:>oo 127

:nn:m pnl , ii v , c v o w , N , N w , ' .:, , .10:!CV 'l.E):l J'lV ,,oN, 701Wil ,,::m ?N'HVil 85

UN'~1'W 1V .:J "n 1l'NW i'lO 1 i1 V i O V 0 .,mw,, rm i1J101 i171::ltv N?N ,, l'N J1 7J l N 1 :l Ill l l

77Jl-m iln'o TN:> ,oNJ 17 nnN '7i1 rJo il'l:llll

ili1:lW i1WV l?il? i1717JNi1 i7J1'0 i11.J i1J1'0 l'il' 90

il'l::lW illV}'J JN.:) ii717JNi1 iln,o 91:-t ill1'0.:) i1,,:iru,

,om, ,p J1iON J"lO ili:lNl i1::lll iln,o::, i171::ltlJ1

,:v ::i"n ill1'0i1 ,v ::i"n N?W o,po:i ON i10

1', ill1'7Jil ?V ::l"Mtv lN::,1 i1.:Jlli1 ?~n i1i::JNi1

.il::lllil ?:V1 i1i:1Ni1 ?JJ ::l"nllll N1i1 95

l'?V::l ON C?ll1' O?llllOV l'N l'?y::i nN:!C'll1 ,,,:,orv ::iin:,il i'lO c, rv, N, , o v nnN i1VW l?'.E>N ?N1tvi1 mtvi? ,Ntvlil n,rv,o

.::J"n C'?V:l:l N',lll 7l~EJ C'?V:l:l

,;,•~-•:i , ,•~ 0111 88-06 .'N ,!j':! o•;i 86-87 ,Oto .IV 8i-W,

,( 11ed) 'N ,'M Clltl '• .':l ,;,•:i; J:l':l un-99 ,0111 n1)/1:lW '• .'N

ilC , , [i1l1'0::J n,1:Jt'l i1'l:!t' i111J)1l-i111Z:1tm iTn'IJ jji,j 90-92

,0 [:l"nlrl 96 .7:> JN:1 "JN ??:l:l i1'1:lll1 J?il) i1,10Ni1 ill1'P ,?'NIVO:, ,nwtl [?NIVlilOll ,ON1 .1J [ONOG .::l"Mnlll' .,

29

POSITIVE COMMANDMENTS 242 AND 243

242 The law of an unpaid bailee

By this injunction we are commanded concerning the law of an unpaid bailee. It is contained in His words (exalted be He), If a

man deliver unto his neighbour money or stuff to keep, etc.1

The details of this law are explained in the ninth chapter of Baba Kamma, in the third chapter of Baba Mezia, and in the eighth chapter of Shevuoth.

No TE Speakfog of the law regarding the four kinds of bailees, Maimonides says:' The faimess of the law is evident. If one keeps the property of his neighbour for nothing, witho11t deriving therefrom any benefit for himself, and is only obliging his neighbo11r, he is free from all responsibility, and if any injury is done to the property, the owner alone must bear the loss' (Moreh Neb11chim III, 42). However, to be quit of liability the bailee must take an oath in every case of loss or damage that the mishap to the goods or to the beasts rntmsted to him was not caused by his neglect (B.M. 93a).

243 The law of a paid bailee

By this injunction \Ve are commanded concerning the law of a paid bailee and of a hirer, one law being applicable to both, as explained by the Sages, who say that three rules govern the four kinds of bailee.2 This injunction is contained in His words (exalted be He), If a man deli,,er :mlo his neislibour an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, etc. 3

All the details of this law are explained in the si.xth and ninth chapters of Baba Kamma, in the tbrd and sixth chapters of Baba Mezia, and in the eighth chapter of Shevuoth.

I Ex.XXII,6.

2 Shev. 49b. 'There nre four kinds of guard inn: an unpaid gua.rdia.n, a borro?.·ct, a paid guardian, and a hirer' (ibid.). One ruie tpplies to th~ Jut two.

3 Ex. XXII, 9.

Figure 6: The Commandments: Sefer Ha-Mitzvoth of Maimonides, Commandment 242, translated by R. Charles Chavel, (London, 1967).

l'OSITIVll COMMANDMENTS 244 ANO Z4-5

NOTB 'If one takes tu<1gcs for kccJ1it1g prol'rrty or pt1ys for 11si11g it, lie as well as tl1c 01v11tr profits tlrcreby: the loms must therefore be divided betww, tf1c111. It is do11e iu this marwer: tl,e bailee pays for a11y loss ca1utd tl,ro11gf1 111a11t of c<1re, uamely, wl,en tT,c property is stolen or lost; for tl,is happens only wl,e11 the bailee does not take s1!lficieut J1rw111tion. Tl,e owner, 011 the otf,er lumJ, bet1rs sud, losses as cannot be prtvc11teJ, if by accident tf1e t111i111al f"lf s "''" breaks its limbs, or is wried a111ay by nm,ed mm as f,ooty, or if it dies' (Moref1 Ncb11cl1i111 III, 42).

244 The law of a borrower

Dy this irtjunction we arc comm:mdccl concerning the kw of a borrower. It is contained in His words (exalted be He), If a 111011

borro1v a11gf1t of l1is 11eigbbo11r, etc.1

The regulations of this law :m: explained in the eighth ch:ipter of Baba Mczia and in the eighth chapter ofShevuoth.

NOTB 'He wl,o borrows a thing keeps it only for l,is 011111 r1Jva11ta,~c, u,/,ilst tl,e owner le11Js it to Mm to oblige l1im; he is tl,mfore rcspomibfe for everytl1i11g; a11y loss ill tl,c prol'crty 11111st be bome by tire borrower' (Morel, Neb11cl1i111 III, 42).

245 The law of buying and selling Dy this injunction we arc commanded concerning the l:tw of buying and selling; that is to say, the procedure by which a s:ilc is to be dfectcd between the vendor and the vcndce. This procedure h:is been learnt from His words (exalted be He), Ami if t/1011 sell 1111glrt tmto tlry r1cigl1bo11r, or buy of tl,y 11eigl,bo11r's /im,J, ctc.,2 which the Sages interpret as referring to 'a comtnodity purchased from h:ind to hand, that is to say, [acquired by the purchaser's act ofJ "drawing" [ to himself]' .l


jTHE C:OUl!T's ODUGATION TO JUDGE CASES INVOLVING

A MAN WHO llORHOWS AN ODJECT l'OR USE]

60 to judge the case of a borrower, i.e. a man who borrowed from

his fellow some object 0r domestic animal, the loan being without any payment at all, but merely because the other wished to act kindly

toward him by doing him this favor. Afterward, if a quarrel occurs

between them over the matter, we arc to judge the case between them.

For it is stated about this, as written in this sidrah, And if a mm, bcrm,11'S

n11ytlii1t.<!. .fi'o,11 liis 11c~<:hbor, etc. (Exodus 22: I 3). In the l:tw of the borrnv,1er, the Torah obligated !him! to pay even

ti.)r ;1ccidcnts, became it is under his responsibility, since he borrowed

it and spent nothing of his own for it. 1 Hence he is like a person who

borrows money, where, ifit is taken from him by force, he cannot be

quit of the loan by the plea of accident.

Now, about borrowing something together with its owner (Exodrn .n: 14), in which case he !the bc,rrower] is free of obligation,

we c11i say, according to the pbi11 111eaning [of the matter], that the

Torah did not oblig;1tc the borrower inasmuch as the owner of the object or the .111im;il is with hi111: For since he is there, let hilll watch his

own property. 2 It is true, though, that tlH: borrower is free of obligation even after the owner leaves, since he was there at the time it was

borrowed. However, it can be said in explanation of this th;it the Torah

did not wish to set limits in these matters and say: If the owner was

there at length, the borrower is free of obligation; and if but a short

time, he bears the obligation. Hence the Torah ordained generally

tliat as long as the owner w;is there at the time of the borrowing, he is

free of obligation.

This is the reason why our Sages of blessed memory said 3 that if

[the owner] was with him ;it the tin1e of the borrowing, even if he

was not •.vith him when breakage [of the object] or death [of the

animal! occum:d, he remains free of any obligation. However, if

!the ownl'r] was with him at the time of breakage or death, but had not

been with him at the time of the borrowing, he bears the obligation. For the nutter depends on the beginning of the transaction. And this very

reason will suffice us in regard to the hiring of the owner also, Ito explain] why he is free of o bligation.

Figure 7: Sefer haHinnuch, Commandment 60, translated by Charles Wengrou (Jerusalem, 1978).

II. MISHNAH AND TALMUD

A. Mishnah

The Mishnah is the first topical compilation of the Oral Law (Torah shebe'a/ Peh). It was completed around the year 200 C.E. by R. Yehudah haNasi. Although R. Yehudah haNasi's compilation was not the first of its type, it was his work that became recognized as authoritative, and was studied in the academies of Eretz Israel and Babylonia. The Sages quoted in the Mishnah are known as Tanna'im, a term derived from an Aramaic root word meaning both to study and to instruct. The Mishnah is written in Hebrew.

The Mishnah is divided, according to subject matter, into six large volumes known as orders (sedarim; sing. seder ). Shas, a commonly used Hebrew acronym for the Mishna, stands for 'the six orders of the Mishnah' (shishah sedarim). The orders are subdivided into smaller books known as tractates (masekhtot; sing. masekhet). The tractates are further divided into chapters (perakim; sing. perek), and the chapters are divided into numbered paragraphs, each one known as one mishnah (pl. mishnayot). The chapters of the Mishnah also have names, usually the first phrase or word of the chapter. The six orders of the Mishnah are: Zera'im (Seeds), Mo 'ed (Festivals), Nashim (Women), Nezikin (Damages), Kodashim (Holiness), and Teharot (Purity). Two of these orders are of general legal interest. Nashim deals with personal status, marriage, and divorce. Nezikin deals with torts, other aspects of civil law, criminal law, jurisdiction of the courts, and judicial procedure. Nashim contains seven tractates and Nezikin ten (see Figure 8).

References to the Mishnah furnish the name of the tractate and the numbers of the chapter and mishnah. Since the Mishnah also appears as part of the Talmud, a particular mishnah may also be cited according to its location within a talmudic tractate. For

33

TheMishnah

Six Orders or the Mishnah:

Zera'im (Seeds)

Mo'ed (Festivals)

Nashim (Women)

Nezikin (Damages)

Kodashim (Holiness) Baba Kama

Baba Metzia

Baba Batra

Sanhedrin

Chapters (Perakim): Teharot (Purity)

Makkot

Shevu'ot

Eduyot

Avodah Zarah

Avot

Horayot

8

lO

II

12

4

6

Mishnayot: I

2

J

2

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Figure 8: Diagram of the Mishnah showing division into tractates, orders, chapters, and mishnayot.

34

II. Mishnah and Talmud

example, the principle that bailee and bailor may stipulate the conditions of their relationship appears in the tenth mishnah of the seventh chapter of the tractate Baba Metzia. The same mishnah appears in the talmudic tractate Baba Metzia on the first side of the 94th folio, and thus may be cited: Baba Metzia 7: IO, referring to the location within the Mishnah, or Baba Metzia 94a, ref erring to the location within the Talmud. Sometimes to avoid confusion, M. is placed before citations from the Mishnah. The title of each tractate may be abbreviated (see Appendix II). The standard abbreviation for Baba Metzia is BM.

The subject of bailees is found mainly in seder Nezikin, masekhet Baba Metzia, the third perek, known also by the name haMafkidthe first word of the first mishnah. Two of the standard English translations of the Mishnah are: The

Mishnah, by Herbert Danby, which contains explanatory notes and appendices, and Mishnah, by Philip Blackman, with punctuated and vocalized Hebrew text as well as commentary in English (see

Figures 9 and 10).

B. Commentary on the Mishnah

Many commentaries have been written on the Mishnah. The best known of the classic commentaries are listed below:

Commentary of Maimonides on the Mishnah. This is the first commentary to cover the entire Mishnah. Maimonides ( 1135-1204) began writing his commentary while living in Spain and completed it in Egypt. It explains each mishnah and presents the halakhic ruling. The Commentary on the Mishnah was originally written in Arabic and translated to Hebrew not long after its publication. It is printed at the back of each volume in all standard editions of the Talmud and has been translated into modern Hebrew by R. Yosef Kapah.

Commentary of R. Ovadyah of Bertinoro. R. Ovadyah (1450-1510) was born in Bertinoro, Italy, and later settled in Eretz Israel. His commentary, perhaps the most widely used, is succinct and clear,

35

nAnA MF,TZIA

3. I. 1f a man ]cit a beast or utensils in his fellow's kecpingff and they were stolen or lost, and his fellow himself made restitution and would not take an oath (for they have taught: An unpaid guardian may take an oath and be quit ofliability), the thief, if he is found, must make twofold restitution, and if he had killed or sold [the sheep or the ox] he must make fourfold or fivefold restitution. Whom does he repay? He with whom the property was deposited. If his fellow would not make restitution but took an oath, the thief, if he is found, must make twofold restitution, and if he had killed or sold [the sheep or the ox] he must make fourfold or fivefold restitution. Whom does he repay? The owner of the property deposited.

2. If a man hired a cow from his fellow and lent it to another, and it died a natural death, the hirer must swear that it <lied a natural death, and the borrower must repay [its value] to the hirer. R. Jose said: Why should that other traffick with his fellow's cowl-but, rather, the [value of the) cow is returned to the owner.

3. If a man said to two others, 'I have robbed one of you of 100 zuz and I do not know which of you it is', or 'The father of one of you left 100 zuz in my keeping, and I do not know whose father it was', he must give each of them 100 zuz since he himselr admitted liability.

4. If t.wo men deposited money with a third, the one 100 Ztl.Z, and the other 200 zuz, and one afterward said, 'The 200 ziiz is mine', and the other said, 'The 200 zi1z is mine', he should give roo zuz to each of them, and the rest must be suffered to remain until Elijah comes. R. Jose said: But if so, what does the deceiver lose ?-but, rather, the whole is suffered to remain until Elijah comes.

5. So, too, [if two men deposited] two things,one worth 100 zuz and the other 1,000 zuz, and one afterward said, 'The better one is mine', and the other said, 'The better one is mine', he should give the thing of lesser worth to the one, nnd to the other the value of the thing of lesser worth taken from [the value ofJ the thing of greater worth; and the rest must be suffered to remain until Elijah comes. R. Jose said: But if so, what does the deceiver lose ?-but, rather, the whole is suffered to remain until Elijah comes.

6. If a man left produce in his fellow's keeping, his fellow may not touch it even if it perishes. Rabban Simeon b. Gamaliel says: He may sell it before a court of law; since he may be accounted one that restores lost property to its owner. 1

7. If a man left produce in his fellow's keeping, his fellow 2 may exact of him these reductions: for wheat and rice nine kabsl and a half to the kor;~ for barley and durra nine kabs to the lwr; for spelt and linseed~ three seahs to the kor-in proportion to the quantity and according to the length of time.5 R. Johanan b. Nuri said: But what concern have the mice [with quantity and time] 16 will they not continue eating whether the quantity is large or small!-but, rather, he may exact of him a reduction only from a single kor. R. Judah says: If the quantity was great he may not exact of him any reduction, since the produce increases in bulk [such time as it is stored].

Figure 9: Mishnah Baba Metzia 3:1-2, The Mishnah, translated by Herbert Danby (London, 1933).

BADA METZIA 31,2,3

he no longer has it he pays twice its value. The thief is thus obliged himself to suffer the loss he intended to inflict on his neighbour. 3 Compare M1f2 N~~ 71. Fourfold for a lamb and fivefold for _an ox (the penalty for an ox being greater because its owner had been deprived of the value of its labour). Exodus 21, 37. 4 By paying for the baihnent he acquires all rights in it and thus restitution for its theft is due to him. 5 Thus the original owner retains the ownership and restitution ,s due to him.

Mishnah 2

If one hired1 a cow from his fellow and lent it to another, and it died a natural death, the hirer must swear that it died a natural death, and the borrower must repay [its worth] to the hirer.2 R. Jose3 said, How can this be? Why should this man' do business' with his fellow's cow? [The value of] the cow must therefore be restored to the owner.

CJ?lV' ':iNiWi11 ,r1::>1,::, ill:i~IV .. -: .. -: T ;-: T.,,_.

? ,~,, ,o;,• ,;;i, ,mt ,,:iift,· _ .. , •• •- -T .• -

':itv iniD:l ;nine· niVil' il':iil' •; TT ; T : "; TT

,c,,,.,::i, ;,,~ iimn N'l'N 1ii:m ' T : - TT -: - T '." •• -:

1 A hireris not liable for damage due to an unpreventable accident. 2 Compare 78. A borrower is liable for loss or damage in all circumstances. 3 His view is accepted. 4 ll?v (traditional pronunciation :,?1:1) is a term mostly used in legai° proceedings to designate 1M pmon con&emed. 5 Make profit out of property which is not his own but his fellow's.

Mishnah 3

If one said to two persons, 'I have robbed one of you of a maneh,1 but I do not know which one* of you,'3

or [if he said to them], 'The father of one of you has deposited a maneh in my keeping, but I do not know' whose father', he must give a maneh to one and a maneh to the other, as he himself admitted the liability.5

l i1l!V7.l T: •

't~J r1~7t ''? ,,R~::r c?~ io~ i1!,7) rl~7i il!f nJil ,N~il ii],'~ ~n,i"

•i7.l¥~ ,~~ n1i:,~• :,~'t 1 1 :,~~ = 100 nT (see C'~"l!, Page 18f.). 2 :ii '15 arc often combined into one word ilf ~ or :,l~- 3 And these are also in doubt. 4 And he was also uncertain. 6 Strictly according to the law he is liable to pay one maneh only which the other two parties should divide, hut here he wants to clear his conscience of any obligation.

Figure JO: Mishnah Baba Metzia 3:2, Mishnayoth, translated with notes by Philip Blackman (New York, 1963).


explaining each mishnah, and in instances of dispute, noting which opinion is followed.

Tosejot Yom Tov. This commentary, by R. Yorn Tov Lipman Heller of Prague (1579-1654) relates mainly to the commentary of R. Ovadyah of Bertinoro, enlarging upon it and examining the latter's conclusions. The two commentaries are usually printed together.

Tiferet Yisrael. The commentary of R. Yisrael Lipschuetz of Germany (1782-1860). It is divided into two parts, Yakhin and Boaz (the names given to the twin pillars of the Temple). Yakhin gives an explanation of the plain meaning of the text, while Boaz explores topics in depth. Relevant halakhic decisions are listed at the end of each chapter.

Mishnah Baba Metzia 3:2 (reproduced in Figure 11) deals with the case of one who hired a cow and lent it to another. Under normal circumstances, a hirer is exempt from damages for an animal that dies a natural death while in his possession. A borrower, on the other hand, is not. Thus, if the animal dies while in the borrower's possession, the question of compensation arises. Whom is the borrower obliged to compensate, the hirer or the owner? The question occasions a disagreement among the Sages of the Mishnah. R. Ovadyah of Bertinoro comments that the hirer's loan of the animal must have been with the consent of the owner, for had it not, the law would have been different. He also points out that Rabbi Y osi 's is the accepted opinion, that is to say that restitution must be made to the owner (cf. section 5(b) and section 7 of

Bailees Law, 5727-1967; see Appendix I).

