A Guide to Carotenoid Analysis in Foods 1999

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A GUIDE TO CAROTENOID ANALYSIS IN FOODS

Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya, Ph.D.

Departamento de Ciência de Alimentos

Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos

Universidade Estadual de CampinasC.P. 6121, 13083-970 Campinas, SP., Brasil


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ISBN 1-57881-072-8

Printed in the United States of America—2001


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CONTENTS

Nature of Carotenoids in Foods ......................................................................................................................................... 1

Common Food Carotenoids ...................................................................................................................................... 2

Composition of Carotenoids in Foods ...................................................................................................................... 5

Factors Influencing Carotenoid Composition .........................................................................................................10

Some Physicochemical Properties of Carotenoids ..........................................................................................................14

Solubility .................................................................................................................................................................. 14Light Absorption ......................................................................................................................................................14

Adsorption and Partition Properties ........................................................................................................................18

Isomerization and Oxidation ....................................................................................................................................20

Chemical Reactions of Functional Groups ...............................................................................................................22

General Procedure and Sources of Errors in Carotenoid Analysis ................................................................................23

Special Precautions in Carotenoid Work..................................................................................................................23

General Analytic Procedure .....................................................................................................................................24

Prechromatographic Steps .......................................................................................................................................25

Chromatographic Separation ...................................................................................................................................27

Identification and Quantification .............................................................................................................................31

Do’s and Don’ts in Carotenoid Analysis ...........................................................................................................................34Sampling and Sample Preparation ...................................................................................................................................37

Sampling ................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Sample Preparation ................................................................................................................................................... 38

Sampling and Sample Preparation in Food Carotenoid Analysis ............................................................................39

Open-column Method ........................................................................................................................................................41

Precautions ..............................................................................................................................................................41

Reagents and Apparatus ..........................................................................................................................................41

Extraction .................................................................................................................................................................42

Partitioning to Petroleum Ether ................................................................................................................................42

Saponification ..........................................................................................................................................................42

Concentration ..........................................................................................................................................................42

Chromatographic Separation ...................................................................................................................................42

Thin-layer Chromatography ....................................................................................................................................43

Chemical Tests .........................................................................................................................................................44

Identification ............................................................................................................................................................45

Calculation of the Concentration .............................................................................................................................45


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iv A Guide to Carotenoid Analysis in Foods

High-performance Liquid Chromatographic Methods ....................................................................................................46

Method of Bushway et al. ........................................................................................................................................46

Method of Heinonen et al. .......................................................................................................................................47

Method of Hart and Scott ........................................................................................................................................47

Method of Khachik et al. ..........................................................................................................................................49

Conclusive Identification ..................................................................................................................................................51

Method Validation and Quality Assurance .......................................................................................................................54

Validation of Methods .............................................................................................................................................54

Quality Assurance ...................................................................................................................................................56

Calculation of Retention in Processed Foods ..................................................................................................................58

References ........................................................................................................................................................................60


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v

PREFACE

There is a worldwide consensus — in different fields of studies and in programs to control micronutrient deficiency

and promote better human health — that more extensive and accurate data on the carotenoid composition of foods are

urgently needed. Carotenoid analysis, however, is inherently complicated. Nevertheless, the difficulty can be eased if

the analyst is provided with sufficient background information about these fascinating compounds and is well

informed of the problems associated with their identification and quantification.

For many years we have worked on various aspects of food carotenoids. This monograph is an attempt to pass on our

accumulated experience in the hope that others can study these compounds without much frustration, in less time, at

lower cost, and with greater reliability. Although written with the would-be carotenoid analysts in mind, some informa-

tions herein presented and discussed may also be useful to workers in this area.

I acknowledge with gratitude the Opportunities for Micronutrient Intervention (OMNI) Research Program, supported

by the United States Agency for International Development, for the publication of this monograph. Thanks are also

due to the Brazilian Ministry of Science and Technology (PRONEX/FINEP/CNPq/MCT) for supporting my current

research in this area.