Among contemporary Hebrew language commentaries to the Mishnah, the best known are Hanokh Albeck's Shishah Sidrei Mishnah and Pinhas Kehati's Mishnayot Mevo'arot. Albeck's commentary, which is based on academic studies of the Mishnah, contains an introduction to each tractate, with reference to its biblical sources. Kehati's work, an extensive commentary based upon the Talmud and classical commentaries and written with exceptional clarity, has become extremely popular. It is also

38

:i•D"llii D}7 "" • ,p1» }c: }:,:, ·"i"'">1 pi, "lDfi Mi,, or, 1i,pi,n11 ,c~ : ,, :i, r,}c: f,),1;1 :,, »,:;!> Mc i,,:i, cfl c'i', • ulh 117p1>.-ir; •c', : ~01• •p,m • fi,,, ,,, c}::} FM, • c>,:; h} u•,n, • :,.,,~er, );, ti>p c}i;, i''" . ,~:rN )i, r,p:i ml):i h:,•c: o•}i,:i} ,-,> m•,, Jm) 1:i> 6,o D} • o•n,5i;r, ):, o,p • o}_c:n ,,..,_, I'' "'" "lDli:: 110, ,5 ti"l'O"' f>•;, ,-,:,, ,me };:; t,;,} n>i,:, }!):, p~ fio•:;; r,,i, ,:m11n ,:l : :,er,r,, :,i,;r,f, 'Jl1)c:r, for; M1 . }!l:> •m}c;r, . r,p u o}c:•1 .:mi, ot,c: p !'.I'll :'l}•f,:;:,, .,,,c: ,,,l), • ,,,:me mil ,t!"lCDll t!1'C:D8 ,5 C)~"l ;,")!:) t,:,r,c: N:tt.:)l ,(, N:tl"I V=>lt'l CY'l ,~,rz, ,~K ll'l> f,) of,::; .,,,c:i,;i r>1Ci"l!l ")r,t,) • ,,,, o}c:} ::is, t,~1 V~l : hiDl c•~o, roe:, , ',!);:i 'O)',tvn c,ruc c, ::iJJ:, ;mi; J} Pl'l''i' n,, .m::, ,.,::mi 1> :iD> 6!>'0 1:i i'''"> tov, ti"l1fi,} "C? nrv~, /"ll)!l"\"'1 'Oi?'On c',e,r;:, ,,:w:n, p:i,v1 : ,,v, .,m:;> "l07':: :i:,,i, f>> o>c: 6» P." firiw •} K,, v~~ l ,<n ,,iM piotnru 10', c','1/Jo ,,i:ti:: "'""' ::--,,,, :,r,i,:;.;•:im> c•~i, >m:i p.,!l, ,_,.,,_. f>>•ri, :,,; ,::,i',run cht?-•c :m:, ~'lCt:ll (1>"'?W? i1'lCi 61:ii:; • ~11,wm : jtmh;, l!' ,,i::, i,:,m o,.,, ,,,., P"'1 (n"p ~7] r.. c..' • L,,; L .iDu::,. "l::i1c;> o>:r,110m, ,..,, >,, c}:D l)l,') .,,,., ,.,,,,, c,)::;1 i13'.:ri."'I ,Ct,wn 07t,t) .,~~, n::,r::, • 7E:I:) -~, ,~N : ')>;CD) Ji:s:, (,~ ,)b o)~ i:!S"l Mi 61l»1'i"lDt::) : r,,pi,:, ,v:i, cb~r.:, •t:b ':itV~m .'1:i1 ;,,,no )'l~1Jlr1~i1 ,:i,, ,.,,, ,•i,f, P" ')l'lli c):s) :,j, . (,;, c• ""tiK? :,;,N~i'1, ,,•:inc i1"1!> ,:i,tt'n :l Q•lW~ "ICM ,.'I : '01' .,,, :i,):,1 ;,r, l')t>l • f,}•t>::i :,,) ''P" i,:,c:,;; l'IMC!t' (!i' -oitt':i v=>IZ)' (M' ;,:i,,:, i1M01 0'1':111'1 ~•f> 0:,) .030 ,nM •ri'm :~Cl' •p1i,•,,f>:i">::> f,p:,}:,1 ."30 01) •oi• 1'N .,:,-w', o,~, (,•',N1~•;,; ;;:,,,::i ,,, r,(,5) lil t,,:, w, . 01)::, ,) :,:, p,t:i,) • -,r,(,} rl,•NtO:,i :l ii.•:,n ',I?' in"l!):, :'l1"i'10 iil!-'i]) :,',:, iy•:, • ;,,n i:11}1 0)1) .;,r} jlll) • 0,n;; • .,,,c:> c',it• : '"1:1, • lP"l~:; "'' , ; , 1'".•'- c.. 1.. )mi ;,im, ,:i,i,;ipi; o•>;; ):if> i,J;;> fn:,c :,i,)J::, :,•,o fie) C lte-' ~K ,.'1,tru 73l:!7 :'11E:i 'illMn N7N ·~i:: c:,n ;r,f, )::> 1'JC' C:,D ;r,M ,,p,1i;, ,Iii, :,i,11>, • .,..,i;r,} Ml'K v-n• 'l'Nl • iil~ o,r::i .,,.,"I; "Z1',1J )p . ,:,;,1 • ;,,p• (,)1 l>ll'lr:i' Ii) l''i'Otl 11i1• 'l'Ni , ("' i1lC .., i'j'E:il"I , 0:)0 "1MN 'I?' 1':)N '11-C ('C ~:,t:i ,,,r, r,,J .,,} ,i,t, . h,m, Iii,+, : ,,, ioirv '!lt:1 m,iw :,J~ n1,, mo nt, 1n1l . <m Hi.'1 /"ll'N ')i' •6n, .,,,;; ,,,,, "31'1) r'6 .,, .,,,:: r,-,:,o ,i, .i•) ,no .>inci ,,.,, fi,,, fin>P:::ri fofn .f,i,i,u::; ~;, i,,6 h ,-,::,,c:) -,,:,t;i, ;,•) fm•>1 • ;,l),:,::;:, • i:l'?D •fl;,) "':;1~1 , ll'J;, }1'3 )c; lllDi 0'!ltl) •'J::> Olll3Cil .["'> !'O>lfiD ')ll't> f>tlli •)!)l)J •''i'l1 f,r:, ;,r,,i, lllll;J') .;,) 1>p'J f>1;, ;,p,:,:;3 "'C:"l'!):J ,•,;,) U i:1)"11) C)Clj\jD f,r,r:,i,~ ,t, ')3tn • ,•i:, . ;,:, ll1't:t> .,Dli• h)li lP1''7 r:,~;,) .. ,.,tm) 1'.J:l) f>!.lti l;>l)OC:3 )'' • ;,i,13;;, ••i;, C:"''"' 1:m•1 :i,:;;r,::, c:,,,,) ,•,::i vP'l'll>-11 .,,,i:r,) ,,::;) fi1:i:; ::,i,1:ic:, .,,,, o,,., fr,m ::,:, JJ)g' Mi t• 01) -,,:,:;n:, r'I 'l'XI .'l?llD:I D11'l1}:;:., o..f>ri:i 1},(,:; ;:,,c: :11::m 0\C:1l •'')7 f>Dll);) . 'e1 :,};, iS,:, 'Cl' ,-, "lCN : [~!)0:;1 O•));)I);) }:;) t,1,-i )m )};i;: '1'l 7Df> » SIJti1 '1::, \:ilU:;t)i;: 0')Cl ).)(, :,''):, ;)p:, .'l:)\ •f)~l 0'>,;;) "'lt:H ., : c:•(,;o . }f11:;;, i'j)!>:i •:,f, '01 IPJr>:: ,, pD''-> c:"m • ,., -[n"n ',] o•i,:,c;x, ):; p-», i,•,r;;~ :,mn::i :,i,,,c:, Mt, 1•)1)1> J'6c: • l"l~ M:; l'l'l•;r,i,:, f,:,, • '01 •nipD:i ~Ii .,,,,,,, ;Dh ):, ,i,:ir, ,r, :,•:, ),6 .',:,1 •,t, u,'"' ,,,, i:p> '1~1 ,,:,t, pr, J'Mrir,, oi:r, '01 .,,,,, r,•ti1 ·i'"" f>il'l' '!l ·, .,,::;n, t"1'' • ~ ''"' ~, ,,,:i ,, ,::i .. ,;n ,;r-ri::i::, 1ip1, ""'c: . ml1l n:i•'1 ,•,:i. f:;'ltlll ,,,p>, '1DID1 npn •ii:::, ,., l"'l'l • p)r,;,m P'''' n1m:i .,,, r,,m;; ,, • ., .,,,,n rni,:,•1 1"~!l '1 . ci>::D:i •i,:m;i: r,pm> 11'7i't> r,,:; irifi ):,fj •11,1 c:,n wh )ll 1•:>fi m : i'"' Ii),, Pl:l'D •1;, l"' .,,,t,) f>•:::: 11;pe:, ::i•t,c;n • p'l'I>) ::,•> ::,1,-, (,)1 • .,,,, i,•,,m:c}

c,n 1 ~,ttJ ,!,:,t "' ,~.,:> )i, ;• J ,,o:ic 1•,n'JJ1 n"1> '' ci,;n, :)•,,):, "'1t> • ., ('11

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l'l'

Figure 11: Traditional text of Mishnah Baba Metzia 3:2 with the commentaries: R. Ovadyah of Bertinoro, Tosefot Yorn Tov, and Yakhin of Tiferet Yisrael.


available in pocket-sized soft cover volumes. Several tractates of Mishnayot Mevo 'arot have been translated into English. So far, the whole of the order Nezikin, as well as several other tractates, have appeared. (Figure 11 reproduces the rnishnah, Baba

Metzia 3:2, mentioned above, printed together with the traditional commentaries.

Figure 12 shows a translation of the same rnishnah together with the commentary of Pinhas Kehati).

C. Tosefta

In the Talmud, there also appear tannaitic citations whose source is not the Mishnah. These citations are known as baraitot (sing. baraita). The word baraita is derived from the Aramaic for •external.' Thus, a baraita remained external, outside the Mishnah. Shortly after redaction of the Mishnah, many baraitot were also assembled in various collections, the best known of which is the Tosefta. The arrangement of the Tosefta parallels that of the Mishnah; it is divided into the same six orders and generally into the same tractates.

The baraitot of the Tosefta shed additional light on the rules cited in the Mishnah and contain many regulations that the Mishnah omits. Thus, Tosefta Baba Metzia 3: 1 prohibits a bailee from entrusting his charge (pikadon) to another bailee (see Figures

13 and 14). This regulation is absent from the Mishnah. The Tosefta is printed in the back of each volume of standard

editions of the Talmud and also in a one volume (critical) edition edited by M. S. Zuckermandel (see Figure 13).

In recent years, the orders Zera'irn, Mo'ed, Nashim, and the tractates Baba Kamma, Baba Metzia, and Baba Batra, of the order Nezikin of the Tosefta have appeared in critical editions with extensive commentary by Saul Lieberman. The work is divided into two parts. The text of the Tosefta is published in one volume along with variant readings, cross-references, and a short commentary. Lieberman's extensive commentary, entitled Tosejta Ki-Fshutah is printed in separate volumes but parallel to the text.

The entire Tosefta has been translated into English, by Jacob Neusner (see Figure 14).

40

BAVA METZIA CHAPTER 3

MISHNAH 2

l.!:HU" - ;:i::,11:::, :,ni':)~ , ,mt, ;,,.,Nw:1, ,,::mo ;,19 i:>i\v:i - T • T I - : T •• •• - : T • : • t •• -: •• TT •• -

: 'Oi" "::l1 iT.JN: .1:>ilU7 O?W' 7Niw:i, ,;,:,11:::> ;,n~w 1:l'ilUil •• "" - - T •• - •• - ; "' - : T : - : T •• •.• •• -

:,is;, ,,mn N?N ? ,,:m ,w in,o:i :,iino :-'ftvil7 :1,:1 1l':> T T - -1 - T •.• •' -: •.• TT : T ; •: T - - ••

.O"?l.!:l? • T t -

If one hired a cow from his fellow and lent it to another, and it died a natural death. the hirer must take an oath that it died a natural death, and the borrower must repay to the hirer. Rabbi Yose said, How can this one do business with his fellow's cow? The cow must therefore be returned to the owner.

Kehati

:i,D ,:nu,:, If one hired a cow from his fellow - in order to do work, in exchange for rental money, and the hirer - lent it - without payment - to another - to use during the rental period. The Gemara explains that the hirer lent it with the owner's permission; e.g., the owner of the cow told the hirer, "If you want to loan it during the period of your rental, I do not mind" (Rashi); if this were not the case, the law would be that of a custodian who gave it over to another custodian, who is obligated to pay. :,n~, And it died a natural death - while with the borrower; in such a case, the borrower is liable, and the hirer is exempt, the hirer must take an oath - to the owner of the cow - that it died a natural death - and is thereby exempt from paying, since the hirer is exempt from paying for damages caused by circumstances beyond his control, and the borrower - who is liable, even for damages caused by circumstances beyond his control (as has been explained in the introduction to this mishnah) - must repay to the hirer - the money for the cow, since, from the time that that it died, it left the possession of its owner, and entered the possession of the hirer (Gemara). ,o,, ':l., ,~N Rabbi Yose said, How can this one do business with his fellow's cow? -How is it possible that the hirer will profit, receiving the money for a cow which was not his? The cow must therefore be returned lo the owner - i.e., the hirer must pay the price of the cow to its owner. Rabbeinu Asher explains Rabbi Yose's reasoning: it is as if the hirer was acting as the owner's agent when he lent the cow to the borrower; the owner of the cow therefore has a legal dispute with the borrower himself. The law is in accordance with Rabbi Yose's opinion.

Figure 12: Mishnah Baba Metzia 3:2, The Mishnah - A New Translation with a Commentary, by Pinhas Kehati (Jerusalem, 1987).

'KW, ;2orv:, .. ;, ,•::iw:,, 'Nit', ,:mzm "'' ''Mtti:i, 'Kit', ?N\lt'M l'k 1 ~ !,11M r,,p1>:i, 'Nlt'i ,,iitt l1"1plm,:, :,1 N;, ''Nrv:i, 'Ntui ,:mt•:, N,1 ,,:,ii,:,; M!U.)l1 M:::llll; ,,,:,nc n,E) ,Nllt'il 2 :nn11, n,::,., ,v:1 ,, 1n, l::> CK ic,ic inK c,w :u.:m MW.l ,, inl!n c,111 iiizrK,; m,:ii,c ,t),;tm, ~z::> ,c,,rvn c,1t10 :m "lCNi :,:1JJJ1 ,,,:in ;ii.te :,,o "l'pF)o:, 3 :'J'='' '~m ':l1N 1c,,rz,n1 !,I):, •01,111n ,z:,,,ivn, ,,:i ·,TVn o,TVo ::m:, x1cJ 7:i "lMNl mn:i!P' Mb ,, c~wo '.l'i:"'I :,;:,

'tmt :,n :i:iJJJ 7r.1rvi::, 'oix :,1 :,::,mi ,,,:in, :i,E) i:m.,:,' : 'l'iti' 'cm 'J1K

:l"M 'JM ,J,;!); Cit v,,, 'J'Kl :l"n 1.lN me iClMM ~ :ip,,n, :,:mJ 7nllt'i!I •n,u C'llt'; 10.ICl lCYV '!)b il1l:-TIV :,Jo :,1!,1 mo :-n, 1nu ;)"M ,,H 1Jl;!); CK

C'MNO :n, inll c::,c nNt v,,, 'J'Nl c•rutc c::,c "!MM nM1 :,JI:) c:ic "TMK nK ,,ru c•nNO 'OiN :,n ,,w c•nKC 'DlN i1T plnlt', ,; :,,:, "'' Ck C'nl<C ilt,1 C'lttf & : Ci'!' l'!l 1"1itUEI llt'V'!tt -n, c:i, in• "' iKlllill i'Ut;') n,,, :,Jt) n,; inu n11 ,,ru c•nxD •o,~ m :iv1:1nn J'lVTV:J c•nxo :,n :,Jo :,1 inK ,~N 1-i•pE:ilt' ,n,,K Kl:J'IU '1l/ nm:) K:i• iNtt1:i1 :,JC ,,,;, :,Jt) :,,; 1nu '?t.lf c•ntto 101K ,:i, ll'11?K Nl:l'IV "IV nJlO 2t:i• !,:,:, 2e,K •xt:11:i , 1c1i:, :,0 ,, CK ,c,, ,, 'CK

nN 1nu ''=-' l'l!l, ,o,K illl ,;=-' :,!'), "lClK m ,,~? ,nx, ,m "!Mk C'~::m 'JIU Ml:l'C' -rv nm~ x:,• ixwm ,,,~, l~P ,~, 1n11 ,m:i 71nr::,, 0:,0 imc, ,,~p:, K1:l,lt' ,V MJ\t:) x:,, ;::,:, M;K lKtl'1i1 '1'CEli1 :'10 ,, CK 'Cl' 'i ioK 1i1''2t

,v:i 1:i,£1; cn:i VJ, x!:i 11,:inc li1 ,;,!)Ml ,,•:in !:iit2t m,,o , 1pE10:i, : 1:,1!,,c

Figure 13: Tosefta Baba Metzia 3: I, Zuckermandel edition (first published 1881).

BABA MESIA

3:1 A. One who borrows has no right to lend out, B. and one who hires has no right to rent out, C. and one who borrows has no right to rent out, D. and one who hires has no right to lend out, E. And the one with whom these things are left as a bailment has no

right to leave them as a bailment with someone else, F. unless the householder [who owns the objects] has given him permis

sion to do so.

Figure 14: Tosefta Baba Metzia 3:1, The Tosefta: Neziqin, translated by Jacob Neusner (New York, 1981).

42


D. Talmud

For some 300 years - approximately 200-500 C.E. - after the Mishnah's redaction, Jewish scholarship was devoted primarily to the study, clarification, and application of this pivotal work. The scholars of this period are known as the Amora'im and the fruit of their labors is the Talmud (pl. Talmudim), also known by its Aramaic name Gemara. Although the Talmud is printed as a running commentary on the Mishnah, it is actually much more than a commentary. It is a wide ranging, in-depth discussion of every law of the Mishnah. The Talmud investigates the rationale and biblical sources for the laws of the Mishnah, discovers and reconciles contradictions, and settles residual legal problems by applying the principles of the Mishnah to cases not included. The Talmud also contains a fair amount of non-legal or 'aggadic' material.

The talmudic discussion incorporates the legal dialogue of the study halls of Eretz Israel and Babylonia, and for this reason often includes matter not directly connected to the Mishnah. Sometimes the discussion concludes with a decision. When it does not, decisions may often be found in the commentaries of R. Yitzhak Alfasi (Rif) and R. Asher ben Yehi'el (Rosh; on Rosh and

Rif. see pp. 77, 79 below).

As mentioned, the Mishnah is printed together with the Talmud, each mishnah followed by the relevant discussions. Within the talmudic text, each individual mishnah is designated by the Hebrew ''ln~. an abbreviation of the word matnitin, 'our Mishnah.' The text of the Talmud begins with the bold letters 'r.)l, an abbreviation of Gemara.

There are in fact two Talmudim, the Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi, compiled in Eretz Israel, and the Babylonian Talmud or Talmud Bavli. The Babylonian Talmud was completed around the year 500, and is generally considered to be clearer, more complete, precise, and comprehensive than the Jerusalem Talmud. Babylonian Jewry of the period lived under a relatively

43


sympathetic regime at a time when the creative development of the Jews of Eretz Israel was severely hampered by the persecutions of the hostile Byzantine Christians. The Jerusalem Talmud was completed around the year 400, but remained essentially unknown outside Eretz Israel for the next 400 years. While numerous commentaries have been written on the Babylonian Talmud, no comprehensive commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud was written until the nineteenth century. Owing to the factors mentioned, the Babylonian Talmud was recognized as the authoritative source of Jewish law and continues to be the better known and more frequently studied of the two Talmudim. Decisions are based on the Jerusalem Talmud only in cases where it is not directly contradicted by the Babylonian Talmud.

Both Talmudim are written in Aramaic mixed with Hebrew. A number of tractates have been translated into modern Hebrew, and the entire Babylonian Talmud has been translated into English (see below, p. 50).

The pagination of the Babylonian Talmud may seem a bit strange at first to modern readers. Each leaf, or folio, i.e., two sides, is numbered, with the respective sides designated as a and b. Citations note the tractate name, folio number, and side. In all references to classical Jewish sources, numbers are indicated by Hebrew letters, each of which has a numerical equivalent. In some references, one dot following the folio number indicates side a, while two dots indicate side b (e.g.,-~~ means 41a and ::i, means 32b).

To distinguish them from references to the Babylonian Talmud, references to the Jerusalem Talmud are preceded by one of several possible abbreviations: J, TJ, Y, or TY. Since pagination is not uniform, references to the Jerusalem Talmud cite the name of the tractate, the chapter, and the mishnah to which the passage in question is connected. Sometimes they include folio references to either the Venice or Vilna edition. In practice, the mishnayot of the Jerusalem Talmud are referred to as halakhot (sing. halakhah).

Reproduced here (Figure 15) is a page of the Babylonian Talmud. It is referred to as Baba Metzia 36a. This annotation means that it is the first side of the 36th folio of the tractate Baba Metzia. No

44

Figure l5: Baba Metzia 36a, Babylonian Talmud (Vilna edition). ►


preceding abbreviation is needed, since, unless otherwise noted, standard talmudic references are to the Babylonian Talmud. The passage discusses the liability of a bailee who entrusts his charge to another. Although the passage of the Tosefta cited above (Figures

13, 14) establishes that a bailee is not permitted to transfer property entrusted to him to another bailee, it does not detail the legal consequences of such an action. The Talmud examines this issue through a disagreement between Rav and Rabbi Yohanan as to whether a bailee who entrusts his charge to another is liable for damages: 'A bailee who entrusts his charge to another bailee: Rav holds that he is exempt. Rabbi Yohanan holds that he is liable.'

E. Talmudic Commentary

1. Commentary on the Babylonian Talmud In all traditional editions of the Babylonian Talmud, the two main commentaries, Ras hi and Tosaf ot, are printed on either side of the text.

Rashi. Rashi has become the standard commentary on the Talmud. It is a clear, succinct, and comprehensive work that covers almost the entire Babylonian Talmud.

Since Rashi's comments open with the word or phrase to be explained, they are cited first by tractate, folio, and side, and finally by the opening word, known in Hebrew as the dibbur hamat 'hil, and abbreviated ;"!"1, or in English, s. v. On Baba Metzia 36a (Figure

IS), Rashi, s.v. Rav amar patur (Rav holds exempt), explains that according to Rav's opinion, the bailee who has entrusted his charge to another is exempt from liability for anything from which he would normally be exempt had he not entrusted the property to another. On the opinion of Rabbi Yohanan, Rashi, s.v. Hayyav (Liable), observes that according to Rabbi Yohanan, the bailee is liable even in cases of force majeure, although he would have been exempt had he not entrusted the object of bailment to another.

46


Tosajot. The second gloss printed alongside the text of the Talmud is known as Tosafot - literally, additions - for although these comments are independent creations, they are considered to be additions to the commentary of Ras hi. The scholars of I 2th and 13th century France and Germany analyzed the Talmud using its own method of dialogue and discussion. The Tosafot record such discussions which focus not only on the Talmud itself but also on the comments of Rashi. As mentioned, the text of the Talmud is framed by the commentaries of Rashi and the Tosafot, Ras hi forming the inside column of every page, the Tosaf ot the outside. Like the comments of Rashi, the Tosafot are cited by tractate, folio, page, and opening word or phrase.

The comment in Tosafot, Baba Metzia 36a, s.v. Rav amar patur (Figure 15) questions the opinion of Rav that the baliee is exempt, citing a mishnah from Gittin 29a, according to which it seems clear that a bailee is forbidden to entrust property to another. The Tosafot answer that the bailee's violation does not necessarily occasion liability.

A page of Talmud also contains three systems of cross reference, all of which were compiled by R. Yehoshua Boaz, a Spanish exile who settled in Italy in the 16th century:

Ein Mishpat-Ner Mitzvah is printed on the upper outside corner of the page. Since the codes written after the Talmud do not follow its order, Ein Mishpat - Ner Mitzvah refers the reader to the code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Semag, Tur, and Shu/han Arukh, each one a legal work which may be consulted in order to determine the final ruling in the case being discussed. The Ein Mishpat - Ner Mitzvah is keyed to the Talmud by small superscript letters which are normally printed adjacent to any statement which has become accepted as authoritative. Thus, a rough indication of the final ruling is available even without consulting the codes. References to the code of Maimonides are preceded by the Hebrew letters '"i'.l, an abbreviation of the epithet Maimoni. Tur and Shulhan Arukh are referred to jointly by the acronym Y"1V1t,. Since the codes and glosses referred to usually

47


explain the ]aw in the context of the talmudic discussion and subsequent rulings, the Ein Mishpat - Ner Mitzvah is a primary tool for following the development of Jewish law on a given issue.

The references reproduced here (Figure 15) help us follow Rabbi Y ohanan 's assertion that the bailee who transfers his charge to another is liable. It refers the reader to Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Laws of Hiring I :6, and Laws of Property Damage 4: 1, and further on, to Tur and Shulhan Arukh, Hoshen Mishpat 291:26.

Torah Or identifies verses from the Bible cited in the Talmud by chapter, though not by verse. It is printed on the margin of the talmudic text and referenced by a small superscript circle located just before the first word of the verse. On the page of Talmud reproduced above (Figure 15), we show a reference to the fifth chapter of Leviticus by highlighting the ;i Nip,, printed in the margin that divides the text of the Talmud from Rashi's commentary. The reference is always located directly opposite the small circle.

Masoret haShas is printed on the inner-most margin of the page and refers to parallel discussions and similar statements elsewhere in the Talmud. These are indicated by a superscript asterisk in the body of the text, and printed directly opposite the asterisk. The passage of Talmud highlighted (in Figure 15) has parallels in Baba Kamma 1 lb and 56b. Note the superscripted asterisk in the text and the small print highlighted in the inner-most margin.

2. Commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud Comprehensive commentaries on the Jerusalem Talmud were first written only in the eighteenth century. Here we note the two standard commentaries: Korban haEdah, by R. David Fraenkel of Germany, and Pene; Moshe, by R. Moshe Margoliot of Lithuania. Here we show a page of the Jerusalem Talmud, Gittin, chapter 3, halakhah 5. The page (Figure 16) contains, inter alia, the opinion of Rabbi Y ohanan that a bailee who has entrusted his charge to another is liable (see above, p. 46).

48

Figure 16: Gitlin 3:4-5, Jerusalem Talmud, with commentaries of Korban ► haEdah and Penei M oshe.

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u!fl; ,,..:., )P>i 11•1,o o" 1•0)1 • ,·0.,1:1 i,J Oli'D' r, 6~,S!i> '" 111 l'l,,~,, i1>l r.,::'I: ,,.,_., N kl~, '"''"' 11t) n1n•),> }>Pl "\ ci,D ft\1 ~,.,;, Nrl f.l~ r:m,o C1eJI 1hl ~"' pl) .,.,,.. ,·~ )11»1 .,,. I)•/,/; "'" " lll,·c oSi, h oo•cv I' OJ o:;, h ..,., •• ••l <i/iT ']01> i., h 1-,. • 11 ... 61• <>» }on 1••r.:,;1 oft ,•fricl'J • :mo~ '"lt: 0·,, umc :i,1') c•ti;: 01:,:, -:n:i. -:n oic:1' ,:-., r;,,\ ,o.l fi;i lt'r> fo1 r,..,,,, b ~•111;, )p 1>:. ,,.~: ;r~• ~) _ D!>h


F. English Editions of the Talmud

The Babylonian Talmud is an English translation edited by Isadore Epstein and published by Soncino Press (see Figure 17). It is also available in a Hebrew-English format. Of particular value is the last volume which contains an index by subject matter as well as indices of scriptural references and talmudic sages.

The El-Am Talmud. The El-Am edition of the Talmud is designed to enable the English reader who may know some Hebrew but has never studied the Talmud to comprehend not only the literal meaning of the text but also some of its depth, background, and implications. It presents a punctuated text of the Talmud, a clear English translation, a running commentary giving full explanation of the reasoning and concepts, as well as background notes on various topics and personalities mentioned. To date, only a few tractates of the Babylonian Talmud and even fewer of the Jerusalem Talmud have been published. Shown here (Figure 18) is an excerpt from Baba Metzia 36.

A critical translation of the Jerusalem Talmud, known as The Talmud of the Land of Israel, has been prepared by Jacob Neusner (see Figure 19). To date, eighteen volumes have appeared.

The Talmud, the Steinsaltz Edition. In this new edition of the Talmud, the text is vocalized, puncuated, explained, and translated into English by R. Adin Steinsaltz. A page of this edition is reproduced below (Figure 20). In the center of the page is the text of the Talmud, vocalized and puncuated. The right column contains a literal translation and Rashi's commentary in the original Hebrew. The left column contains an expanded translation and commentary, which renders the text more readable and comprehensible. The Notes section at the bottom of the page highlights points of interest in the text and expands the discussion by quoting various classical commentaries. The 'Halakhah' section provides the ruling on the issues under discussion. The far outside column presents notes on important concepts, realia, and the Sages quoted. To date, several chapters of the tractates Baba Metzia and Ketubot have appeared.

50

BABA ME?,1.i4

It has been stated: If one bailee entrusted [his bailment] to another bailee-Rab said: He is not liable; ◄ R. Jo~anan maintained: He is liable. 5 Abaye said: According to Rab's ruling, not only if a gratuitous bailee entrusted [ the bailment] to a pa.id bailee, thereby enhancing its care; but even if a paid bailee entrusted [it] to an

unpaid one, chus weakening its care, he is still not responsible. Why? Because he entrusted it to an understanding being. 6 Whilst according to R. Jo}:ianan's view: not only if a paid bailee entrusted

(it] to an unpaid one, thus weakening its care; but even if an unpaid bailee entrusted it to a paid one, thereby enhancing its care, he is still responsible. Why? Because he [the bailor] can say to him, 'It is not my desire that my bailment should be in charge of an· other person.'

R. }:Iisda said: This ruling of Rab was not stated explicitly, but by implication. For there were certain gardeners who used to deposit their spades every day with a particular old woman. But one day they deposited them with one of themselves. Hearing the sounds of a wedding, he went out and entrusted them to that

old woman. Between his going and returning, their spades were stolen, and when he came before Rab, he declared him not liable. Now, those who saw this thought that it was because if a bailee entrusts [ the bailment] to another bailee he is free [from liability J; but that is not so: there it was different, seeing that every day they themselves used to deposit [their spades] with that old woman.

Now, R. Ammi was sitting and recounting this discussion, where· upon R. Abba b. Memel raised an objection before him: tF A. MAN

HIRES A. COW FROM ttrS NEIGHIIOUR, LENDS IT TO ANOTHER,

ANO IT DIES A NATURAL DEATH, THE HIRER MUST SWEAR

THAT IT DIED NATURALLY, ANO THE BORROWER MUST

PAY THE HIRER. But if this [sc. R. Jo~anan's ruling] be correct, let him [ the owner] say to him, 'It is not my desire that my bailment should be in the hands of another person'!-He replied: The circumstances here are that the owner authorised him to lend it. If so, he ought to pay the owner!' -It means that he said to him, 'At your discretion'.

Figure 17: Baba Metzia 36a, The Babylonian Talmud, edited by Isadore Epstien, Soncino Press (London, 1935-48).

'!l-'N 111 ':i N l1" ~ l'J ~Cl :l BAVA M E,?: I 'A 36a-b

•:r•n - i?Jitti1? ,o~iv ;r.,;iv :Nn:::>'?il :N:i, ,r.ix t y- •· : - T ·: u T : ~ • T T - T

"~iir:l ,C~TJ i~ittj7 i9~~ i=?iq i~i!V N~¥i~ N'7 i?Jiiv'? ,o~iv cm ir.iiw 11,£>N N1rN ,ini"?Jtti', ;;~,l

.. : - T ·: T • •• • -: T ·: T • : • T :T

T-\ll'J"ill'J r-1N : rr? ir.lN1 ? Nr.,:!,7t, "Nl'J ,:r•n - i:::>f.V : - : .. : : - •• - T : T -: - - T- 'W' T

.i1~1:i~~ "7 W"v?? N? TNiJ ,;,~,::i~~ "7 Rava said: the Halachah is, a bailee who transfers to another bailee is liable. Not only a paid bailee who transfers to an unpaid bailee, thereby diminishing its safe-keeping, but even an unpaid bailee who transfers to a paid bailee is liable. What is the reason: For he may say to him: You are worthy of trust to me, on oath; the other is not worthy of trust to me, on oath.

Rava is then reported as saying that the Halachah follows R. Johanan, and, like Abaye, he adds that it would make no difference whether the first bailee was a paid one and the ocher an unpaid one or vice versa; his mere transfer of the object to a person whom the bailor may not trust makes him absolutely liable. The final clause of Rava's reasoning is, however, different from Abaye's.With Rava, the bailor may say to the first bailee: You I believe on your oath but not another one. With Abaye, he says: I do not wish my object to be deposited with another one. On the face of it, both wordings convey the same idea, that the bailor is presumed to trust only the bailee of his own choice and the transfer therefore constitutes a breach of trust.

Figure 18: Baba Metzia 36b, The El-Am Talmud, edited by E.Z. Ehrman (Tel Aviv, 1969).

52

Yerushalrni Baba Mesia 3: 1-2

3: 2 [In Leiden MS and editio princeps: 3 : 3]

[A] He who rents a cow from his fellow, and then lenr it to someone else,

[BJ and it died of natural causes-

[C] let the one who rented it take an oath that it died of natural causes,

[D] and the one who borrowed it then pays compensation to the one who rented ic.

[E] Said R. Yose, "How should this one do business with his fellow's cow?

[Fl "But {the funds paid for] the cow are co be returned to the owner."

[I.A] Now does the [one who rented the cow] have the right to lend it our [to someone else, without the owner's knowledge and consent]?

[B] And has not R. Hiyya taught as follows:

[C] One who borrows has no right to lend out,

[DJ and one who rents has no right to rent out,

[E] and one who borrows has no right to rent out,

[F] and one who rents has no right to lend out,

[G] And the one with whom these things are left as a bailment has no right to leave them as a bailment with someone else,

[H] unless the householder [ who owns the objects] has given him permission to do so [T. B.M. 3: l].

[I] R. La in the name of R. Yannai: "[The present rule] applies to a case in which one has given him the right to rent it out."

[J] [What follows is pertinent only to M. Ket. 9:4:] And the present rule applies to a case in which one gave him the right to set up a guardian. [This matter is explained in its own context.]

Figure 19: Baba Mesia 3:2, The Talmud of the Land of Israel, translated by Jacob Neusner (Chicago, 1984).

53

:1:l/ l? - l<'ll l? CHAPTER THREE 36A-:- 36B

TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY LITERAL TRANSLATION 1<i,i;, ~ w, ::i•i:,i,, 'Ram! bar i,ama raised another

objecllon lo Rabbi Yol)anan·s ruling from a Mishnah (below, 42a): "Ir someone deposited money with another pe™ln, and lhe bailee bundled It up and

'Rami bar 1:tama raised an objection: "Someone who deposits money wilh his fellow, [iQ he bundled it up and threw it behind him, 2 [orj gave it 10 his

minor son or daughter and locked !the door! in front threw II over his shoulder, and on his way home the money was losl, 'or ir the bailee gave the money lo his minor son or daughter to look after, and locked the door In fronl or them lnadequalely, 3in either case the bailee is Uable if the money was losl or stolen, since he was negligent and did nol look after ii In the manner expected or bailees," 'From lhe second case. Rami bar tjama makes the following deduction: The reason the bailee is liable is because he was negligent in

,,p,,ll~tr : xr,,r;, ,~ •i;i1 ::nr:u;i' 111¥ ,;;,~q ?¥!:$ nillY,I iJ:;i.? mrrjl2 ,i11in~~ l~'W!?iJl tliJ'J,ll:;l ?~:7n 0 1Jt;)j?iJ in::i~ "'ll')lp x<;,I!' ,:i•:o' ,'lKl:;l .K~W xr,,:i,1,7• ·.0•1r,iiw;:i 'o'JTHI .,n,~ ,0•'7;,~ x;;r• ,c,~Pi?'! l'J:$" : i'T'? .l<);l'J' ? '.Kl;IJS· • ,;r::11~ 1~'.\1 •mj?5' XiJ?lp 'JiY7 [36B] 1'i?!;Jl1liJ ',;i : x;i1 "ll;l~' xm ,,~;,.~ inl{I~ n:in ,:i,r

entrusting the deposit to his , 'l;lJ xp•'T" : 'V..,..,iJJ, children, and this negligence •' • 1 1

. 1'j?!;Jl;l

'11?~'

of them inadequately, 'he Is liable, since he did not sareguard it in the manner or bailees." • The reason is that (they were! minors, 'but (ir they were[ adults, he is exempt. 6 Why? 7 Let him say to him: "I do not wish that my deposit should be in the hands of another (person].'' • Rava said: Whoever deposits, 1368[ deposits on the assumption !that it may be given to] his [the bailee's] wife and sons. 9The Neharde'ans say: II is also precise .

f<J\S!ll

stems from the fact that they were minors. •eut !(they had been adults, he would have been exempt -presumably because he fulfilled his duly by handing over the deposit to a competent person. 'But why? asks Rami bar tjama. 1 Surely the depositor can say to him, in lhe words of Rabbi Yol)anan: '1 did not wish

- cn11b1 .0'JPJl-' m,l, ml ppnc 16 - ,, 111', r,at:i ,n111< n~, ;ll .mD»:i mb~ y,nl 1M• hlc ,D'lllJl-' cm,h ,,,, 111,,, ,.,,, ,o•lm:i mt 1ni;bl ,,cm ,p,i:ic n»7 l» - ,,u, hpi7 J'l1P~ 0,l,1l7 ,f,;i7 - •t:ii IC?', •• ,, 1mh rt>" ,ml

.O"lnh blt ,llJll ,,,,

my deposit to be In the hands or another person. You acted negligently in entrusting the money to your adult children." Thus 1he inference drawn by Rami bar ljama from this Mishnah appears to contradict lhe ruling of Rabbi Yohanan, and it would seem that the Halakhah is not in accordance with it.

1<+1 ir.,~ 'Rava said in reply: No objection can be raised from this case, as it is clear that whoever deposits {36B) something with a bailee does so on the assumptlon that the bailee may give the deposit to his wife and sons for safekeeping, rather than look aller it himselr the entire time. Thus, according to Rava, this Mishnah poses no contradiction to the ruling or Rabbi Yo~anan. because even Rabbi Yo~anan would agree that in circumstances such as those described in the Mishnah, a bailee who hands over a deposit to another bailee is exempt.

'YT!vl ,-,'?~ 9The Neharde'ans say: Not only does the Mishnah not contradict the ruling of Rabbi Yo~anan, it in ract supports him! A precise analysis of the language of the Mishnah shows that it corresponds completely

NOTES ,-,i?~J;) 1<1il 1•~• \>U;IIC nn ~ll ~poslto on the assumption that lt mily be given to Ns wife and $Or\$, The bailee undoubtedly gives his own property to his wife

and chlldn~n for safekeeping. Hence. there is no reason to ekpc:ct him 10 be s1ricter about the depositor's prop-crty than about his own (Rab~m, l;lananel)

HAU.KHJ\H 1'")1'1l5~ 17''1'~1'.11 n1f If he bundled II up and lhrew It assumpUon that lhe dcposll may be given lo the bailee's over hts shoulder. "If a bajlee has to take a deposit of wtre and children. "Anyone who deposits an object expects money wilh him while traveling, he must bundle It up and the bailee to give ii to his wife or to other aduh members hold it in his hands, or tic it in front of him where he can of his household for safekeeping. But if the bailee gives it to see it Jf he docs not do so, he is liable even if lhe money a minor, even hls own son, or to his non•Jewish (Smaj slave, was Lost under circumstances. beyond his control. since the or to family members who do not Uve wUh him and are not loss was caused by his initial negligence." (Shul~an Arukh, dependcnl on hirn for support, ii is as though he gave ii to ffoshen Mishpal 292:20.) a stranger. Hence, If lhe deposit is damaged in such ,.,,~., K1;i ''l~' 11iljl~ nn ~11 Depositing on the circumstances, the bailee is liable" (Ibid .. 291 :21.)

BAc,:;:crmuNo

1'11hl!j~ 17"1'~1'.11 0-»' Ke bundled It up an<! lllm, It behind lllm. C.Olns were usually 1tepl In a.purse (o,:,) o, lied logt"ther in a dolh. the purse or pouch was generarly hung from a pe:rson·s bcfl ln

fronl o( him, so that it could be Upt in l'tcw. lr lht purse was ..UOwcd ro hang over a person'.s shoulder, this IJ\dicaled that 11 wa.s not property tended. for lt migh1 become detached rrom his belt. or thieves mlsht snatch it.

o,,~~ Minors. Minor children tgirls younger lhan twelve, bop )'0Unger than thinttn) are not regarded as mentally compe1en1 In most areas of the Hata.khah_ lliercfore. even according to the opinion that anyone mentally competent mily be a bailee. ch\ldren are not inctudcd.

""1~ K~ D;;t'l~~ ~l'll And he locked the door In front of than Inadequately. · There is a detailed djscussion below f◄2aJ or 1he proper way 10 look after money. 1r lhc money Is kept tn a closed building. the childsen cannot lose ii while ii Ls In the house. But this only obtains when 1he buildin3 is tocked - when 1he chitd,en canno1 t.ea.ve or 1ake the money out, and no one else can enter and steal it. But when lhc building is nol propcr1y loc\.cd, and lhe children can ao out or open the dOOt'S, this means that 1hc money has been ten wilh someone who iS not Halattucally compctcn1. which is criminal negligence, and th.c bi1ilee ml!St pay If tht.: rnoney is lost or stolen.

''l+l 11'llf/lC nn ~lr On the usumptlon that •t may be pven to the NHce:•s wt.re and sons.. Usually, when wmeone deposits c1n <1rtide with the head o( a (amily, he ii"umc:5 lhal the bailee will not conceal the anicle from 'his ramily and that the_y 100 wm particlpaie In lookJng ai\er it. Hence II is m. I! he had enll\lsted the a11tclt: ta ev~ro, member of'thc ba.ilec·s r.amily, and 11.C only demands that the bailee lea'tC the anlcle in the care of someone c::ompclent to look. after it


Talmud Bavli is the Artscroll translation of the Babylonian Talmud. The work contains the traditional talmudic folios with translation and notes on facing pages. To date, fourteen volumes have been published. Those of general legal interest are Makkot, Kiddushin, and Baba Metzia parts I and II.

d. New Hebrew Editions of the Talmud

Talmud Bavli, Steinsaltz Edition. In this monumental edition of the Talmud, the text is vocalized, punctuated, explained, and translated into modern Hebrew by R. Adin Steinsaltz. Although quite a few tractates have been published, to date, of the order Nezikin, only Sanhedrin and Baba Metzia have appeared.