I greatly appreciate the efforts of several people who contributed to the publication of this work: Drs. Frances

Davidson and Penelope Nestel who saw it through to completion; Drs. Gary Beecher and Steven J. Schwartz for

carefully evaluating the scientific content; the OMNI Research staff, Suzanne Harris, Paula Trumbo, and Dorothy

Foote; Judith Dickson for editing; Kenn Holmberg for the layout; and Marcos Antonio de Castro for preparing the first

manuscript.

Delia B. Rodriguez-Amaya


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NATURE OF CAROTENOIDS IN FOODS

Food carotenoids are usually C40 tetraterpenoids builtfrom eight C5 isoprenoid units, joined so that thesequence is reversed at the center. The basic linear and symmetrical skeleton, which can be cyclized at

one or both ends, has lateral methyl groups separated

by six C atoms at the center and five C atomselsewhere. Cyclization and other modifications, suchas hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, double-bondmigration, chain shortening or extension,rearrangement, isomerization, introduction of oxygenfunctions, or combinations of these processes, resultin a myriad of structures. A distinctive characteristicis an extensive conjugated double-bond system, whichserves as the light-absorbing chromophore responsible

for the yellow, orange, or red color that thesecompounds impart to many foods. Hydrocarboncarotenoids (i.e., carotenoids made up of only carbonand hydrogen) are collectively called carotenes; thosecontaining oxygen are termed xanthophylls. In nature,they exist primarily in the more stable all- transisomeric form, but cis isomers do occur. The firsttwo C40 carotenoids formed in the biosynthetic pathway have the 15-cis configuration in plants. The

presence of small amounts of cis isomers of other carotenoids in natural sources has been increasinglyreported.

Because plants are able to synthesize carotenoids

de novo, the carotenoid composition of plant foods is

enriched by the presence of small or trace amounts

of biosynthetic precursors, along with derivatives of

the main components. Although commonly thought

of as plant pigments, carotenoids are also encountered

in some animal foods. Animals are incapable of

carotenoid biosynthesis, thus their carotenoids are diet

derived, selectively or unselectively absorbed, and

accumulated unchanged or modified slightly into

typical animal carotenoids.

In the early stages of carotenoid biosynthesis, the

C5 primer for chain elongation undergoes successive

additions of C5 units, yielding in sequence C10, C15,

and C20 compounds. Dimerization of the latter

produces phytoene, the first C40 carotenoid. The

succeeding transformations are schematically shown

in Figure 1, a perusal of which, though complicated at

first glance, makes carotenoid composition of foodscomprehensible.

The sequential introduction of double bonds at

alternate sides of phytoene (3 conjugated double

bonds) gives rise to phytofluene (5 conjugated double

Figure1. Later stages of carotenoid biosynthesis and possible

transformations of carotenoids. Reactions: 1) desaturation, 2)

cyclization, 3) hydroxylation, 4) epoxidation, and 5) epoxide-

furanoxide rearrangement.


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2 A Guide to Carotenoid Analysis in Foods

bonds), ζ-carotene (7 conjugated double bonds),neurosporene (9 conjugated double bonds), and

lycopene (11 conjugated double bonds). With the

cyclization of one or both ends of the molecule, the

biosynthetic pathway branches out, forming the

monocyclic β-zeacarotene and γ -carotene and the

bicyclic β-carotene on one side and the monocyclicα-zeacarotene and δ-carotene and the bicyclic α-carotene on the other side. α-Carotene may also be produced through γ -carotene, theβ ring being formed before the ε ring. Hydroxylation leads to the formationof rubixanthin (monohydroxy) from γ -carotene andto lycoxanthin (monohydroxy) and lycophyll

(dihydroxy) from lycopene. Introduction of a hydroxyl

group in β-carotene results in β-cryptoxanthin and of a second hydroxyl group, in zeaxanthin. Similar

modifications of α-carotene produces themonohydroxyα-cryptoxanthin or zeinoxanthin and the

dihydroxy lutein. Epoxidation of β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein yields a large

number of epoxy carotenoids.