A page of this edition is reproduced here (Figure 21). The talmudic discussion is divided into paragraphs. On the inside margin of each page, we find Rashi's commentary, and on the outside, a running translation and explanation of the text of the Talmud. The Tosafot appear on the inside margin under Rashi's commentary. The section Jyyunim (Excursus) found at the bottom of the page is a collection of additional explanations selected from talmudic commentators. Orah haHalakhah (The Way of the Law), the other section located at the bottom, lists relevant legal decisions culled from the codes. Unlike the Ein Mishpat of the standard edition of the Talmud, the Orah haHalakhah not only provides reference to rulings, but also quotes them.

There are several other editions of the Talmud with a Hebrew translation and explanations or commentary.

55

◄ Figure 20: Baba Metzia 36b, The Talmud, the Steinzaltz Edition (New York, 1990).


H. Sages of the Mishnah and Talmud (arranged according to generations)

a. Tanna'im (Sages of the Mishnah, 40-200 C.E.)

40-80 Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai; Rabban Shimon ben Gamli'el; Rabban Gamli'el the Elder

80-110 Rabban Gamli'el of Yavneh; Rabbi Eliezer; Rabbi Yehoshua

110-135 Rabbi Akiva; Rabbi Tarfon; Rabbi Yishma'el; Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah; Rabbi Y osi haGelili

135-170 Rabbi Me'ir; Rabbi Yehudah; Rabbi Shimon; Rabban Shimon ben Gamli'el; Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai; Rabbi Yosi; Rabbi Elazar

170-200 Rabbi Yehudah haNasi (redactor of the Mishnah)

b. Transitional Period (Sages active at the close of the mishnaic period and the opening of the talmudic period)

Rabbi Hiyya; Bar Kapara; Levi

c. Amora'im (Sages of the Talmud, 220-500)

Land of Israel

220-250 Rabbi Hanina; Rabbi Oshayah; Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi

56

Babylonia

Rav; Shemu'el

If. Mishnah and Talmud

Land of Israel

250-290 Rabbi Yohanan; Reish Lakish

290-320 Rabbi Ami; Rabbi Asi; Rabbi Zeira; Rabbi Elazar ben Pedat; Rabbi A vahu

320-350 Rabbi Y onah; Rabbi Y osi; Rabbi Yirmiyah

350-375 Rabbi Mana; Rabbi Yosi beRabbiBon

375-425

425-460

460-500

57

Babylonia

Rav Huna; Rav Yehudah

Rabbah; Rav Yosef; Rav Hisda; Rav Sheshet; Rav Nahman bar Ya'akov; Ula

Abayei; Rava; Rav Nahman bar Yitzhak; Rami bar Hama

Rav Papa; Rav Huna bereih deRav Yehoshua; Rav Zevid

Rav Ashi; Ravina; Ameimar; Mar Zutra

Mar bar Rav Ashi; Rav ldi bar Avin

Ravina the latter; Rabbi Yosi

155

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III. GEONIC LITERATURE

Very few works remain from the period of the Geonim (sing. Gaon). The Geonim were heads of the Babylonian Academies from the seventh through the tenth centuries C.E. Most of the Geonic commentaries on the Talmud have been lost, while the works that have survived are primarily collections of laws and responsa.

Halakhot Pesukot of Rav Yehudai Gaon, one such collection of laws, follows the order of the Talmud but omits the talmudic dialogue.

She'iltot of Rav Ahai Gaon presents legal decisions arranged according to the order of the weekly Torah reading. So, for instance, the laws of bailees are treated in She'ilta (question) no. 20, which is keyed to Jacob's rejoinder to Laban in Genesis (31:40) regarding the manner of his guarding Laban's flock: 'Thus I was: in the day drought consumed me, and the frost by night; and my sleep fled from mine eyes.' Rav Ahai Gaon discusses the scope of the paid bailee's responsibilities against the background of this verse.

Legal compendiums arranged according to subject were also written during the Geonic period. Among these are the writings of Rav Shernu'el hen Hofni, head of the academy at Sura, and those of his son-in-law, Rav Hai, head of the academy at Pumpedita. Rav Shemu 'el ben Hofni's legal writings include works on partnership, pledges, gifts, and guarantee law. Rav Hai's best known work is on commercial transactions.

Hundreds of Geonic responsa have been compiled in various collections (on responsa literature, see pp. 82 and 100 below), and Geonic commentaries to the Talmud as well as responsa have been collected and arranged according to the order of the Talmud by B. M. Levine in his Otzar haGeonim in twelve volumes (reaching to Baba Metzia). Many Geonic responsa were also discovered by Solomon

59

◄ Figure 21: Baba Me1zia 36b, Talmud Bavli, edited by R. Adin Steinsaltz (Jerusalem, 1980).

CHAPTER ONE; SOURCES

Schechter in the Cairo Genizah - a repository for disused sacred books and ritual articles - at the end of the last century. These formed the basis of Louis Ginzberg's important Geonica (see Figure 22).

GEONIC RESPONSA

5 [502]. An agent was sent to Egypt to purchase merchandise. On his journey ·he was aUackecl by brigands, who threatened his life. To save himself he showed the highwaymen where his employer's money was hidden. lie now contended that be wn.s not called upon to nmke good the los8, since, in any case, even if he had sacrificed his life, tho money would have fallen into the hands of his assailants. 'l'he Gaon supports him in this contention, provided he can prove by means of witnesses, or will asseverate by means cf nn oath, that his supposition is correct, that the brigands would in any case have found the money.

6 [503]. The Gaon decides that a debtor may force his creditor, who holds a promissory note agn.in:it him, to take an oath thnt he has not paid up his indebtedness, as he himself maintains he has done; and this right belongs to him even though the creditor is willing to waive his alleged claim, if only the debtor will take the on.th. There can be no <lou bt that this Responsnm is the same o.s that quoted in a Rcspornrnm addressed to Hai: (illm i11l~n, 136), where it is ascribed to Natronai' Gaon.

7 [50,i.J. 'ro this very day, the Gaon says, priests are under the obligation to avoid defilement. It is very probable that this Responsum is merely an extract from o. much longer one found in the collection i1I\Jl nion, 55, also attributed to Natrona'i Gaon. Comp. p"J, 4.

Figure 22: Geonic responsum from the Cairo Genizah, Louis Ginszberg, Geonica (New York, 1909), Vol II, p. 144.

60

IV. HALAKHIC LITERATURE

Halakhic literature after the period of the Talmud and Geonim includes codes, halakhic glosses (pesakim), responsa literature, and court decisions (for information on halakhic Midrash,

and commentaries on the Mishnah and Talmud, see pp. 23, 35, 46, above).

These works are traditionally divided into two historical periods: those produced by the Earlier Authorities (Rishonim), prior to the expulsion from Spain at the end of the fifteenth century, and those by the Later Authorities (Aharonim), from then until the present.

A. Codes

1. Mishneh Torah Mishneh Torah, by Maimonides (l 135-1204, Spain and Egypt), is a comprehensive code covering all of Jewish law, including laws applicable only to the Temple, its sacrifices, and ritual purity. It is also known by the name Yad haHazakah (The Strong Hand). Mishneh Torah is written in extremely clear Hebrew, but cites no sources for its rulings.

Rather than following the order of the Talmud, the Mishneh Torah is organized by topic into fourteen volumes: Volume 1: Se/er haMada (The Book of Knowledge) deals with the

foundations of faith. Volume 2: Se/er Ahavah (The Book of Love) deals with prayer. Volume 3: Se/er Zemanim (The Book of Occasions) deals with the

Sabbath and festivals. Volume 4: Se/er Nashim (The Book of Women) deals with

marriage, divorce, and personal status. Volume 5: Se/er Kedushah (The Book of Holiness) deals with

forbidden sexual relationships, dietary laws, and ritual slaughter.

61


Volume 6: Sefer Hafla'ah (The Book of Asseveration) deals with vows, oaths, and Nazirites.

Volume 7: Sefer Zera'im (The Book of Agriculture) deals with tithes, sabbatical years, and jubilees.

Volume 8: Se fer A vodah (The Book of Temple Service) deals with the laws of the Temple.

Volume 9: Sefer Korbanot (The Book of Offerings) deals with the laws of sacrifices.

Volume 10: Sefer Taharah (The Book of Cleanness) deals with the laws of ritual purity and ritual baths.

Volume 11: Sefer Nezikin (The Book of Torts) deals with property damage, theft, and robbery.

Volume 12: Sefer Kinyan (The Book of Acquisition) deals with partnerships and the transfer of property.

Volume 13: Sefer Mishpatim (The Book of Civil Laws) deals with loans and leasing.

Volume 14: Sefer Shofetim (The Book of Judges) deals with the judicial system.

Each book is divided into sections known as Hilkhot ... , i.e., Laws of .... So, for instance, the Book of Torts contains, inter alia, Laws of Property Damage and Laws of Robbery and Loss. The sections are further subdivided into chapters and numbered paragraphs. Each paragraph is known as a ha/akhah or 'law,' and the work contains a total of 14,909 such halakhot.

Five of the Mishneh Torah's fourteen books are of general legal interest. These are the books of Women, Torts, Acquisition, Civil Laws, and Judges. Here we show a schematic representation of the arrangement of Mishneh Torah, listing the laws included in the five books of general legal interest (see Figure 23).

A page of the standard edition of Mishneh Torah is reproduced below (Figure 24). The passage shown deals with a bailee who has entrusted his charge to another (M. T., Laws of Leasing 1 :4).

Mishneh Torah remained for many generations the final authority on Jewish law, and many communities accepted it as the sole guide

62

Mishneh Torah (Code of Maimonides)

\ BOOKS

Laws\ Knowledge CMada)

Love <Ahavah)

Laws of Marriage

Laws of Divorce

Laws of Leviratc Marriage and Release

Laws of Virgins

Laws of the Errant Wife

Occasions (Zemanim)

Women (Nashim)

Holiness (Kedushah)

Asseveration <Bafia 'ah)

Agriculture <Zera'im)

Temple Service CAvodah)

Offerings (Korbanot)

Cleanness (Taharah)

Torts (Nezikin)

Laws of Property Damage

Laws of Theft

La.., of Robbery and Loss

Laws of Assauh and Battery

Laws of Murder and Pre$Crvation of Life

Laws of Sale

Laws of Tran sf er of Property

Laws of Neighbors

Laws of AEenti and Partners

Laws of Slaves

Laws of Hiring

Laws of Loan and Deposit

Laws of Lender and Borrower

Laws of Plaintiff and Defendant

Laws or lnhcri1ance

Acquisition <Kinyon)

Civil Laws (Mishpatim)

Judges (Shofetim)

Laws of the Sanhedrin

Laws of Testimony

Laws of Rebels

Laws of Mourning

Laws of Kings and their Wars

Figure 23: Diagram of Mishneh Torah showing division into books and halakhot.

63

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Figure 24: Hilk ho, Sekhirw I :3-4, Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, with traditional commentaries: Maggid Mishneh, Kesef Mishneh, Lehem Mishneh, and others.

IV. Halakhic Literature

for legal decisions. Even today, despite the existence of a number of more recent codes (see below), Maimonides' work remains the classic codex of Jewish law.

References to Mishneh Torah are typically introduced by the name Maimonides, by Maimonides' Hebrew acronym Rambam, or by the abbreviation M.T. The particular book of Mishneh Torah is normally omitted; thus the reference continues with the particular subsection - Laws of ... in English, or Hilkhot ... in Hebrew -followed by two numbers referring to the chapter and law. So, for instance, 'Maimonides, Hilkhot Sekhirut (Laws of Leasing), chapter 2, halakhah I.' Both 'Maimonides' and the word Hilkhot (Laws of) may also be omitted when writing in English and replaced by the initials M.T. (Mishneh Torah). Hence, the shortest method of English annotation: M.T., Sekhirut 1:2. As we have seen (p. 47 above), Ein Mishpat would annotate the same reference as: 'Maimonides, chapter 1 of Hilkhot Sekhirut, halakhah 2.'

Encyclopedia Hilkhatit Hasdei David, by A. D. Slotki and M. Klapholtz, is an alphabetical index to both Mishneh Torah and Shulhan Arukh (on Shulhan Arukh, see below).

A new edition of Mishneh Torah, edited by Z. Preisler, also contains an alphabetical index.

Commentary on Mishneh Torah Maimonides' Mishneh Torah stimulated an extensive range of commentary. Principally, Maimonides' decision not to cite the sources for his rulings led subsequent scholars to supply these and explain Maimonides' use of them. Others wrote of their reservations regarding certain of Maimonides' decisions. Some of these commentaries are printed, in standard editions of Mishneh Torah, alongside the ruling to which they apply. They are known by the colorful Hebrew expression nose 'ei kelim - arms bearers (see Figure 24).

Hasagot haRahad. Most relentless of Maimonides' critics is R. A vraham ben David ( I I 20-1198) of Posquieres, Provence, known by the acronym Rabad. Rabad was a contemporary of

65


Maimonides. His gloss is printed as insets in the text of Mishneh Torah. These comments generally open with the abbreviation N"N,

which stands for Amar Avraham (Avraham has said). Rabad does not comment on every halakhah, and where no comment appears, he is presumed to agree with the ruling of Maimonides.

Hagahot Maimoniot was written by R. Me'ir haKohen (late 13thearly 14th century) and appends to Maimonides' rulings those of the authorities of France and Germany.

Migdal Oz, by R. Shemtov ibn Gaon (14th century) of Spain, cites the talmudic sources for Maimonides' rulings.

Maggid Mishneh, by R. Vidal of Tolosa, Spain (14th century), covers only six of the fourteen books of Mishneh Torah (three of them, Nezikin, Kinyan, and Mishpatim, relate to civil law). It explains rulings, lists sources, and defends Maimonides' views against the objections of Rabad.

Kesef Mishneh was written by R. Yosef Karo (16th century) of Spain, Turkey, and Eretz Israel. R. Karo is best known as the author of the authoritative code Shulhan Arukh (see below). In his commentary on Mishneh Torah, he too cites sources and defends Maimonides' rulings.

Also of note are Leh em Mishneh, by R. A vraham di Bo ton ( 1545-1588) of Salonika, and Mishneh laMelekh, by R. Yehudah Rosanes (1657-1727) of Turkey.

These commentaries are cited according to the particular halakhah to which they refer, thus: Maggid Mishneh, Sekhirut (i.e., Laws of Hiring), chapter 12, halakhah 2 (or simply, 12:2); or Rabad, Sekhirut, 2:12.

Rambam laAm, published by Mossad Harav Kook, is a modern punctuated and vocalized edition of the Mishneh Torah. It contains extensive explanation and is the work of a team of scholars.

haRambam vehaHok biMedinat Yisrael (Maimonides and the Law in Israel) is a compendium of laws taken from Maimonides' Mishneh Torah and organized by Nahum Rakover, according to corresponding Israeli legislation.

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English Translation

An English translation of Mishneh Torah, edited by Julian Obermann, has been published by Yale University Press under the title, The Code of Maimonides. Here we show a passage relevant to the law of bailees (see Figure 25). Volume 28 of the series is an introduction by Isadore Twersky (Introduction to the Code of Maimonides, 1980).

2. Tur The Tur, by R. Ya'akov ben Asher (1270-1340, Spain), was written about a hundred years after the code of Maimonides. It differs from Mishneh Torah in four important respects:

i. The organization of subjects is different. ii. It does not deal with laws applicable only to the Temple,

sacrifices, and ritual purity. iii. The formulation of laws is not uniform, but rather follows

the original sources. iv. It recounts disputes among authorities, and concludes with a

ruling.

The work is divided into four volumes, each one known as a tur or column, the entire work being known as the Arba'ah Turim, the Four Columns:

Orah Hayim (OH) deals with the individual's ritual obligations on weekdays, sabbaths, and festivals.

Yoreh De'ah (YD) deals with the dietary laws, mourning, family purity, and a number of other areas.

Even haEzer (EH) deals with marriage, divorce, and personal status.

Hoshen Mishpat (HM) deals with commercial transactions, torts and court procedure.

Of the four turim, Even haEzer, Hoshen Mishpat, and a small portion of Yoreh De'ah deal with topics of general legal interest.

Each tur is divided into chapters (simanim; sing. simon) and paragraphs (se 'ifim; sing. sa 'if). The chapters are grouped topically

67


HIRING

4. Every bailee who was negligent at the beginning, though in the end a loss occurred through force, is liable, as hereinafter stated.

The commodatary is not permitted to lend to others the object lent to him. Even if he borrowed a scroll of the Law, the reading of which is a pious deed, he must not lend it to another. Similarly, the hirer is not permitted to let to another even if the object hired be a scroll of the Law, for the bailer may say to him, "I do not wish to have my property entrusted to another."

However, if the bailee in transgression of this precept delivered the object bailed to a second bailee, and w'itnesses testify that the second bailee kept the object after the manner of bailees but that it was lost through force, the first bailee is quit, since there is testimony that the loss occurred through force. But if there are no witnesses, the first bailee is liable to compensate the owner because it was he who delivered it over to the second bailee. He may, however, sue the second bailee.

Even if the first bailee kept the object gratuitously but delivered it over to a bailee for hire, he is liable, since the owner may say to him, "It is your oath that I relied on and not the oath of the other man." But if the owner was wont to entrust the said object to the keeping of the second bailee, the first bailee is quit since he may justly say to the owner, "This object, which you deposited with me, or lent to me, is one that you have recently been wont to deposit with the man with whom I deposited it"; provided, however, that the stan9ard of care required by law was not lowered by the change of bailees.

What is meant by lowering the standard of care? Where the object had been bailed to him for hire and he bailed it to the second bailee gratuitously, or where it had been lent to him and he bailed it to the second bailee for hire. Since the standard of care was lowered, it is negligence per se, and he must pay.

Figure 25: Laws of Hiring, I :4, Yale Judaica Series: The Code of Maimonides, The Book of Civil Laws, edited by Julian Oberman, et al. (New Haven, 1968).

68


into sections such as Laws of Judges and Laws of Witnesses; section titles, however, are not used in citation. References are thus cited by the name Tur followed by the volume abbreviation and numbers noting chapter and paragraph (siman and sa'if). So, for example, 'Tur HM 282:1,' refers to chapter 282, paragraph I of the volume entitled Hoshen Mishpat (for the sake of clarity it should be reiterated that the word tur is not only the commonly used name of the entire work, but is also used as the equivalent to the English word volume). The excerpt shown here (see Figure 26) is taken from the Laws of Bailees section of the Tur Hoshen Mishpat, 291: 7. It deals with the duty of the bailee to exercise proper care for the deposit, and rules that a bailee who does not, assumes liability even in case of force majeure (onsin). The ruling is based upon the talmudic principle that negligence occasions liability for forces majeures - which are otherwise exempt (tehilato bifshi'ah vesofo be'ones, hayyav; Baba Metzia 42a).

No English translation of the Tur has yet been published.

Commentary on the Tur The Tur also gave rise to an extensive literature of commentary. The classic commentaries were written during the sixteenth century. Best known among these are:

Beit Yosej, by R. Yosef Karo, author of Kesef Mishneh on Mishneh Torah (see above) and Shulhan Arukh (see below). Beit Yosef is a work of impressive dimensions that served as the basis for R. Karo's shorter and more accessible Shulhan Arukh. It goes beyond the bounds of commentary, citing and discussing a wide range of rulings by earlier halakhic authorities (Rishonim), and giving R. Karo's own ruling.

Darkhei Moshe, by R. Moshe Isserles (1525-1572; also known by the acronym Rema) of Poland. Rema later composed the Mapah, a gloss on Shulhan Arukh (see below). His Darkhei Moshe supplements the Tur with Ashkenazi (French, German, and Polish) decisions and customs, in accordance with which Rema makes his own ruling.

Bayit Hadash (also known by the acronym Bah), by R. Yo'el

69

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JV. Halakhic Literature

Sirkis of Poland. Bah analyzes each ruling of the Tur according to its sources.

Derishah and Perishah, by R. Yehoshua Falk haKohen (1555-1614) of Poland. This commentary consists of two parts. Perishah explains the laws of the Tur, and Derishah cites sources supporting these explanations.

All four commentaries appear in standard editions of the Tur. Beit Yosef and Bayit Hadash frame the text, Beit Yosef on the inner column and Bayit Hadash on the outer. Darkhei Moshe is printed below these, and Derishah and Perishah below Darkhei Moshe, Derishah on the outer side and Perishah on the inner.

In citing any of these, the name of the commentary is appended to the location in the Tur, thus, Bayit Hadash (or Bah), Tur HM 291:7 (since these commentaries are found only on the Tur, the name Tur is occasionally omitted: Bayit Hadash, HM 291:7).