A semisystematic nomenclature, that conveys

structural information, has been devised for

carotenoids (Table 1), but for the sake of simplicity,

the better known trivial names will be used throughoutthis monograph. Also, although the E/Z designation is

now favored to indicate the configuration of the double

bonds, the still widely used cis/trans terminology will

be retained because it is more readily recognized by

workers in the food field. Absolute configuration will

not be dealt with.

Common Food Carotenoids

Of the acyclic carotenes (Figure 2), lycopene and ζ-carotene are the most common. Lycopene is the

Table 1. Trivial and semisystematic names of common food carotenoids

Trivialname Semisystematicname

Antheraxanthin 5,6-epoxy-5,6-dihydro-β,β-carotene-3,3′-diolAstaxanthin 3,3′-dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4′-dioneAuroxanthin 5,8,5′,8′-diepoxy-5,8,5′,8′-tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,3′-diolBixin methyl hydrogen 9′-cis-6,6′-diapocarotene-6,6′-dioateCanthaxanthin β,β-carotene-4,4′-dioneCapsanthin 3,3′-dihydroxy-β,κ -caroten-6′-oneCapsorubin 3,3′-dihydroxy-κ ,κ -carotene-6,6′-dioneα-Carotene β,ε-caroteneβ-Carotene β,β-carotene

β-Carotene-5,6-epoxide 5,6-epoxy-5,6-dihydro-β,β-caroteneβ-Carotene-5,8-epoxide (mutatochrome) 5,8-epoxy-5,8-dihydro-β,β-caroteneβ-Carotene-5,6,5′,6′-diepoxide 5,6,5′,6′-diepoxy-5,6,5′,6′-tetrahydro-β,β-caroteneδ-Carotene ε,ψ -caroteneγ -Carotene β,ψ -caroteneζ-Carotene 7,8,7′,8′-tetrahydro-ψ ,ψ -caroteneCrocetin 8,8′-diapocarotene-8,8′-dioic acidα-Cryptoxanthin β,ε-caroten-3′-olβ-Cryptoxanthin β,β-caroten-3-olEchinenone β,β-caroten-4-oneLutein β,ε-carotene-3,3′-diolLutein-5,6-epoxide (taraxanthin) 5,6-epoxy-5,6-dihydro-β,ε-carotene-3,3′-diolLycopene

ψ ,ψ

-carotene

Neoxanthin 5′,6′-epoxy-6,7-didehydro-5,6,5′,6′-tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,5,3′-triol Neurosporene 7,8-dihydro-ψ ,ψ -carotenePhytoene 7,8,11,12,7′,8′,11′12′-octahydro-ψ ,ψ -carotenePhytofluene 7,8,11,12,7′,8′-hexahydro-ψ ,ψ -caroteneRubixanthin β,ψ -caroten-3-olViolaxanthin 5,6,5′,6′-diepoxy-5,6,5′,6′-tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,3′-diolα-Zeacarotene 7′,8′-dihydro-ε,ψ -caroteneβ-Zeacarotene 7′,8′-dihydro-β,ψ -caroteneZeaxanthin β,β-carotene-3,3′-diolZeinoxanthin β,ε-carotene-3-ol


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Nature of Carotenoids in Foods 3

principal pigment of many red-fleshed fruits and fruit

vegetables, such as tomato, watermelon, red-fleshed

papaya and guava, and red or pink grapefruit. ζ-Carotene is more ubiquitous but it is usually present

at low levels except in Brazilian passion fruit

(Mercadante et al. 1998) and in carambola (Gross et

al. 1983), in which it occurs as a major pigment.Phytoene and phytofluene are probably more widely

distributed than reported; because they are both

colorless and vitamin A–inactive, their presence may

often be overlooked. Neurosporene has limited

occurrence and is normally found in small amounts.

The bicyclic β-carotene (Figure 3) is the mostwidespread of all carotenoids in foods, either as a

minor or as the major constituent (e.g., apricot, carrot,

mango, loquat, West Indian Cherry, and palm fruits).