3. Shu/han Arukh Shulhan Arukh, (Set Table) was written in Safad (Eretz Israel) by R. Yosef Karo (1488-1575) some 200 years after publication of the Tur. It is universally accepted as the authoritative code of Jewish law. It follows the organizational scheme of the Tur, retaining the same four volumes and the same chapter headings and numbers. The style, by contrast, is similar to that of Mishneh Torah-concise authoritative summaries of the law with no citation of sources.

Since Shulhan Arukh is organized exactly like the Tur, citation is the same, except that the volume name, chapter, and paragraph numbers are preceded by the title Shulhan Arukh or the abbreviation Sh. Ar. (in Hebrew, Y"1W). Thus: Sh. Ar. HM 391:17. When only the volume name is supplied (e.g., HM 391:17), reference is understood to be to Shulhan Arukh.

R. Moshe Isserles (Rema), author of Darkhei Moshe on the Tur, wrote a gloss on Shulhan Arukh, which he called Mapah (Table Cloth). It is also known as Hagahot haRema, Comments of Rema. Whereas the rulings of Shulhan Arukh reflect Jewish law mainly as practiced in Sefardi communities (Spain, North Africa), the

71

◄ Figure 26; Tur, Hoshen Mishpat, 291:7.


Mapah rules in accordance with the opinions of Ashkenazi (French, German, Polish) scholars, where they differ from R. Karo's conclusions. In standard editions, Rema's comments, printed in a special typeface known as Rashi script, are interspersed through the actual text of Shulhan Arukh, which is printed in regular block letters. The comments of Rema are often introduced by the word hagah (;1"l:i-note). Where Rema does not comment on R. Karo's formulation, it is presumed that he concurs. This combination of the rulings of the sages of both Ashkenazi and Sefardi schools has enabled Shulhan Arukh to become the authoritative code for the entire Jewish people (Figure 27 shows a page of Shulhan Arukh taken from HM 291 :26).

A section of Hoshen Mishpat has been translated in The Traditional Law of Sale, by S. Passamaneck.

Commentary on Shulhan Arukh Like the previous codes, Shulhan Arukh has generated a large body of commentary and criticism, some dealing systematically and in detail with the entire work, others covering only part. These commentaries too are referred to as nose'ei kelim (arms bearers).

Be'er haGolah, compiled by R. Moshe Rivkes (17th century), catalogues the sources of the Shulhan Arukh's rulings and is printed on the upper outside corner of each page. It is keyed to the text by small superscript letters that appear next to the relevant paragraph. The passage of Be'er haGolah reproduced here (Figure

27) explains that R. Karo's ruling in HM 29 I :26, that a bailee who has entrusted his charge to another becomes liable, is based upon the talmudic discussion found in Baba Metzia 36a (which

appears in Figure 15). Be'er hagolah further explains that although, as we have seen, the question of liability in this case is subject to a disagreement in the passage cited, a final ruling on the matter is issued by Rava on Baba Metzia 36b. Rava rules according to the opinion of R. Y ohanan.

Be'ur haGra, by R. Eliyahu of Vilna (known as the Vilna Gaon), is another work which cites sources for rulings of the Shulhan Arukh. Its extreme brevity and extensive use of abbreviations

72

Figure 27; Shulhan Arukh, Hoshen Mishpat 291:26. ►

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render it somewhat difficult for the uninitiated and have given rise in recent years to several super-commentaries.

The two most important commentaries on the portions of Shulhan Arukh of general legal interest are Sefer Me'irat Einayim and Sijtei Kohen. These two works frame the text of Shulhan Arukh, the former on the outside column, the latter on the inside.

Sefer Me'irat Einayim, commonly abbreviated as Sma (Y"~t>), was written by R. Yehoshua Falk haKohen, author of Derishah and Perishah on the Tur (see above, p. 69). Sma corrects errors in the text of Shulhan Arukh and explains differences of opinion between R. Karo and Rema.

Sijtei Kohen, abbreviated as Shakh (7"tv), was written by R. Shabtai haKohen (1621-1662) of Poland and complements the commentary of Sma.

Turei Zahav, better known by the acronym Taz (T"U), by R. David ha.Levi of Poland (1586-67), is an extensive commentary on the entire Shulhan Arukh that seeks to clarify, expand, and finalize the rulings of Shulhan Arukh by referring to the works of later authorities.

Ba'er Heitev offers a concise summary of the work of the above commentators. It is actually two different commentaries. Ba'er Heitev on Hoshen Mishpat was written by R. Zekhariah Mandel (17th century), rabbi of Belz, Poland, while the commentary of the same name on Even haEzer was written by R. Yehudah Ashkenazi of Poland (18th century) .

Two important glosses on Even haEzer are Helkat Mehokek, by R. Moshe Lima of Lithuania (1605-1658), and Beit Shemu'el, by R. Shemu'el ben Uri Shraga Faivel of Poland (17th century).

Pit'hei Teshuvah, by R. A vraham Tzvi Hirsch Eisenstadt ( 1813-1868), summarizes responsa relevant to the issues dealt with in Shulhan Arukh.

All the above commentaries appear in standard editions alongside the text of the Shulhan Arukh and are cited by noting the name of the commentary before the volume name, chapter and paragraph numbers of the passage to which they refer. Where the commentary

74


is keyed by number to the text of the Shulhan Arukh, this number, known in Hebrew as sa'if katan and abbreviated ji"tl, may appear after the paragraph number or replace it.

Peri Megadim, an alphabetical index of topics in Hoshen Mishpat and its commentaries, compiled by R. Shemu'el Alexander, is printed at the front or back of Hoshen Mishpat.

Encyclopedia Hilkhatit Hasdei David is an alphabetical index to both Shulhan Arukh and Mishneh Torah. It also lists the chapters of Shulhan Arukh together with their parallels in Mishneh Torah.

A new one volume edition of Shulhan Arukh, without commentaries but with several indices, has been edited by Z. Preisler.

4. Arukh haShulhan Arukh haShulhan, by R. Yehi'el Mikhel haLevi Epstein (Russia; late I 9th century), is a recent code that follows the organization of the Tur and Shulhan Arukh; it is divided into the same volumes and uses the same chapter headings. It differs methodologically from Shulhan Arukh, completed some 350 years earlier, in that it explains the rationale and traces the development of rulings from earliest sources to final decisions. It quotes a wide range of authorities, considers rulings issued after the completion of Shulhan Arukh, and determines which are to be followed in cases of dispute. Citations are similar to those of the Tur or Shulhan Arukh but are introduced by the title Arukh haShulhan, thus Arukh haShulhan HM 291:12.

Arukh haShulhan HM 291:55 (see Figure 28) concerns a bailee who has entrusted his charge to his wife and family, informing them that it is a deposit delivered into his care. Should the family members not exercise proper care and the property be damaged as a result, the family members are liable. What, however, will be the liability of the original bailee if the members of his family are unable to pay the damages? Two opinions are cited, the first holding that the bailee is liable, the second that he is exempt from payment. Arukh haShulhan concludes that in practice the first opinion is binding.

75

t59 "i' tt,:i1t1 :iv'11t1 po,, n,vo:i i•·w m:ilt' :i,:i1:>"I vp,p.:i bt11•:,', :,',111 u-iic.:i cm•oio;, j::,, crpov ,.,,,,,v, 'h, r,y•.:,rn', ,,:i, i•p£)0:, !'Kl [i:"r.e] C:M"l'lt';) D'J;)10

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Figure 28: Arukh haShulhan, Hoshen Mishpat 291:53-55.

JV. Halakhic Literature

B. Halakhic Glosses Following the Order of the Talmud

The previous chapter reviewed codes that are topically arranged. Another type of halakhic literature consists of works which follow the order of the Talmud, summarize its discussion, and delete material not accepted as law, thereby furnishing a comprehensive halakhic digest of the text.

1. Rij and Commentaries. One of the first works of this type is that of R. Yitzhak Alfasi ( l O 13-1103), known by the acronym Rif, who lived in Fez, Morocco. Rif cites the conclusion of talmudic discussions in their original language, omitting the discussion itself. Rif often establishes the halakhic ruling on many questions unresolved by the Sages of the Talmud. He does not rule on matters applicable only to the Temple, sacrifices, and ritual purity.

Rif's broad use of the Jerusalem Talmud as a source for rulings, ensured a central role for that work in all subsequent discussion. The general principle which he established was to follow the ruling of the Babylonian Talmud in all cases where the two Talmudim conflict and to rely on the Jerusalem Talmud only in cases upon which the Babylonian Talmud does not rule.

In standard editions of the Talmud, Rif is printed at the back of each tractate. Since the text of Rif is also framed by commentaries and similarly paginated (i.e., numbered according to folio and side), it is easily confused with the text of the Talmud.

Rif is cited by reference to the relevant talmudic passage, or by specifying the folio and side references in the standard text of Rif. Thus, the same passage of Rif may be cited as Rif on Baba Metzia 38b or Rif, Baba Metzia 19b.

Reproduced here (Figure 29) is folio 19b of Rif's gloss on Baba Metzia. The passage contains Rif's ruling on the case of the bailee who has transferred his charge to another. The Talmud records two alternative reasons for the bailee's liability in such a case. The Amora Abayei attributes the bailee's liability to the owner's statement, 'It is my desire that my object not be in the hands of

77

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another.' Rava, on the other hand, explains that liability stems from the owner's right to reject the oath of the third party: 'I trust your oath, I do not trust the second bailee's oath.' The oath mentioned is the 'Bailee's Oath,' to the effect that he was not negligent; the bailee is not exempt from liability unless he takes this oath. Rif does not quote both views, and omits the original dispute of Rav and Rabbi Yohanan on the liability of a bailee who transfers his charge. He quotes only the statement of Rava.

Rif further rules that when witnesses testify that the second bailee has exercised proper care and that the property was lost in consequence of a force majeure, the original bailee is not liable, since in this case, there is no need for an oath from either bailee to verify facts established by witnesses.

Rifstimulated much commentary, both explanatory and critical, and several such works are printed in the standard editions. Rif's earliest critic was R. Zerahiah haLevi Gerondi of Provence (12th century; abbreviated as Rezah) who entitled his work Sejer haMa'or. Rabad (R. Avraham ben David of Posquieres), who later recorded his differences with Mishneh Torah as well (see above),

collected his objections to opinions of Rif in his Hasagot haRabad. N ahmanides (see above, p. 18) also produced two separate works, Milhamot haShem and Sefer haZekhut, on Rif's gloss.

Among the explanatory commentators on Rif are R. Nissim Gerondi (14th century), known by the acronym Ran, and R. Yosef Havivah (15th century), both of Spain. The commentary of Ran covers fourteen tractates and is printed with the text of Rij. R. Havivah's commentary, Nimukei Yosef, is printed with the text of Rifto seven tractates not covered by Ran .. Most of these are from the order Nezikin.

2. Rosh and Commentaries Another book of decisions that follows the order of the Babylonian Talmud was written by R. Asher ben Yehi'el (14th century) who was born in Germany and later moved to Spain. R. Asher is known by the acronym Rosh. His work, Piskei haRosh (The Decisions of Rosh), is based on Rif and was written about 200 years later.

79

◄ Figure 29: Rif, Baba Metzia 19b with commentaries.


Like Rif, Rosh omits laws applicable only to the Temple, sacrifices, and ritual purity. Unlike Rif, however, each decision of Rosh is preceded by a thorough analysis of the talmudic discussion and opinions of later authorities of both Ashkenazi and Sefardi schools. Piskei haRosh is also printed at the back of standard editions of the Talmud. It follows the chapters of the Talmud and is divided into paragraphs, so citations furnish the name of the tractate, the chapter of the tractate, and the paragraph number of Piskei ha Rosh, e.g., Rosh, Baba Metzia 3: 1.

Three commentaries are printed together with Piskei haRosh: Pilpula Harifta, by R. Yorn Tov Lipman Heller (1579-1654) of

Prague. R. Heller wrote a comprehensive commentary on the entire Piskei haRosh; Pilpula Harifta is the volume dealing with the order Nezikin. R. Heller is best known for his commentary Tosefot Yorn Tov on the Mishnah (see above, p. 39).

Tiferet Shemu'el, a commentary on the entire Piskei haRosh by R. Aharon Shemu'el Koidonover of Poland (1624-1676).

Korban Netanel, a commentary on Piskei haRosh to the orders Mo'ed and Nashim, by R. Netanel Weil of Germany (1687-1769).

The passage of Piskei haRosh shown here (Figure 30) also deals with the case of a bailee who has entrusted his charge to another. Rosh comments that unless the third party is known to be trusted by the owner of the property - even if the third party is known to be more reliable and trustworthy than the original bailee - the owner retains the right to reject the oath of the second bailee and claim, 'I am not forced to trust the oath of any person with whom I have no direct dealings.' In other words, the test of reliability is subjective rather than objective.

80

Figure 30: Piskei ha'Rosh, Baba Metzia 3:7-10. ►

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C. Rabbinic Decisions

1. Responsa Responsa literature constitutes one of the most important sources of Jewish law.

Throughout Jewish history, as halakhic problems- both public and private-arose, they were addressed to local rabbis. Questions on which local scholars did not feel qualified to rule would be referred to the leading scholars of the day. Such questions, published along with the rulings issued, comprise the responsa literature, known in Hebrew as she'e/ot uteshuvot (questions and answers) and abbreviated as shut (n"itv).

There is no official procedure or format for addressing a question to an authority. Questions may consist of a short summary of the facts or a full review of all legal facets of the problem. The questioner may himself suggest a solution and seek confirmation. Replies will usually clarify the facts and the halakhah, and conclude with a decision.

The responsa literature has been central to the development of Jewish law. The need to address real life situations and issue practical rulings, forces respondents to establish the position of Jewish law on the most timely and concrete issues.

Responsa literature as a literary and historical phenomenon began in the middle of the Geonic period and continues to this day. More than three thousand works containing over 300,000 responsa are known.

Some books of responsa are named simply for their author and known by his full name or acronym. So, for instance, Teshuvot haRambam, The Responsa of Maimonides; and Teshuvot haRema, The Responsa of R. Moshe Isserles (Rema). Others are given formal titles such as She'elot uTeshuvot Divrei Rivot, by R. Yitzhak Adarbi, and She'elot uTeshuvot Noda biYehudah, by R. Yehezkel Landau of Prague.

A few works of responsa have been translated into English. An example is R. Meir of Rothenburg, by Irving Agus (see Figure 31).

82


RESPONSA, R, MEIR OF ROTHENDURO

A. A trustee appointed by the father of the orphans is not required to take an oath. However, some authorities ( lttur) believe that when such a trustee has been removed by court, because of witnesses testifying to his mismanagement of the affairs of the orphans, he is required to take an oath.

SouRci;s: Cr. 272; L. 239. Cf. Mord.' Gitt. 389; Pr. 592; L. 240.

708 (D)

!!?,. B demanded that his mother return to him the books, silver, and gold, that had bel~nged to his father.

A. Until the widow take the required oath regarding her ketubali, all the possessions of her deceased husband belong to the orphans. The assurance by solemn hand-clasp that the widow gave B that she retained nothing which had belonged to her husband, is not sufficient. She must take the required oath over the Scro!J of the Law.

SOURCES: Cr. 213.

709

~- A deposited valuables with B for safekeeping. B, in turn, deposited them with C. Is B to be held responsible for them?

A. A bailee who redeposited with another, valuables that had been entrusted to him, is responsible for them. However, if A was in the habit of depositing valuables with C, B is not to be held responsible for the valuables.

SouRCES: Mord. B. M. 271. Cf. Am II, 221; Moses Minz, Ruponsa 92; ibid. 107.

Figure 31: Responsum of Rabbi Me'ir (Maharam) of Rothenburg, Irving Agus, Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg (Philadelphia, 1947), vol. II.

83


Most books of responsa are indexed, and many are indexed by topic. A comprehensive card-catalogue of responsa arranged according to the chapters of the Shulhan Arukh has been compiled by Otzar haPosekim in Jerusalem. The index contains approximately one million entries.

A most important aid to finding responsa on a given topic is the Responsa Project of Bar Ilan University. The project has computerized some 250 books of responsa which can be searched for information on every conceivable topic.

(For further details on data bases and indices of the responsa literature, see below, p. 100; concerning anthologies, seep. I 13.)

2. Decisions of Israeli Rabbinic Courts Parallel to current responsa literature, there is a growing body of decisions of Israeli rabbinic courts. The rabbinic courts adjudicate a variety of issues on the basis of Jewish law, and many of their decisions are collected in Piskei Din Rabbaniyim, abbreviated as PDR (1"1!l). To date, fourteen volumes of decisions have appeared on civil and administrative law, as well as on the law of personal status. Indices to volumes 1-10 have also been published. Decisions issued before the establishment of the State of Israel are collected in Mivhar Piskei Din Rabbaniyim (Selected Rabbinic Legal Decisions), edited by Z. Warhaftig.

On page 178 of the first volume, there appears a decision of the Rabbinic Court of Tel Aviv which, inter alia, suggests alternative reasons for the opinion that the bailee who has entrusted his charge to another is not liable if the sub-bailee is one whom the bailor inherently authorizes.

84

Chapter Two

MODERN SCHOLARSHIP

I. BOOKS AND STUDIES

The past twenty to thirty years have seen a tremendous increase in the publication of works dealing with Jewish law. The following are among the most notable:

Yesodei haMishpat ha/vri, by A. Gulak, deals with the main areas of Jewish law: acquisition of property and monetary affairs, legal obligations, laws of family and inheritance, and court procedure.

Dinei Mamonot, by R. Ezra Batzri, culls laws from Shulhan Arukh and responsa on matters of property and civil procedure. It is arranged according to subject matter.

haMishpat ha/vri, by M. Elon, deals with the foundations and principles of Jewish law, the development of its legal institutions, and its literary sources.

Sidrat Mehkarim uSkirot baMishpat halvri, treats specific issues in Jewish law as they have arisen in the process of drafting Israeli legislation. The monographs, published by the Israeli Ministry of Justice, were prepared by S. Warhaftig and N. Rakover, Deputy Attorney General of the State oflsrael. To date, sixty monographs have appeared in this series. A List of the studies appears below.

Studies and Surveys in Jewish Law Published by the Israeli Ministry of Justice

I. Property Relations Between Spouses 2. Penalty for Acts Tainted with Illegality 3. Sources of the Principles of Copyright 4. Protection of Privacy 5. Rehabilitation of Criminals

87

CHAPTER TWO: MODERN SCHOLARSHIP

6. Mistake and Misrepresentation in Contracts 7. Rescission for Breach of Contract 8. Contract in Favor of Third Party 9. 'Approbations' of Books as a Source of Copyright 10. On the Rule of Law 11. A Chronological List of Sages of Halacha 12. Informal Agreements 13. Comments on the Labor Contract Bill 14. Fair Dealing I 5. Restoration of Lost Property J 6. Consumer Protection 17. Conditions in Contracts 18. Lottery and Garn bling Contracts 19. JJlegal Contracts 20. Duress and U nduc Influence 21. Uniform Contracts 22. Offer and Acceptance in Contracts 23. Ostensible Contracts 24. Enforcement of Contracts 25. Market Overt 26. Ecology 27. Compensation for Breach of Contract 28. Principles of Interpretation of Contracts 29. Clerical Errors and Rectification 30. Time and Place in Performance of Contracts 31. Obligations of Joint Debtors 32. Contracts Requiring Registration 33. Contract for Services 34. Set-off of Obligations 35. Appropriation of Payments in the Case of Several Obligations 36. Unfair Competition 37. Bona Fides in Contracts 38. Unfair Competition and the Public Interest 39. Monopoly 40. Protection of Wildlife 41. Trade Practices 42. Change in Value of Currency in Contracts 43. Devaluation 44. Unjust Enrichment 45. Transacting Business with Another's Property 46. Agent who Receives Benefit in Consequence of Agency 47. Legalism and Compromise Upon Change in Value of Currency 48. Unforeseen Change in Value of Currency 49. Effect of Change in Value of Currency upon Compensation for Conversion 50. Indemnity for Salvage of Property 51. Indemnity for Rescue of a Person 52. Compensation for Withholding Another's Money 53. Restraint of Trade 54. Human Dignity 55. Coercion in Conjugal Relations 56. Testimony Under Oath 57. Ethical Standards for Public Servants 58. Law as a Universal Value - Law and the Noahides 59. Violence in the Judicial Process 60. State's Witness

88

I. Books and Studies

A variety of other studies on specific topics within the field of Jewish law have appeared recently. Subjects of interest include labor law, agency, the law of the state, contracts, commerce, and civil procedure.

The following are among the most notable works appearing in English:

The Main Institutions of Jewish Law, by the late Chief Rabbi of Israel, Isaac Herzog, concentrates on the laws of acquisition and obligation. Shown below (Figure 32) is a passage from chapter XIII, 'Bailees and Bailments,' which surveys the legal principles of bailment in Jewish law.