The bicyclic α-carotene and the monocyclic γ -carotene sometimes accompany β-carotene, generally

at much lower concentrations. Substantial amountsof α-carotene are found in carrot and some varietiesof squash and pumpkin (Arima and Rodriguez-Amaya

1988, 1990) and substantial amounts of γ -caroteneare found in rose hips and Eugenia un if lora

(Cavalcante and Rodriguez-Amaya 1992). Less

frequently encountered is δ-carotene, although it isthe principal carotenoid of the high delta strain of

tomato and the peach palm fruit (Rodriguez-Amaya

et al., unpublished).

The hydroxy derivatives of lycopene, lycoxanthin

and lycophyll (Figure 4), are rarely encountered; theyare found in trace amounts in tomato. Rubixanthin,

derived from γ -carotene, is the main pigment of rosehips and also occurs in an appreciable level in E.

uniflora (Cavalcante and Rodriguez-Amaya 1992).

The xanthophylls α-cryptoxanthin andzeinoxanthin (Figure 4) are widely distributed, although

generally at low levels. β-Cryptoxanthin is the main pigment of many orange-fleshed fruits, such as peach,

nectarine, orange-fleshed papaya, persimmon, fruit

of the tree tomato, and Spondias lutea, but occurs

rarely as a secondary pigment.

In contrast to the relative abundance of the parentcarotenes, α- and β-carotene, respectively, lutein isnormally present in plant tissues at considerably higher

levels than is zeaxanthin. Lutein is the predominant

carotenoid in leaves, green vegetables, and yellow

flowers. Except for yellow corn and the Brazilian fruit

Cariocar villosium, in which it is the major pigment

(Rodriguez-Amaya et al., unpublished), zeaxanthin is

a minor food carotenoid. This is not surprising

considering that the precursor β-carotene is the Figure3. Cyclic carotenes.

β-Zeacarotene

α-Zeacarotene

γ -Carotene

δ-Carotene

β-Carotene

α-Carotene

Figure2. Acyclic carotenes.

Phytoene

Phytofluene

ζ-Carotene

Neurosporene

Lycopene


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preponderant pigment of many foods and whatever

zeaxanthin is formed is easily transformed to

antheraxanthin and, especially, violaxanthin (Figure5). Lutein appears to undergo limited epoxidation.

Because of its facile degradation, the

epoxycarotenoid violaxanthin may be underestimated

in foods, as was shown for mango (Mercadante and

Rodriguez-Amaya 1998). Other epoxides (Figure 5)

are also frequently encountered, but because they can

be formed during analysis, their natural occurrence is

often questioned.

The existence of uncommon or species-specific

carotenoids (Figure 6) has also been demonstrated.

The most prominent examples are capsanthin and

capsorubin, the predominant pigments of red pepper.

Other classical examples of unique carotenoids are

bixin, the major pigment of the food colorant annatto,

and crocetin, the main coloring component of saffron.

Although green leaves contain unesterified

hydroxy carotenoids, most carotenols in ripe fruit are

esterified with fatty acids. However, the carotenols

of a few fruits, particularly those that remain green

when ripe, such as kiwi (Gross 1982b), undergo limited

or no esterification.

Figure4.Carotenols (hydroxycarotenoids).

Lycoxanthin

Lycophyll

Rubixanthin

β-Cryptoxanthin

Zeinoxanthin

α-Cryptoxanthin

Zeaxanthin

Lutein

Figure5. Epoxycarotenoids.

β-Carotene-5,6-epoxide

Antheraxanthin

Violaxanthin

Luteoxanthin

Auroxanthin

Neoxanthin

Lutein-5,6-epoxide

Figure6.Some unique carotenoids.

Capsanthin

Capsorubin

Crocetin

Bixin


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Astaxanthin (Figure 7) is the principal carotenoid

of some fish, such as salmon and trout, and most

crustaceans (e.g., shrimp, lobster, and crab). The

intermediates in the transformation of dietary

carotenoids, such as echinenone and canthaxanthin,

are often detected as accompanying minor

carotenoids. Tunaxanthin is also a major carotenoidof fish.