The Spirit of Jewish Law, by the American jurist G. Horowitz, is an English language survey of Jewish law.

The Principles of Jewish Law, edited by M. Elon, is a more recent collection of articles on Jewish law that appeared as entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica.

Jewish Law and Decision-Making; A Study Through Time, by A. Schreiber, analyzes the structures, operations, and decisionmaking processes of Jewish law.

A Living Tree, by E. N. Dorff and A. Rosett, is a systematic and thorough examination of the roots and growth of Jewish law.

Jewish Law: History, Sources, Principles, by M. Elon, a recently published translation of haMishpat Halvri (see above, p. 87), is a comprehensive overview of the origins and nature of Jewish law.

A number of English works compare Jewish law to other legal systems.

Three Great Systems of Jurisprudence, by K. Kahana Kagan, compares Jewish, Roman, and English law.

Jewish and Roman Law: A Comparative Study, by Boaz Cohen. Jewish Jurisprudence: Its Sources and Modern Application, by E.

Quint and N. Hecht, deals with the composition and jurisdiction of courts.

89

CHAPTER TWO: MODERN SCHOLARSHIP

CLASSES OF BAILEES

The Mishnah distinguishes four classes or kinds of bailee: (a) the gratuitous bailee-s/wmer lzinam; (b) the borrowershoel; ( c) the paid bailee-nose sakhar; ( d) the hirer-sokher. The division is rather formal for, from the standpoint of liability, (d) is identified by R. Meir with (a) and by R. Judah, the latter's contemporary and colleague, with (c). The final law is in accordance with R. Judah. The division into the three classes or types (a-c) is nowhere questioned or disputed, and this unanimity is sufficient evidence of its high antiquity: (b) is expressly stated in the law of Moses, while (a) and (d) are inferred from the Mosaic text.

Viewed from the aspect of the respective degrees of liability, the division in the ascending scale is: (1) the gratuitous bailee; (:z) the paid bailee and the hirer; (3) the borrower; that is (a), (c) and (b-d). An old text cited in the Palestinian Talmud (Shevuoth, VIII, x) explains the scale as follows: The borrower, because he takes from the lender but gives nothing in return, is burdened with the highest degree of liability. The paid bailee, since he not only takes from the bailor but he also renders a service to the latter, his liability is of a lower degree; the same applies to the hirer who, on the one hand, makes use of the property and, on the other, pays for the hiring. The gratuitous bailee who confers a benefit upon the bailor without any profit to himself is the least liable of the four.

The source of these three varying degrees of liability, to be presently defined, is traced to the Mosaic text, but there is a divergence of conception as to the root-idea. According to some post-Talmudic Authorities, the Mosaic law is based upon the psychological consideration that each kind of bailee, in view of the reasons stated above, tacitly contracts to be liable to that extent. Others seem to think that the divine law has laid down these rules because they are intrinsically just, regardless of any psychological probing of the respective intentions of the various bailees.

Figure 32: The Main Institutions of Jewish Law, by R. Isaac Herzog (London, 1936-1939).

90

II. JOURNALS AND COLLECTIONS

Articles on Jewish law appear in a variety of publications. The following are dedicated specifically to Jewish law.

Dinei Yisrael. An annual edited by A. Kirschenbaum and published by the law faculty of Tel Aviv University. It includes articles in both Hebrew and English.

The Jewish Law Annual. An annual of Jewish law edited by B. S. Jackson and published by the Jewish Law Association.

The National Jewish Law Review. The scholarly publication of the National Jewish Law Students Network, The National Jewish Law Review is devoted primarily to studies comparing Jewish law with the Anglo-American system.

Jewish Law and Current Legal Problems, edited by N. Rakover, records the proceedings of the First International Seminar on the Sources of Contemporary Law, incorporating twenty essays on topics of general legal interest.

The proceedings of the Second International Seminar on the Sources of Contemporary Law, on the theme, Maimonides as Codifier of Jewish Law have been edited by N. Rakover and published in a volume of the same title.

Jewish Law Association Studies records the proceedings of the Jewish Law Association's biennial conference. It contains scholarly papers on a wide range of topics in Jewish law.

Shenaton haMishpat ha/vri. An annual published in Hebrew by the Institute for Research in Jewish Law, Faculty of Law, Hebrew University, Jerusalem.

Additional publications that deal with issues in Jewish law include Tarbiz, Sinai, Noam, and Tehumin in Hebrew, and Tradition, The Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society, and The Israel Law Review in English.

91

Chapter Three

REFERENCE BOOKS AND SERVICES

I. ENCYCLOPEDIAS

There are a number of reference books and indices available. There are also information services designed to aid in the location of source material in Jewish law. This chapter describes the most important of these.

Encyclopedia Talmudit contains topics of halakhah and Jewish law arranged alphabetically. To date, twenty one volumes reaching to the Hebrew letter , have been published together with a detailed index of those volumes. Using the index, we would find that important areas of the law of bailees are treated in the first volume under the entry 1:>)iN (Artisan), which opens with a discussion of the artisan as bailee (see Baba Metzia 6:6).

To date, three volumes - reaching to the Hebrew letter :i -

of an English translation of the Encyclopedia Talmudit entitled Encyclopedia Talmudica have been published. Reproduced below (Figure 33), is the passage dealing with the artisan's liability as a bailee.

Encyclopedia Judaica contains many entries relevant to Jewish law as well as its sages and sources. So, for instance, the law of bailees is discussed in the entry 'Bailment,' by N. Rakover. Entries relevant to Jewish law have been collected by M. Elon in The Principles of Jewish Law, mentioned above (p. 89). An excerpt from the entry on bailees is shown below (Figure 34).

The Jewish Encyclopedia, published by Funk and Wagnalls Co. at the beginning of the century also contains entries of relevance. Shown here (Figure 35) is an excerpt from the article 'Bailment' written by Louis Dembitz.

95

CHAPTER THREE: REFERENCE BOOKS AND SERVICES

Juedisches Lexikon contains entries in German on various topics. Those relevant to Jewish law were written by Marcus Cohn, and have been collected in Woerterbuch des Juedischen Rechts.

96

'UMAN (ARTISAN)

,~,~ ('Uman).

Artisan.

One who does either piece- or day-work, in his own or in his employer's premises.

1. His Liabiliry as a Bailee.

2. An Artisan Who Spoiled his Work.

3. Dismissal of Artisans.

4. The Rights of Artisans.

1. His Liability a.r a Bailee.

An artisan who works on another's material in his own premises is classed as a paid bailee, and as such answerable for theft or loss, because, like a paid bailee, he benefits from the material in bis keeping in that he earns money by it. This ruling holds good even on the view that a Hirer ranks as an unpaid bailee for the reason that he pays for the benefit be derives from the owner's property, a reasoning that could well be said to apply to an artisan who also pays for the benefit he obtains from the material entrusted to him, though not in actual money, yet with his labor. As against this stands the additional advantage enjoyed by the artisan in that he has the right to retain the finished article as a pledge until he is paid for his labor and is thus saved the trouble of having to go seeking for his money, This advantage is equivalent to receiving hire for safe keeping the article which, in turn, makes him a paid bailee in the eyes of the law (Mish. B.M. 80b; M. S'khirut 10, 3; E).

There are some later authorities who maintain that since in legal practice the hirer ranks as a paid bailee, the artisan is to be treated as such, even if he is not in actual possession of the article. Others, however, disagreeing, are of the opinion that notwithstanding the legal practice in regard to the hirer, the status

of the artisan is wholly determined by his said right of retention. For they argue, the case of the artisan is not completely analogous with that of the hirer. Whereas the hi1er benefits from the very fact that the owner's property is in his keeping, the artisan does not, as he could have equally earned the money had he performed the work in the owner's premises.

Where the artisan is not paid for his work by piece, but by the day, he does not rank, according to some authorities, as a paid bailee, even if be works on his own premises, the argument being that the artisan is not likely to assume the responsibility of a paid bailee in regard to the material, in the absence of any guarantee that he will be engaged to do the work to the very end. Other authorities, however, do not admit such a distinction between an artisan who contracts to be paid for his work by piece, or by the day. In their opinion, it all depends on whether he does the work in his own premises, in which case he ranks as a paid bailee; or in the owner's premises, in which case he is not accounted even as an unpaid bailee, it being assumed that the owner in the latter case has not relegated to the artisan the responsibility for the care of the material. Others, again, hold that even if he works in the owner's premises he ranks as a paid bailee, by virtue of the benefit he derives in the form of earnings from his work (L).

If the owner has already paid the artisan for his work, some later authorities are of the opinion that since the latter can no longer retain the finished article as a pledge, he does not rank as a paid bailee. Some, how• ever, maintain that he is still to be accounted as a paid bailee. For it is not the fact that he can retain the article that makes him answerable, but the benefit he derived from his labor; name!~•, his earnings.

Figure 33: 'Uman (Artisan),' Encyclopedia Talmudica (Jerusalem, from 1969).


BAILMENT. The law relating to a bailee (i.e., one who is entrusted with the money or chattels of another) is first given in the Torah (Ex. 22:6-14) in several statements of principle from which have been deduced the three categories of bailee, known as the shomer ?1innam; the shomer sakhar; and the sho 'el.

The Shomer l;{innam. The shomer binnam ( ClM "IJ:lllU , lit. "an unpaid bailee") is based on the first case cited in the Torah of one who is given "money or stuff" to look after (Ex. 22:6-8). Such a bailec is not liable to the owner in the event of the goods being stolen (and the thief not apprehended), provided that he confirms on oath before the court that he had not embezzled or otherwise converted the goods to his own use (lo shala?1 yado, lit. "not put forth his hand"). In fact, his duty of care is minimal and his liability is limited only to cases where loss resulted from his own negligence (cf. BM 3: 10; Sh. Ar., HM 291: 1). Thus, in the absence of proven negligence and subject to his taking the prescribed judicial oath, he would also not be liable for loss caused by inevitable accident or unforeseeable damage (i.e., ones; Yad, Sekhirut, 1:2 and 3:lff; Sh. Ar., HM 291 :6 and 9). It was such leniency which led to this particular portion of the text being construed as relating to the shomer !Jinnam (Yad, loc cit. I: 2) compared with the higher duty of care imposed on the shomer sakhar (cf. Laws of Hammurapi, 125, 263-7). On the other hand, any bailee, even a shomer l_iinnam, who meddles with the deposited article without the owner's authority is considered guilty of theft (i.e., larceny by conversion; see Theft and Robbery) and is consequently liable for any subsequent loss. Indeed, according to Bet Shammai the mere formulation of his intent to "put forth his hand," without his necessarily committing an actual act of conversion, suffices to render the bailee liable, but Bet Hillel does not extend the principle so far (BM 3: 12; Yad, Gezelah, 3: 11; Sh. Ar., HM 292).

The Shomer Sakhar. The s/zomer sak/zar ( ,:nu "11:liw , lit. "a paid bailee") is derived from the second case in the Torah of one who is entrusted with "an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast, to keep, and it be hurt, or driven away ... " (Ex. 22:9-12). The fact that this case refers only to animals, whereas the previous case mentions "money or stuff," has been interpreted as drawing a distinction, not between the types of property deposited (cf. Philo, Spec. 4:35;Rashbam, Ex. 22:6), but between the types of bailment, since "the safekeeping of money or vessels is generally undertaken without payment [ i.e., slromer 11i1111am J, whereas that of animals is undertaken for reward {i.e., shomer sakharJ" (Nal;lmanides to Ex. 22:G). In this case the bailee is liable in the event of the goods being stolen or lost (which is further authority for the conclusion that Scripture is here referring to a shommer saklzar) and he cannot be absolved even by taking the

Figure 34: The Principles of Jewish Law, edited by Menahem Elon (Jerusalem, 1975).

/. Encyclopedias

BAILMENTS: Delivery of personal property for the purpose of II trust. A bailmcnt aiises when one person (the bailee) is lawfully put in the possession of goods belonging to another (the b,iilor) with the understanding that he will return them. The law of Bailments deals muinly with the duty of the bailee to return the things held in bailment and the grounds for not returning them in good condition.

I. The Scriptural law of Bailments is given in Ex. xxii. 6-14 (A. V. 7-15); nucl there is also II reference to deposits in Lev. v. 20-26 (A. V. vi. 1-7). In the former text the first paragraph (ver~es 6-8 [A. V.7-9)) speaks of entrusting money or implements to the care

of a neighbor; and o.s such deposits are Ola11se11. usually accepted witliout reward, this

of Bailees. passage is understood us referring to the " gmtui tous keeper " (" shomer

l)innam "). The next paragraph (9-12) speaks of putting animals into the care of another; and as animals are placed every day in the care of a shepbercl work• ing for hire, this paragraph is understood to refer to a. paid keeper or" receiver of hire"(" shomersakar" or "nose sakar "). V crses 13, 14 (A. V. 14, 15) speak of o□c who "borrows" some specific thing, known in Hebrew as" sho'el," while he who borrows money is known as" loweh." The sages, however, recognize a fourth kind of bailee: one who rents or hires an article(" soker "), and they place him iu a more favored position than the borrower, in analogy to the greater favor that is shown to the gratuitous keeper as compared with the receiver of hire. Thus the :IIishnah (B. )I. vii. 8; Shebnot viii. 1) enumerates four bailees(" sbomerim "): (1) the borrower; (2) the gratuitous keeper; (3) the receiver of hire; and (4) the hirer. Tl1ese classes arc well known to the Roman jurisprudence and to the common law of England; hut the special liability of common carriers. wbo are in our own time the most important of all bailees, is nnknown to Bible and Talmud.

The same clegl'ee of care natl extent of liability are placed upon the hirer 11s upon the receiver of hire: thus there are indeed four bailees; but, as the Talmud puts it, only three rules govern their liability (B. M. 93a). The "higher care," spoken of in. the Talmud as resting upon the paid keeper as compared with the gratuitous one, bears in its counterpart some analogy to the linns culpa and lata culpa of the Romans; and while the main distinction (in the Scripture the only distinction) lies between "compulsion" ("ones ")-that is, overpowering force, the Roman. flis maj<n'-on the one side, and " theft or loss," the tesult of the keeper's negligence, on the

Figure 35: 'Bailment,' Jewish Encyclopedia (New York/London, 1901-1905).

II. INDICES TO THE RESPONSA LITERATURE

As mentioned, most books of responsa contain topical indices. In addition, there exist a number of comprehensive indices: Responsa Project of Bar flan University, mentioned above (p.

84), is one of the most important aids to locating responsa by subject. With the aid of a CD-ROM computer disk, responsa culled from some 250 basic works can be located quickly and easily. The disk also contains the text of the Bible, the Mishnah, the Babylonian Talmud with Rashi's commentary, the Jerusalem Talmud, Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, the Tur, and halakhic Midrashim. With the help of a computer, it is possible to obtain a listing of all sources within the data bank relating to the topic of interest, relevant passages in context, and the complete text of each responsum cited.

It is also possible to order a written summary and analysis of the sources located (see below, p. 117).

For the purposes of this guide, we located responsa containing the phrase 'a bailee who has entrusted his charge to another (shomer shemasar leshomer; 11.mv, ,o~v, ,~itv).' As it happens, the phrase appears in dozens of responsa. Shown is a list of appearances of our key phrase, in each responsum, in the context of the preceding and following words (see Figure 36).

Mafte'ah haShe'elot vehaTeshuvot she/ Hakhmei Sefarad uTzefon Africa, edited by M. Elon, is published by the Institute for Research in Jewish Law of the Hebrew University. It covers responsa written by the authorities of Spain and North Africa prior to the Spanish expulsion in 1492. It comprises three parts, an index of sources, a topical index, and an historical index. The index of sources lists all references to Scripture, the Mishnah, Tosefta, Midrashim, and Talmudim. The historical index contains historical material included in the responsa and is arranged by topic. The legal index classifies the contents of the responsa according to the full range

100


of topics in civil, criminal, administrative, public, and personal status law (see Figure 37).

The card file of Otzar haPosekim catalogues the great bulk of responsa literature (see above, p. 84). A summary of the responsa relating to Even haEzer of the Shulhan Arukh is being published; its eighteen volumes have reached chapter 69 of Even HaEzer. Indices to the responsa relating to Hoshen Mishpat are also being published. To date, one volume has appeared covering chapters 1-17 of Hoshen Mishpat.

Kuntres haTeshuvot, by Boaz Cohen. This is an important bibliographical index to responsa and includes a comprehensive introduction.

Majte'ah liTeshuvot haGeonim, by Y. Miller, is a guide to Geonic responsa.

The Saul Lieberman Institute for Talmudic Research of the Jewish Theological Seminary in Jerusalem has compiled a topical card file index to 600 volumes ranging from writings of early halakhic authorities to works of modern scholarship. The index is currently being prepared for computerization.

In addition to Pit 'hei Teshuvah, mentioned above (p. 74), there exist a number of other summaries of responsa.

Halakhah Pesukah follows the order of Hoshen Mishpat and summarizes the accepted rulings. It currently covers the first 27 chapters of Hoshen Mishpat.

K ovetz haPosekim is a comprehensive work covering the first 35 chapters of Hoshen Mishpat.

Knesset haGedolah, by R. Hayyim Benveniste (17th century), is a compilation of responsa following the order of the Tur and Beit Yosef Divrei Geonim is a summary of responsa arranged topically in

alphabetical order.

101


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Figure 36: Page of printout produced by the Responsa Project of Bar Han University. The page lists appearances of the Hebrew phrase shomer shemasar /eshomer in their immediate context and the precise location of each appearance.


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Figure 37: Mafte 'ah haShe'elot vehaTeshuvot she! Hakhmei Sefarad uTzefon Africa, edited by M. Elon (Jerusalem, 1986).

III. BIOGRAPHY

Biographies contribute valuable insight into the life, times, and work of the authorities who have shaped the literature of Jewish law. Several biographical reference works are listed here.

Encyclopedia leToledot Gedolei Yisrael, edited by M. Margaliot, covers post-Geonic authorities who lived between the eleventh and eighteenth centuries.

Hakhmei Yisrael, by D. Halahmi, deals with authorities from the thirteenth century to the date of its publication.

Atlas Etz Hayyim, by R. Halperin, contains biographies as well as chronological and genealogical diagrams. Its scope is from the creation of the world to the present. An example is shown. below (Figure 38).

haMishpat halvri, by Prof. M. Elon (see above, p. 87). Part III contains biographical information on the major halakhic figures.

A History of Jewish Literature, by M. Waxman, contains useful biographical material.

104

"lt'!Mlf21Z1 oio,i~~ '>

\

III. Biography

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Figure 38: 'The School of R. Me'ir of Rothenburg,' Raphael Halperin, Atlas Etz Hayyim (Tel Aviv, from 1973).

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY

There are three bibliographical reference works of note. Otzar haMishpat, A Bibliographical Index to Jewish Law, by N.

Rakover, is a comprehensive listing of books, articles, encyclopedia entries, essays, and unpublished doctoral dissertations, appearing in Hebrew. Volume one covers material published through 1973 and contains some 12,000 entries; volume two covers the years 1974 through 1989 and contains approximately 9,000 entries.

In volume one of Otzar haMishpat, the entry on bailees (shomerim) is located on page 414; it cites some fifty references. In volume two, the entry appears on page 421 and contains some sixty references.

The Multi-Language Bibliography of Jewish Law, by N. Rakover, is similar to Otzar haMishpat, and contains some 15,000 references to works published before 1989 in languages other than Hebrew. The subject of bailment is found on pages 690-691, entries 13703-13719 (see Figure 39).

Reshimat Ma'amarim beMada'ei haYahadut is an annually published listing of journal articles on Jewish topics appearing in Hebrew and other languages. It has appeared since 1966, and some volumes contain a section on Jewish law. A computer search of all volumes can be executed at the Jewish National and University Library in Jerusalem.

A selected bibliography of works published between 1925 and 1967 on the topics of Talmudic and Midrashic literature was prepared by A. Gutmann, and appears in the appendix (pp. 397-415) to the 1968 edition of Introduction to the Talmud by M. Mielziner.