Structurally, vitamin A (retinol) is essentially one-

half of the molecule of β-carotene with an addedmolecule of water at the end of the lateral polyene

chain. Thus, β-carotene (Figure 3) is a potent provitamin A to which 100% activity is assigned. An

unsubstituted β ring with a C11 polyene chain is theminimum requirement for vitamin A activity. γ -Carotene,α-carotene (Figure 3), β-cryptoxanthin,α-cryptoxanthin (Figure 4), and β-carotene-5,6-epoxide(Figure 5), all of which have one unsubstituted ring,

would have about half the bioactivity of β-carotene.The acyclic carotenoids (Figure 2), which are devoid

ofβ rings, and the xanthophylls other those mentionedabove (Figures 4–7), in which theβ rings have hydroxy,epoxy, and carbonyl substituents, are not provitamins

A.

Other biologic functions or actions attributed to

carotenoids (e.g., prevention of certain types of

cancer, cardiovascular disease, and macular

degeneration) are independent of the provitamin A

activity and have been attributed to an antioxidant

property of carotenoids through singlet oxygenquenching and deactivation of free radicals (Palozza

and Krinsky 1992, Burton 1989, Krinsky 1989). The

ability of carotenoids to quench singlet oxygen is

related to the conjugated double-bond system, and

maximum protection is given by those having nine or

more double bonds (Foote et al. 1970). The acyclic

lycopene was observed to be more effective than the

bicyclic β-carotene (Di Mascio et al. 1989); thus, inrecent years studies related to human health have

focused on lycopene. Results obtained with a free

radical–initiated system also indicated that

canthaxanthin and astaxanthin, in both of which theconjugated double-bond system is extended with

carbonyl groups, were better antioxidants than β-carotene and zeaxanthin (Terão 1989). Zeaxanthin,

along with lutein, is the carotenoid implicated in the

prevention of age-related macular degeneration,

however.

Composition of Carotenoids in Foods

Most of the papers presenting quantitative data on

food carotenoids are limited to provitamin A

carotenoids. This monograph will emphasize work

that includes at least the major nonprovitamin A

carotenoids; provitamin A carotenoids were the focus

of two recent reviews (Rodriguez-Amaya 1997, 1996).

Leaves have a strikingly constant carotenoid

pattern, often referred to as the chloroplast carotenoid

pattern, the main carotenoids being lutein (about 45%),β-carotene (usually 25–30%), violaxanthin (15%), andneoxanthin (15%) (Britton 1991). The absolute

concentrations vary considerably (Table 2). α-Carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, α-cryptoxanthin,zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, and lutein 5,6-epoxide are

also reported as minor carotenoids. Lactucaxanthin

is a major xanthophyll in a few species, such as

lettuce. Other green vegetables, such as broccoli,

follow the same pattern as green leafy vegetables

(Table 2).

In contrast to leafy and other green vegetables,

fruits, including those used as vegetables, are knownfor their complex and variable carotenoid composition.

The major carotenoid composition of some fruits and

fruit vegetables are shown in Table 3 to demonstrate

the considerable qualitative and quantitative variations.

Some palm fruits (e.g., buriti) are especially rich in

carotenoids, particularly provitamin A carotenes.

Figure7.Some typical animal carotenoids.

Canthaxanthin

Echinenone

Tunaxanthin

Astaxanthin

OOOOO

HHHHHOOOOO

OOOOO

OOOOO

OOOOO

OOOOO

OOOOO HHHHH

HHHHHOOOOO

OOOOO HHHHH


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Table 2. Major provitamin A and nonprovitamin A carotenoids of leafy and nonleafy green vegetables

Reference,originof CommonEnglish/ Varietyor Concentration,µg/gedibleportion,rawb

sample,and Portuguesename,edible cultivarandchromatographic portionanalyzed,and numberof ProvitaminA NonprovitaminAtechniquea scientificname samplelots carotenoids carotenoids

analyzed

Mercadante and Beldroega (leaves) Undefined n=5 β-Carotene (30±8) Neoxanthin (9±2),

Rodriguez-Amaya (1990) Portulaca oleracea lutein+ violaxanthinSão Paulo, Brazil (OCC) (48±8)

Khachik et al. (1992b) Broccoli (flowerets) Botrytis n=3 β-Carotene (23±1) Neoxanthin (6.3±1.0),Maryland, U.S.A. (HPLC) Brassica oleracea violaxanthin (14±1),

lutein-5,6-epoxide

(6.4±1.1), lutein (24±2),cis-lutein (4.4±0.4)