106

IV. Bibliograpy

BAILMENTS c,,r.i,w

13703 Amram, David Werner: Borrower (1nrnu). JE 3, p. 327-328 13704 Biberfeld, Ph.: Das Problem der C'7l1:::J::l i11'01V. NZ 2 (1931-32), p. 351-357; 3

(1932-33), p. 30-35 mos Cohn, Marcus: Haftung der Verwahrer (c•11.rnu). Jud. Lex. 2, p. 1325-1328

= W JR, p. 52-53 13706 Cohn, Marcus: Leibe (rI7NlV). Jild. Lex. 3, p. 1034-1035 = WJR, p. 57 13707 Cohn, Marcus: Verwahrung (Tl1i'~). Jiid. Lex. 5, p. 1209-1210 = WJR, p. 70 13708 Daube, David: Negligence in the early talmudic law of contract (Peshiah). Jubilee

vol. Schulz, vol. 1, 1951, p. 124-147 13709 Daube, David: Josephus on suicide and liability of depositee. JRe, N.S. 9 (1964),

p. 212-224 = Jubilee vol. Belaunde, p. 213-243 13710 Dembitz, Lewis N.: Bailments. JE 2, p. 456-459 13711 Encyclopedia Talmudica: Artisan 101N. Vol. I, p. 382-392 13712 Fensham, F. Charles: New light on Exodus 21,6 and 22,7 from the laws of

Eshnunna. JBL 78 (1959), p. 160-161 13713 Finkelstein, Louis: An old Babylonian contract and Genesis 31,38 f. JAOS 88

(I 968), p. 30-36 13714 Greenstone, Julius H.: Hiring and letting. JE 6, p. 406-408 13715 Holmes, Peter: Deposit. Kitto I, p. 664-666 13716 Hurcwitsch, Nathan: Die Haftung des Vcrwahrers nach talmudischem Recht.

ZVR 27 (1912), p. 425-439 13717 Keyzer, Salomo: Dissertatio de tutela secundum jus Thalmudicum. Dissert.

Leiden 1847, 4+38 p. 13718 Price, Ira M.: The laws of deposit in early Babylonia and the Old Testament.

JAOS 47 (1927), p. 2S0-2S5 13719 Rakover, Nahum: Shomerim (bailees). EJ 14, p. 1455-1458 = PJL (bailment), p.

256-260

Figure 39: The Multi-Language Bibliography of Jewish Law, edited by Nahum Rakover (Jerusalem, 1990).

107

V. REFERENCE

A. The Talmud and Rabbinic Decisions

Ein Mishpat - Ner Mitzvah (see above, p. 47) is printed on the page of the Talmud and indicates the decisions of Mishneh Torah, Tur, and Shulhan Arukh on the topic under discussion.

Einayim laMishpat, by Y. Ari'eli, in three volumes, supplements the Ein Mishpat - Ner Mitzvah. It is arranged according to the page order of the Talmud and refers the reader to additional decisions of Mishneh Torah and Shulhan Arukh.

While the above works furnish references from the Talmud to the codes, the following works refer the reader of the codes to the talmudic sources.

Be'er haGolah {see above, p. 72) appears on the page of Shulhan Arukh and refers the reader to talmudic and other sources of each law.

Be'ur haGra (see above, p. 72) adds to the sources cited by Be'er haGolah. It is also printed on the page of standard editions of Shulhan Arukh.

B. Parallel Passages Within the Talmud

Masoret haShas (see above, p. 48) is printed on the page of the Talmud and cites parallels within the Babylonian Talmud.

Yefeh Einayim is printed among the commentaries at the back of standard volumes of the Talmud and cites parallel passages in the Jerusalem Talmud and Midrashim.

108

V. Reference

C. Rabbinic Literature and the Bible

Torah haK etuvah vehaMesurah, by A. Hyman (2nd edition, revised by D. Hyman, Tel Aviv, 1979), lists for each verse in the Bible every reference in the Talmudim, Midrashim, and the writings of Maimonides.

Torah Temimah, by B. Epstein, assembles and explains rabbinic quotations from the Talrnudim and Midrashim and keys them to the verses of the Pentateuch.

Torah Shelemah, by R. Menahem M. Kasher, is another work that follows the order of the Pentateuch collecting on each verse every passage from the Talmudim, Midrashim, Geonim, and Maimonides. Torah Shelemah also adds notes of explanation and supplementary excursuses. To date, forty-three volumes have been published reaching the latter part of the Book of Numbers. Nine volumes reaching Parashat Beshalah have been published in English.

109

VI. DICTIONARIES

A. Hebrew

heArukh, by R. Natan ben Yehi'el of Rome (11th century). The most recent edition was prepared by A. Kohut a century ago under the name A rukh haShalem, in nine volumes. heArukh is an alphabetically arranged dictionary of terms and phrases of the Talmud. An entry will usually include a translation and explanation of the word or phrase plus additional information of relevance.

Milon Talmudi, by B. Kam. Otzar haTalmud, by J. Shechter, is a concise lexicon of talmudic

terminology. Milon Arami-lvri leTalmud Bavli, by E. Z. Melamed.

B. English

A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature, by M. Jastrow, is a comprehensive dictionary that not only furnishes definitions of terms, but cites and explains many examples of their use in context. It is, thus, also a useful aid to finding frequently used terms and phrases (see

Figure 40). Introduction to the Talmud, by M. Mielziner, is a comprehensive

introduction to talmudic literature and contains explanations of key talmudic terms and phrases. These may be located with the aid of the index.

C. German

Woerterbuch ueber die Talmudim und Midraschim, prepared by J. Levy in 1896.

I IO

VI. Dictionaries

Nt?~1:ir.;mo r . .anie. Targ. Y. I Lev. VII, 30 (a gloH to IO-,f').-V. 111;'1:i)~·:j.

t"l,~~1!0 £. (C!i:i Ill) wild garlic. Kil, I, s, To■ol. ib.

I, 2 (Vai-. l:l"lll1D1 eorr. acc.).

t(,:S,01tti m. c:.iuti) reputarion. Meg. 2sb, v. •>c. lb.

M".l:;;,; ;,ll1TI who-i~ well apoken o(. M. Kilt. 11•: r11DT.J1l.O, • oorrupt. or,,•1~,~ m. (t01tttC,ov) Iopa,.

Ex.R.1.38,end (cone•p. toh.M"1tlll; v. LXXEx.XXVIII,t 7).

~ilO m. (h. b . .,~ui; .,~~) watchn1an, guard, kttptr, Y. Taan. I, 64" top (espl. la. XXI, 11) 0,11',i,n 'u, ',',,>;J Mu

what did the keeper of the world ""Y! Lev. R. •· 36 Mn ';' M',::,,:i', .,..,~ n,•~ •a:n ,, 'Jb) o• the guard of the gTape

vine (vineya rd) atand, high (in the t,-,tl'\i:i), 10 I• hrael'• guard ahove, Jlag. 15~ ';,, MNlM 'Ill ,;;It even the gate

keeper (of Gehenna) could not iitand before thee; a.fr.Eep. one in wliost charge an obj,ct is git•tn, bailee, c,n 'Ill an anpaid bailee; "C\!l •a, a plid trmtee. B. Meu;esb; •· fr,- [Rbebu. VIII, I; B. Mete. VII, 8 '1:11) tt~m, •ab. "lll'!'J:).-'rrn,r. that part of II plant or of II bod11 10/u"cl serve, a, a proltction ( •• g. loavH, ek.in). Ber. 39b te"t'I

'='' .,.,...,; 'Ul na:i,n jl'"ltiM 1re cAll a part oh plant a guard of the fnlit only, tr the plant die- "'hen the goard i• remond. Ukta. I, 1. ~nit 11 ob 'Ill D'n!l1:l M"l'li!l::I it refen to the atem of an ear, and beea11oe it i1 '• gaard'; a. fr.Pl. tl"".l"q'id, 1"11?',:j· n:Me1,. I. c. ':ii :-,,.,.,., '".!l?iti watch• men of fraltll may ,o.t (of the"!) by Jocal """"•• but not by Biblical law, lb,; Shebu.1,c, ':>I ih 11!1 :,:::::i"lit the1e "" fonr ol,.Hel of bRileeo. lb. 49b '>D l'\,""l:lll the oRth nqaired of bailee• (E:a:. :X~II, U 1q.); a. fr.

i!:l11tl° m.fellnel(v.LilwPfl.,p.382•1)1). Y.Kil.I, 27°bot.

l'l:l';~'l"IU'll j'll'Ull l'"Dl M1l Dll'S;;'\ '":: quot. in R. S. lo Kil. I,, (ed, corrupt) what come, out of mind seedo of fennel and p&raleyf Rock•panley.

mW~!D, (m'1],;)'!li0) ch. aame, or dill. Y.Dem.1,21J

top M\.:.C:) (eorr.T ac'c.), T, jl)i~. lb. •:,, M"11l "11:111) 'Ill; "·

;t:R? I.

i"nr.lid, m'IT.Jitd l. ("1-:ii:i) ,c11tcls-olltil, watcfa-to, ..... lodge.' iu. v, s .. B. Bath, 1v, e·(ss'') u•:i::i ~11i, Ml'tt'll'l?lM

(T. lbblt, D, 8. IL I. note UO) a watcb-1hed not plutered with c1 .. , (mOYAble). lb. es• '"ll,wn.

Figure 40: A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature, by Marcus Jastrow (London/ New York, 1886-1903; reprinted New York, 1968).

111

VII. ABBREVIATIONS

Rabbinic literature routinely abbreviates not only words and names but entire phrases. Certain texts are nearly incomprehensible without a guide to abbreviations.

Otzar Rashei Te,,ot, edited by S. Ashkenazi and D. Yarden. Eshnav haTalmud, by E.Z. Melamed, contains a listing of

commonly used abbreviations. Introduction to the Talmud, by M. Mielziner (see above, p. 110).

Aiding Talmud Study, by A. Carmel, contains a list of abbreviations and technical terms.

112

VIII. ANTHOLOGIES

A. Halakhic Dicta

For locating the source of a particular halakhic dictum, there are a number of useful anthologies. Some anthologies list halakhic dicta alphabetically; thus, if the precise wording is known, finding the dictum is quite simple.

Otz.ar Ma'amrei Halakhah, by Y. Hasidah. Otz.ar Divrei Hakhamim uFitgameihem by A. Hyman. Nivei Talmud, a new anthology of rabbinic dicta on matters of

legal and judicial interest, recently published by N. Rakover and R. Ya'akobi. Other anthologies list dicta according to subject matter:

Otzar haAggadah, by M.D. Gross, lists rabbinic sayings according to topic.

B. Responsa

Mishpat veHalakhah-Mivhar Teshuvot, by Y. Bazak, anthologizes responsa on property and penal law. The responsa are arranged according to author, the first volume containing material written prior to the Spanish expulsion in 1492, and the second volume, material from the period following the Spanish expulsion ending with the time of R. Yosef Karo.

113

IX. MODERN LAW

A. Jewish Law in Contemporary Legislation

Jewish Law in the Debates of the Knesset, by N. Rakover (2 vols., Hebrew), is a compilation of citations from Jewish law found in the record of the Knesset's legislative discussions. The work shows the connection between Jewish law and Israeli legislation.

Page 778, for example, cites the Israeli Bailees Law, 5727-1967 (see Appendix I). Subsections (b)-(d) of section 1 define the various types of bailee: gratuitous bailee, bailee for reward, and borrower. Section 2 establishes the extent of each bailee's liability. The Bailees Law incorporates many of the fundamentals of bailment in Jewish law.

In the explanatory notes to the original Bailees Law bill (quoted

on p. 780), we read: 'With regard to the liability resulting from the different types of bailment, the law proposed herein follows the principles of Jewish law (Mishnah Shevu'ot 8:1: 'There are four bailees, the gratuitous bailee, the borrower, the bailee for hire, and the hirer ... ').'

Further on (pp. 780-790), we find the parallels between the Bailees Law and Jewish law cited by the Minister of Justice and Members of Knesset in the bill's first reading before the legislature.

B. Jewish Law in Contemporary Judicial Decisions

Modern Applications of Jewish Law-Resolution of Contemporary Problems According to Jewish Sources in Israeli Courts, by N. Rak over (2 vols.), is a compilation of hundreds of judicial decisions of the Israeli Supreme Court and district courts which are based upon or cite Jewish law. The section on bailment is found on pages 683-689 (see Figure 41). On page 685, we find the decision in Ali v. Sasson, (1982) 36(3) P.D. 281, 289-292, in which Judge E.

114

BAILEES

C.A. 341/80

ALI v. SASSON et al. (1982) 36(3) P.D. 281, 289-292

A football pools coupon filled in by the appellant, having subsequently been found to be missing, was reported to the football pool organisers and consequently was not included in the weekly competition. The appellant claimed that his coupon had contained the winning forecast and he was entitled to the first prize. His action was dismissed in the District Court.

Sheinbaum J: The classification of bailees under the Bailees Law, 1967, follows Jewish law, as explained in the Explanatory Notes to the Bill of the Law. See also Z. Tzeltner, "The Law of Contracts in its Development During Twenty Years Since the Establishment of the State" (1975) 29 haPraklit 56, 71, and N. Rakover, "The Jewish Law Sources of the Bailees Law, 1967" (1968) 24 haPraklit, 208, 211. Since Jewish law was considered by the draftsmen of the Law, we may therefore be assisted by Jewish law in understanding the concepts employed by the statute (although not all its provisions follow the rules of Jewish law).

We learn from the Mishnah, Shevuot 8:1, that-

There are four bailees, the unpaid bailee, the borrower, the paid bailee and the hirer. The unpaid bailee takes an oath in all cases, the borrower pays in all cases, the paid bailee and the hirer take an oath in the case of injury, capture or death, but pay for loss or theft.

We also learn from Baba Metzia 3:11:

If a man deposits money with his neighbour who binds it up and slings it over his shoulders or entrusts it to his minor son or daughter and locks the door before them but not properly, he is liable because he

Figure 41: Modern Applications of Jewish Law, edited by Nahum Rakover (Jerusalem, 1992).

115


Sheinbaum applies the principles of Jewish law in his interpretation of Israeli Legislation. In the following excerpt, Judge Sheinbaum explains his basis for doing so:

The classification of bailees under the Bailees Law, 1967, follows Jewish law, as explained in the Explanatory Notes to the Bill of the Law . ... Since Jewish law was considered by the draftsmen of the law, we may be assisted by Jewish law in understanding the concepts employed by the statute (although not all its provisions follow the rules of Jewish law).

116

X. SUPPORT SERVICES

Sherut Mishpat lvri (Jewish Law Service) is a division of the Responsa Project (see above, p. 100) that provides information on Jewish law pertinent to issues adjudicated in Israeli courts. The service, in addition to locating relevant sources in the responsa literature, supplies a summary of them. The service may be reached through the offices of the Responsa Project, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52100, Israel.

Otzar haPosekim (see above, p. 84) provides summaries of topics found in its card index. Correspondence may be directed to Otzar haPosekim, 3 Torah miTzion Street, Jerusalem 94401, Israel. In addition, a computerized link providing indices of responsa relating to Hoshen Mishpat is now available.

Moreshet haMishpat beYisrael (The Jewish Legal Heritage Society). Passage of the Foundations of Law Act, 5740-1980 established an organic relationship between Israeli legislation and 'the principles of freedom, justice, equity, and peace of the Jewish heritage.' In response, the Jewish Legal Heritage Society was founded under the leadership of Prof. Nahum Rakover and the late Dr. Yitzhak Kister. The society acts, inter alia, as a center for dissemination of information to members of the Israeli legal community on matters related to implementation of the Foundations of Law Act. Interested parties may receive bibliographical and related assistance, and lawyers may receive Jewish legal opinions for use in litigation. Inquiries should be directed to Moreshet haMishpat be Yisrael, P.O.B. 7483, Jerusalem 91074, Israel.

117

APPENDICES

I. Bailees Law, 5727-1967

II. Tractate of the Mishna and Talmud

and Their Abbreviations

APPENDIX I

BAILEES LAW, 5727-1967•

1. (a) Holding property by way of bailment is. the lawful possession Bailment and thereof otherwise than by virtue of ownership. bailees.

(b) A bailee of property who himself derives no benefit from the bailment is a gratuitous bailee.

(c) A bailee of property who receives consideration for or derives some other benefit from the bailment, and who is not a borrower, is a bailee for reward.

(d) A bailee of property which he is to use or enjoy without giving consideration is a borrower.

2. (a) A gratuitous bailee is liable for loss of or damage to the prop- Liability of erty if it is caused through his negligence. bailees.

(b) A bailee for reward is liable for loss of or damage to the property unless it is caused by circumstances which he need not have foreseen and the consequences of which he could not have averted: Provided that if the purpose of safekeeping is subordinate to the principal purpose of his possession, the bailee is exempt from liability if the loss or damage is caused otherwise than through his negligence.

(c) A borrower is liable for loss of or damage to the property, whatever its cause: Provided that his liability shall not be more stringent than that of an unlawful possessor.

• Passed by the Knesset on the 2nd Nisan, 5727 (12th April, 1967) and published in Sefer Ha-Chukkim No. 496 of the 11th Nisan, 5727 (21st April, 1967), p. 52; the Bill and an Explanatory Note were published in Hatza'ot Chok No. 676 of 5726, p. 52.

121

More stringent liability.

Restriction on liability.

Compensation and indemnification.

Authority to act in an emergency.

Sub-bailee.

Indemnification.

l. Bailees law, 5727-1967

(d) A bailee who knows that damage for which he is not liable under subsections (a) to (c) is likely to be caused to the property, and who does not notify the owner of the property to such effect within a reasonable time or take reasonable steps to notify him, shall be liable for that damage to the extent that the notification would have enabled the owner of the property to prevent it.

3. Where a gratuitous bailee or bailee for reward, having received any property for his personal safekeeping, delivers it to another person without being explicitly or implicitly authorised to do so, his liability for loss of or damage to the property shall be that of a borrower.

4. A bailee is not liable for loss of or damage to the property caused by ordinary use thereof in accordance with the conditions of the bailment or by natural deterioration or by a defect existing therein at the com~ mencement of the bailment, but nothing in this provision shall reduce his liability for negligence.

5. (a) Where the bailee is liable for the loss of or damage to the property, the owner of the property shall be entitled to the compensation payable for breach of contract.

(b) Where the bailee is not liable for loss of or damage to the property but has a right to compensation or indemnification for such loss or damage against a third party, the owner of the property may claim his damage from the bailee out of the compensation or indemnification due to the bailee.

6. A bailee may do any urgent and unforeseen act reasonably required to prevent damage likely to be caused to the property, as if the owner of the property had authorised him to do so.

7. (a) Where a bailee has delivered the property to a sub-bailee, the acts and omissions of the sub-bailee are deemed to be the acts and omissions of the bailee, and the sub-bailee is liable to the owner of the property to the same extent as he is liable to the bailee.

(b) The provisions of subsection {a) shall apply whether the property was delivered with or without the permission of the owner thereof: Provided that they shall not derogate from the liability of the bailee under section 3 or under any other law.

8. (a) The owner of the property shall indemnify a gratuitous bailee, as well as the holder of a pledge or other security, for reasonable expenses

122

I. Bailees law. 5727-1967

incurred and liabilities reasonably contracted in consequence of the bailment.

(b) Every bailee is entitled to indemnification as provided in subsection (a) in consequence of an act done by him under section 6.

9. The bailee shall have a lien on the property to the extent of what is due to him from the owner of the property in consequence of the bail~ ment.

10. The mutual debts of the owner of the property and the bailee in consequence of the bailment may be set off.

11. Where a bailee is entitled to return the property to its owner and has done what he was bound to do in order to return it, but the owner has not accepted the property, the bailee may apply to the court for directions as to what to do with the property and shall be exempt from all liabilityifhe acts in good faith in accordance with the directions of the court; andifheisa bailee for reward or a borrower, his liability for loss of or damage to the property and his right to indemnification shall be that of a gratuitous bailee, even if he has not applied to the court for directions.

12. (a) In this section -

"hotel" includes a boarding-house and any other guesthouse;

"hotel proprietor" includes a person managing a hotel;

"guest" means a person who is given sleeping accommodation in a hotel.

(b) In respect of a guest's property situated in the hotel, the hotel proprietor shall be treated as a bailee for reward.

(c) Where the property is moneys, securities or other valuables, subsection (b) shall not apply unless the guest has informed the hotel proprietor about them and, upon his request, delivered them into his possession.

(d) The hotel proprietor is exempt from liability under this section if he has not been notified of the loss of or damage to the property within a reasonable time after the guest knew or should have known about it.

123

Lien.

Set-oft'.

Property not taken back by owner.

Provisions as to hotel proprietor.

Definition.

Scope of application.

Repeal.

Commencement and transitional provision.

I. Bailees law, 5727-1967

(e) The hotel proprietor shall have a lien on a guest's property situated in the hotel, or which has been delivered into his possession under subsection (c), to the extent of what is due to him both in consequence of the bailment and of the accommodation.

13. For the purposes of this Law, "owner of property", in relation to a bailee, means any person for whom the bailee holds the property.

14. The provisions of this Law shall apply to the bailment of property where no special provisions applicable to the matter exist in any other law and no different intention appears from the agreement between the parties.

15. The Sixth Book of the M~ielle, except section 770 thereof, is hereby repealed.

16. This Law shall come into force on the 26th Elul, 5727 (1st October, 1967). A bailment of property which commenced before the coming into force of this Law shall continue to be governed by the previous law.