Mercadante and Caruru (leaves) Undefined n=5 β-Carotene (110±6), Neoxanthin (43±5),Rodriguez-Amaya (1990) Amaranthus viridis α-cryptoxanthin lutein+ violaxanthinSão Paulo, Brazil (OCC) (1.3±1.2) (237±50), zeaxanthin

(8.2±6.5)

Wills and Rangga (1996) Chinese cabbage (leaves) Undefinedn=3 β-Carotene (22) Zeaxanthin (2), luteinSydney, Australia (HPLC) Brassica pekinensis (27), violaxanthin (3),

neoxanthin (2)

Wills and Rangga (1996) Chinese spinach (leaves) Undefinedn=3 β-Carotene (20) Zeaxanthin (6), luteinSydney, Australia (HPLC) Amaranthus tricolor (29), violaxanthin (19),

neoxanthin (13)

Mercadante and Mentruz (leaves) Undefined n=5 β-Carotene (85±19) Neoxanthin (36±6),Rodriguez-Amaya (1990) Lepidium pseudodidynum lutein+ violaxanthin

São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) (164±32), zeaxanthin(1.0±2.1)

Mercadante and Serralha (leaves) Undefined n=5 β-Carotene (63±14) Neoxanthin (29±6),

Rodriguez-Amaya (1990) Sonchus oleraceus lutein+ violaxanthinSão Paulo, Brazil (OCC) (145±52), zeaxanthin(3.1±5.7)

Mercadante and Taioba (leaves) Undefined n=5 β-Carotene (67±21), Neoxanthin (40±10),Rodriguez-Amaya (1990) Xanthosoma spp. α-cryptoxanthin lutein+ violaxanthinSão Paulo, Brazil (OCC) (1.0±1.4) (172±38), zeaxanthin

(2.7±6.0)

Chen and Chen (1992) Water convolvulus Undefined n=5 β-Carotene (100±8), Neoxanthin (50±5),Taipei, Taiwan (HPLC) Ipomoea aquatica cis-β-carotene (6.8±0.8) violaxanthin (60±5),

lutein epoxide (29±3),lutein (78±7), cis-lutein (11±1)

Wills and Rangga (1996) Water spinach Undefined n=3 β-Carotene (4) Neoxanthin (16),Sydney, Australia (HPLC) Ipomoea aquatica violaxanthin (25),

zeaxanthin (5), lutein

(6)

Wills and Rangga (1996) Water cress Rorippa Undefined n=3 β-Carotene (15) Neoxanthin (12),Sydney, Australia (HPLC) nasturtium aquaticum violaxanthin (3),

zeaxanthin (7), lutein

(26)

a OCC, open-column chromatography; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography. bOnly carotenoids at ≥1 µg/g are included. Unless otherwise stated, the carotenoids are in the trans form.


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Table 3. Major provitamin A and nonprovitamin A carotenoids of fruits and fruit vegetables



analyzed

Khachik et al. (1989) Apricot (pulp) Blenum n=1 β-Carotene (64)

Maryland, U.S.A. (HPLC) Prunus armeniaca L.

Godoy and Buriti (pulp) Mauritia Undefined n=5 13-cis-β-Carotene ζ-Carotene (4.6±0.5),Rodriguez-Amaya vinifera Mart (1.5±1.4),α-carotene zeaxanthin (20±4)(1995a) (80±9), 13-cis-β-Piauí, Brazil (OCC) carotene (3.8±2.9),

β-carotene (360±32),β-zeacarotene (5.4±1.5),γ -carotene (37±4)

Rodriguez-Amaya and Cajá (pulp + peel) Undefined n=5 β-Carotene (1.6±0.2), ZeinoxanthinKimura (1989) Spondias lutea β-cryptoxanthin (16±2), (4.3±0.6)Pernambuco, Brazil cryptoflavin (1.8±0.7)

Rodriguez-Amaya et al. Fruit of the tree tomato Undefined n=3 β-Carotene (7.9±3.6), Lutein (1.7±1.1)