LEVIEsHKOL Prime Minister

SHNEUR ZALMAN SHAZAR President of the State

124

Y AAKOV S. SHAPIRO Minister of Justice

APPENDIX II

Tractates of the Mishnah and Talmud and Their Abbreviations

Tractate Tractate

Arakhin Ar. Ma'aser Sheni MS A vodah Zarah A. Zar. Makhshirin Maksh. Avot Avot Makkot Mak. Baba Batra BB Megillah Meg. Baba Kama BK Me'ilah Meil. Baba Metzia BM Menahot Men. Beitzah Betz. Middot Mid. Bekhorot Bek. Mikva'ot Mik. Berakhot Ber. Mo'ed Katan MK Bikkurim Bik. Nazir Naz. Demai Dem. Nedarim Ned. Eduyyot Eduy. Nega'im Neg. Eruvin Er. Niddah Nid. Gittin Git. Oholot Oho. Hagigah Hag. Or/ah Or. Hallah Hal. Parah Par. Horayot Hor. Pe'ah Pe'ah Hui/in Hui. Pesahim Pes. Kelim Kel. Rosh haShanah RH Keritot Ker. Sanhedrin Sanh. Ketubot Ket. Shabbat Shab. Kiddushin Kid. Shekalim Shek. Kilayim Kil. Shevi'it Shevi. Kinnim Kin. Shevu'ot Shevu. Ma'aserot Maas. Sotah Sot.

125

Appendix If

Tractate Tractate

Sukkah Suk. Uktzin Uk. Ta'anit Taan. Yadayim Yad. Tamid Tam. Yevamot Yev. Temurah Tern. Yoma Yom. Terumot Ter. Zavim Zav. Tevul Yorn TY Zevahim Zev. Tohorot Toh.

126

INDEX

Abbreviations I I 2 I 25 Adarbi, R. Yitzhak 82 Agus, Irving 82 Aharonim (Later Authorities) 15 61 R. Ahai Gaon 59 R. Aharon haLevi of Barcelona 27 Aiding Talmud Study 112 Albeck, Hanokh 38 Alfasi, R. Yitzhak (See: Rif) Alexander, R. Shemu'el 75 Amora'im 15 43 56 Anthologies

Halakhic Dicta I 13 Responsa II 3

Ari'eli, Y. 108 Artscroll (Mesorah Publications) 55 heArukh 110 Arukh haSha/em 110 Arukh haShu/han 15ff.

Citation form 75 R. Asher ben Yehi'el (See: Rosh) Ashkenazi school, scholars 69 72 80 Ashkenazi, S. 112 Ashkenazi, R. Yehudah 74 Atlas Etz Hayyim 104 105 R. A vraham ben David (See: Rabad) R. A vraham di Boton 66

Baba Metzia 35 40 44 45 46 47 50 55 59 69 72

Babylonian Talmud 43ff. 54 55 56 79 100 110 Citation form 44 Commentary on 46

129

Rashi 46 Tosafot 47

Pagination 44 Ba'er Heitev 74 Bailment (Shomerim)

Artisan as bailee 95 Bailees Law, 5727-1967 9 121ff. Bailee's Oath 79 Borrower ( Sho 'el) 26 31 32 114 Entrusting a charge (Shomer

shemasar leshomer) 40 45 46 47 48 77 80 84

Force majeure 46 49 79 Gratuitous bailee (Shomer hinam) 22

27 30 114 Hired bailee (Shomer sakhar) 22 27

30 I 14 Hirer (Sokher) 27 Laws of 15 27 35 59 72

Baraita (See also: Tosefta) 40 Batzri, R. Ezra 87 Bayit Hadash 69 71 Bazak, Y. 113 Be'er haGolah 72 l08 Beit Shemu'el 74 Beit Yosef 69 7 I Benveniste, R. Hayyim 101 Bertinoro, R. Ovadyah of 35 38 Be'ur haGra 72 108 Bible (See also: Scripture;

Pentateuch) 22 27 48 100 109 Bibliography 106 Biography l04 Blackman, Philip 35 Boaz, R. Yehoshua 47

Carmel, Aryeh 112 Chapters (Perakim) 33 Chavel, R. Charles 23 Citation form

Arukh haShulhan 75 Babylonian Talmud 44 Code of Maimonides (Mishneh

Torah) 65 Commentary on 66

Jerusalem Talmud 44 Mishnah 35 Piskei haRosh 80 Responsa literature 82 Rif 77 Shulhan Arukh 71

Commentary on 74 Tosafot 46 Tur 69

Commentary on 71 Codes 6lff.

Code of Maimonides 6lff. Tur 67ff. Shulhan Arukh 71 ff. Arukh haShu/han 75ff.

Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah) 47 6lff. 69 71 75 100 108 Citation form 65 Commentary on 65ff.

Citation form 66 Corresponding Israeli legislation 66 English translations 67

The Code of Maimonides 67 68 Cohen, A. 23 Cohen, Boaz 89 101 Cohn, Marcus 96 Commandment lists 26ff. Commentary of Maimonides on the

Mishnah 35 Hebrew translations 35

Commentary of R. Ovadyah of Bertinoro 35ff.

Danby, Herbert 35 Darkhei Moshe 69 71 R. David haLevi 74 Dembitz, Louis 96 Derishah 71 74

Index

Dictionaries Hebrew 110 English ll0 German 110

A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Bab/i and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature 110 111

Dinei Mamonot (Civil Law) 87 Dinei Yisrael 91 Divrei haGeonim 101 Dorff, E.N. 89

Ecclesiastes 26 Ein Mishpat - Ner Mitzvah 47 48 55

65 108 Einayim laMishpat 108 Eisenstadt, R. Avraham Tzvi

Hirsch 74 El•Am Talmud 50 52 R. Eliyahu of Vilna (Vilna Gaon) 72 Elon, Menachem 87 89 95 JOO 104 Encyclopedias 95 Encyclopedia Hilkhatit Hasdei

David 65 75 Encyclopedia Judaica 89 95 Encyclopedia leToledot Gedolei

Yisrae/ 104 Encyclopedia Ta/mudica 95 97 Encyclopedia Talmudit 95

English translation 95 English translations

Bible and commentaries 22ff. Code of Maimonides 67 Encyclopedia Talmudit 95 Mishnah 35 40 Mishnayot Mevo'arot 40 41 haMishpat halvri 89 Talmud

Babylonian Talmud 50 55 Jerusalem Talmud 50

Torah Shelemah 109 Tosefta 40 42

Epstein, R. Barukh haLevi 109 Epstein, Isadore 50 Epstein, R. Yehi'el Mikhel haLevi 75 Eshnav haTalmud 112 Esther Rabbah 26

130

Even haEzer 67 74 101

Falk, R. Yehoshua haKohen 71 74 Fraenkel, R. David 48 Foundations of Law Act 10 117

Gemara (See also: Talmud) 43 Geonica 60 Geonic Literature 59ff. Geonim 27 59 60 61 109

Otzar haGeonim 59 Gerondi, R. Zerahiah haLevi 79 Gerondi, R. Nissim (See: Ran) Ginzberg, Louis 60 Gross, M.D. 113 Gulak, Asher 87 Gutmann, Alexander I 06

Hagahot haRema 71 Hagahot Maimoniot 66 R. Hai 59 Hakhmei Yisrae/ !04 Halahmi, David 104 Halakhah Pesukah 101 Halakhic glosses

Rif and commentaries 77ff. Rosh and commentaries 79ff.

Halakhic literature (See also: Codes, Halakhic glosses, Rabbinic decisions) 6lff.

Halakhot 44 Halakhot Pesukot 59 Halperin, Raphael 104 Harry Fischel Institute for Research in

Talmud and Biblical Law IOI Hasagot haRabad 65 79 Hasidah, Y. 113 Havivah, R. Y osef 79 Hecht, Neil S. 89 Helkat Mehokek 74 Heller, R. Yorn Tov Lipman 38 80 Hertz, J. H. 23 Herzog, Isaac 98 Hirsch, R. Samson Raphael 23 A History of Jewish Literature 104 The Holy Scriptures 22 Horowitz, George 89

Index

131

Hoshen Mishpat 67 69 72 74 75 IOI 117

Hyman, R. Aharon 109 113 Hyman, Dov 109

Institute for Research in Jewish Law (Hebrew University) 91

International Seminar on the Sources of Contemporary Law 91

Introduction to the Code of Maimonides 67

Introduction to the Talmud 106 110 112

Isaiah, Abraham 23 Israel, State of

Ministry of Justice 87 Supreme Court 114

Israel Law Review 91 Isserles, R. Moshe (See also: Rema) 69

Jackson, B.S. 91 Jastrow, Marcus 110 Jerusalem Talmud 43ff. 48 49 50 77

100 108 Citation form 44 Commentary on 48

Jewish and Roman Law: A Comparative Study 89

Jewish Encyclopedia 95 99 Jewish Jurisprudence: Its Sources and

Modern Application 89 Jewish Law

Judicial decisions J 14 Modern legislation 114 Studies 87ff.

Jewish Law and Current Legal Problems 91

Jewish Law and Decision-Making: A Study Through Time 89

The Jewish Law Annual 91 Jewish Law Association Studies 91 Jewish Law: History, Sources,

Principles 89 Jewish Law in the Debates of the

Knesset 114 Jewish Publication Society 22

Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) IOI

Joel, Issachar I06 Journals and collections 91 The Journal of Halacha and

Contemporary Society 91 Juedisches Lexikon 96

Kagan, K. Kahana 89 Kahana, R. Hayyim Aryeh IOI Kapah, R. Yosef 35 Kaplan, R. Aryeh 22 Karo, R. Y osef 66 69 71 72 74 l I 3

Beil Y osef 69 Kesef Mishneh 66 Shulhan Arukh 71 ff.

Karu, Barukh 110 Kasher, R. Menahem M. 109 Kehati, Pinhas 38 40 Kesef Mishneh 66 Ketubor 50 Kiddushin 55 Kirschenbaum, A. 91 Kister, Yitzchak 117 Klapholtz, M. 65 Knesset haGedolah 101 Kohut, Alexander 110 Koidonover, R. Aharon Shemu'el 80 Karban haEdah 48 Karban Netanel 80 Kovetz haPosekim IOI Kuntres haTeshuvot IOI

Lamentations 26 Landau, R. Yehezkel 82 Lehem Mishneh 66 Levine, B.M. 59 Levy, Isaac 23 Levy, Jacob 110 Lieberman, Saul 40 Lima, R. Moshe 74 Lipschuetz, R. Yisrael 38 The Living Torah 22 A Living Tree 89

Mafte'ah haShe'elot vehaTeshuvot she/ Hakhmei Sefarad uTzefon Africa 100 103

Index

Mafte'ah liTeshuvot haGeonim 101 Maggid Mishneh 66 Maimonides (R. Moshe ben Maiman;

Rambam) 27 35 61ff. 82 91 Se/er haMitzvot 27 30ff. Commentary of Maimonides on the

Mishna 35 Code of Maimonides (Mishneh

Torah) 61ff. Maimonides and the Law in Israel 66 Maimonides as Codifier of Jewish

Law 91 The Main Institutions of Jewish

Law 89 90 Makkot 55 Mandel, R. Zekhariah 74 Mapah 69 71 Margaliot, Mordekhai 104 Margoliot, R. Moshe 48 Masoret haShas 48 108 R. Meir haKohen 66 Mekhilta deRabbi Yishma'e/ 26 28ff. Melamed, E.Z. 110 112 Midrashim 23ff. 27 108 I09

Halakhic Midrashim 23ff. 100 Aggadic Midrashim 26

Midrash Rabbah 26 Midrash Tanhuma 26 Mielziner, Moses I06 110 112 Migdal Oz 66 Mikra'ot Gedolot 22 24ff. Milhamot haShem 79 Miller, Y. haKohen IOI Milon Arami-/vri le Talmud Bavli l IO Milon Talmudi 110 Mishnah 33ff. 43 56 100

Citation form 35 Commentary on the Mishnah 35ff.

41 English translations 35 40

Mishnah 35 37 The Mishnah 35 36 Mishnayot Mevo'arot 38

English translation 40 41 Mishneh laMelekh 66 Mishneh Torah (See: Code of

Maimonides)

132

Index

haMishpat halvri 87 104 English translation 89

Mishpal veHa/akhah - Mivhar Teshuvot 113

Mivhar Piskei Din Rabbaniyim {Selected Rabbinic Legal Decisions) 84

Modern Applications of Jewish Law 114 115

Moreshet haMishpat beYisrae/ (The Jewish Legal Heritage Society) I 17

Mosad haRav Kook 66 R. Moshe ben Maimon (See:

Maimonides) R. Moshe ben Nahman (See:

Nahmanides) R. Moshe of Couey 27 The Multi-Language Bibliography of

Jewish Law I I 106 107

Nahmanides (R. Moshe ben Nahman; Ramban) 18 20ff. 23 79 Commentary on the Bible 18 20ff.

English translations 23 Milhamot haShem 79

R. Natan ben Yehi'el of Rome 110 The National Jewish Law Review 91 National Jewish Law Students

Network 91 Neusner, Jacob 40 50 Nezikin 35 40 Nimukei Yosef 79 Nivei Talmud 113 Noam 91 Nose'ei kelim (Arms Bearers) 65 72

Obermann, Julian 67 Orah Hayim 67 Oral law (Torah shebe'al peh) (See also:

Mishnah; Talmud) 33 Otzar Divrei Hakhamim

uFitgameihem 113 Otzar haAggadah 113 Otzar haGeonim 59 Otzar haMishpal l06 Otzar haPosekim 84 IOI 117

Card catalogue 10 I

133

Otzar haTa/mud I IO Otzar Ma'amrei Halakhah 113 Otzar Rashei Tevot 112

Passamaneck, S. 72 Penei Moshe 48 Pentateuch (See also: Bible;

Scriptures) 15 22 23 26 The Pentateuch 23 The Pentateuch and Haftorahs 16ff. 23 The Pentateuch and Rashi's

Commentary 23 The Pentateuch with Tragum

Onkelos 19 23 Peri Megadim 75 Perishah 71 74 Pesakim 61 Pilpula Harifta 80 Piskei Din Rabbaniyim (PDR) 84 Piskei haRosh 79ff.

Citation form 80 Pit'hei Teshuvah 74 IOI Preisler, Z.H. 65 75 The Principles of Jewish Law 89 95 98

Quint, Emanuel 89

Rabad (R. Avraham ben David) 65 66 79 Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg 82 83 Rabbinic courts

Decisions 84 Rabbinic decisions

Responsa 82ff. Decisions of Israeli Rabbinic

Courts 84 Rakover, Nahum 66 87 91 95 106 113

114 117 Rambam (See: Maimonides) Rambam laAm 66 haRambam vehaHok biMedinat

Yisrae/ 66 Ramban (See: Nahmanides) Ramban (Nachmanides) Commentary

on the Torah 20ff. 23 Ran 79 Rashi (R. Shelomo Yitzhaki) 18 22 23

27 46 47 50 55

Index

Commentary on the Bible I 8ff. English translation 23

Commentary on the Talmud 46 Rashbam 23 Reference materials

Parallel passages within the Talmud 108

Rabbinic literature and the Bible I 09 Talmud and rabbinic decisions 108

Rema (R. Moshe Isserles) 69 71 72 74 Reshimat Ma'amarim beMada'ei

ha Y ahadut l 06 Responsa literature

Card-catalogue of responsa 84 100 Citation form 82 Geonic 59 IOI Indices to the Responsa

literature 100 Rabbinic decisions 82ff.

Responsa Project (Bar Ilan University) 84 100 102 117

Rif (R. Yitzhak Alfasi) 27 43 77ff. Commentary on 79 Citation form 77

Rishonim (Earlier Authorities) 61 69 Rivkes, R. Moshe 72 Rosanes, R. Yehudah 66 Rosenbaum, M. 23 Rosell, A. 89 Rosh (R. Asher ben Yehi'el) 43 79ff.

Commentary on 80 Ruth 26

Sanhedrin 55 Saul Lieberman Institute for Talmudic

Research JO I Schechter, Solomon 60 Schreiber, Aahron M. 89 Scripture (See also: Bible;

Pentateuch) l 5ff. Biblical commentary l5ff.

Targumim 15 Rashi 18 Nahmanides 18

Translation of the Bible and commentaries 22ff.

Midrashim 23ff.

Commandment lists 26ff. Sedarim 33 Sefardi school, scholars 7 I 72 80 Sefer hallinnukh 27 32 Sefer haMa'or 79 Se/er haMitzvot 27 30ff. Se/er haTurim (See: Tur) Se/er haZekhut 79 Se/er Me'irat Einayim•(Sma) 74 Sefer Mitzvot Gadol (The Great Book

of Commandments; Semag) 27 Seforno 23 Semag (See: Sefer Mitzvot Gadol) R. Shabtai haKohen 74 Shakh (See: Siftei Kohen) Sharfman, Benjamin 23 Shas 33 Shechter, Joseph 110 She'elot uteshuvot (See also: Responsa;

Teshuvot) 82 She 'elot uTeshuvot Divrei Rivot 82 She'elot uTeshuvot Noda

biYehudah 82 She'iltot of Rav Ahai Gaon 59 R. Shemtov ibn Gaon 66 R. Shemu'el ben Hofni 59 R. Shemu'el ben Uri Shraga Faivel 74 Shenaton haMishpat ha/vri 91 Sherut Mishpat Ivri (Jewish Law

Service) J 17 R. Shimon haDarshan 26 Shishah Sidrei Mishnah 38 Shulhan Arukh 47 65 66 69 7lff. 84 87

IOI 108 Citation form 71 Commentary on 72ff.

Citation form 74 Sidrat Mehkarim uSkirot baMishpat

ha/vri (Studies and Surveys in Jewish Law) 87ff.

Sifra 26 Sifrei 26 Siftei Kohen (Shakh) 74 Silberman, A.M. 23 Sinai 91 Sirkis, R. Yo'el 69 Slotki, A.D. 65

134

Index

The Soncino Chumash 23 Soncino Press 50 51 Song of Songs 26 The Spirit of Jewish Law 89 Steinsaltz, R. Adin 55 56 Support services ll 7

Talmud 18 27 43ff. 59 61 77 80 95 101 108 109 110 112 113 Babylonian Talmud 43ff. 54 55 56 79

100 110 Pagination 44 Citation form 44

Cross-reference system 47ff. English editions of the Talmud 50 55 Jerusalem Talmud 43ff. 48 49 50 77

100 108 Citation form 44

New Hebrew editions of the Talmud 55

Talmudic commentary 46ff. Commentary on the Babylonian

Talmud 46ff. Commentary on the Jerusalem

Talmud 48 The Talmud, Steinsalt:z edition 50 54 Talmud Bavl (See: Babylonian Talmud) Talmud Bavli 55 Talmud Bavli (Steinsaltz Edition) 55

58 The Talmud of the Land of Israel 50

53 Talmud Y erushalmi (See: Jerusalem

Talmud) Tanakh 22 R. Tanhuma 26 Tanna 'im 15 33 56 Tarbitz 91 Targumim 15 18

Targum Onkelos 15 22 23 Targum Yerushalmi 15 Targum Yonatan ben Uziel 15

Taz (See: Turei. Zahav) Tehumin 91 Teshuvot haRambam (The Responsa of

Maimonides) 82

135

Teshuvot haRema (The Responsa of R. Moshe Isserles) 82

Three Great Systems of Jurisprudence 89

Tiferet Shemu'el 80 Tiferet Yisrael 38 The Torah 22 Torah haKetuvah vehaMesurah 109 Torah Or 48 Torah Shelemah 109

English translation 109 Torah Temimah 109 Tora/ Kohanim 26 Tosafot 27 46 47 55

Citation form 46 Tosefot Yorn Tov 38 80 Tosefta 40ff. l00

Commentary 40 English translation 40 42

Tosefta Ki-Fshutah 40 Tractates (Masekhtot) 33

Abbreviations 125 Tradition 91 The Traditional Law of Sale 72 Translations (See: English translations) Tur 47 67ff. 74 75 100

Citation form 69 Commentary on 69

Citation form 71 Turei Zahav (Taz) 74 Twersky, Isadore 67

R. Vidal of Tolosa 66 Vilna Gaon 72

Warhaftig, S. 87 Warhaftig, Z. 84 Waxman, Meyer 104 Weil, R. Netanel 80 Woerterbuch des Juedischen Rechis 96 Woerterbuch ueber die Talmudim und

Midraschim 110

Ya'akobi, Rafi I 13 R. Ya'akov ben Asher 67 Yad haHazakah (See: Code of

Maimonides)

Yakhin and Boaz (See also: Tiferet Yisrael) 38

Yalkut Shimoni 26 Yarden, D. 112 Ye/eh Einayim 108 R. Yehudai Gaon 59 R. Yehudah haNasi 33

Index

136

Yelin, R. Aryeh Leib 108 Yesodei haMishpat halvri (Foundations

of Jewish Law) 87 Yitzhaki, R. Shelomoh (See: Rashi) Yoreh De'ah 67

Zuckermandel, M.S. 40

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