(1983) São Paulo, Brazil (pulp) Cyphomandra β-cryptoxanthin (14±4)(OCC) betacea

Rouseff et al. (1992) Grapefruit (pulp) Ruby red n=6 β-Carotene (4.2±1.4) Lycopene (2.2±0.9),Florida, U.S.A. (HPLC) Citrus paradisi Macf . phytoene (2.5±0.5),

phytofluene (1.8±0.5)Flamen=3 β-Carotene (8.6±1.6) Lycopene (7.9±2.0),

phytoene (11±1), phytofluene (6.0±0.6)

Ray ruby n=3 β-Carotene (7.0±1.7) Lycopene (21±9), phytoene (5.0±0.4), phytofluene (2.5±0.1)

Star Ruby n=3 β-Carotene (9.6±1.6) Lycopene (33±3), phytoene (51±4), phytofluene (17±4)

Padula and Guava (whole fruit) cv. IAC-4 n=4 β-Carotene (3.7±0.7) ZeinoxanthinRodriguez-Amaya (1986) Psidium guajava L. (1.0±0.6), lycopeneSão Paulo, Brazil (OCC) (53±6), trihydroxy-5,8-

epoxy-β-carotene(4.0±0.3)

Pernambuco, Brazil (OCC) Undefined n=3 β-Carotene (12±5) Zeinoxanthin(1.9±0.7), lycopene(53±14), trihydroxy-5,8-epoxy-β-carotene(2.1±1.9)

Godoy and Loquat (pulp) Eriobotrya Mizuho n=6 β-Carotene (7.8±0.3), NeurosporeneRodriguez-Amaya (1995b) japonica Lindl. β-cryptoxanthin (1.1±0.3), violaxanthin

São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) (4.8±0.1) (1.6±0.1)

Mercadante et al. (1998) Mango (pulp) Mangifera Keitt n=3 β-Carotene (15±2) Luteoxanthin isomersBahia, Brazil (HPLC) indica L. (3.8±0.6), violaxanthin

(21±3), 9-cis-violaxanthin (10±0),13-cis-violaxanthin(1.4±0.1), neoxanthin(2.1±1.3),


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Table 3. Major provitamin A and nonprovitamin A carotenoids of fruits and fruit vegetables (continued)



analyzed

Kimura et al. (1991) Papaya (pulp) Carica Common, orange β-Carotene (1.2±0.9),

São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) papaya n=5 β-cryptoxanthin (8.1±1.7),β-cryptoxanthin-5,6-epoxide (2.0±1.1)

Bahia, Brazil (OCC) Solo n=5 β-Carotene (2.5±1.0), ζ-carotene (1.4±0.8),β-cryptoxanthin lycopene (21±16)(9.1±2.4)

São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) Formosa n=5 β-Carotene (1.4±0.5), ζ-carotene (1.7±0.6),β-cryptoxanthin antheraxanthin(5.3±1.1), β-crypto- (1.8±0.1), lycopenexanthin-5,6-epoxide (19±4)(3.8±1.3)

Bahia, Brazil (OCC) Formosa n=5 β-Carotene (6.1±1.4), ζ-carotene (1.5±0.3),β-cryptoxanthin antheraxanthin(8.6±2.2), β-crypto- (3.3±0.4), lycopene

xanthin-5,6-epoxide (26±3)(1.8±0.8)

Bahia, Brazil (OCC) Tailandia n=5 β-Carotene (2.3±0.7), ζ-carotene (2.0±0.4),β-cryptoxanthin antheraxanthin(9.7±1.8), β-crypto- (4.0±2.9), lycopenexanthin-5,6-epoxide (40±6)(2.1±0.3)

Hart and Scott (1995) Pepper, orange Undefined n=4c α-Carotene (6.4), Lutein (25), zeaxanthin Norwich, UK (HPLC) Capsicum annuum L. β-carotene (8.9), cis-β- (85)

carotene (2.4), β-cryptoxanthin (7.8)

Cavalcante and Pitanga (pulp + peel) Undefined n=18 β-Carotene (9.5±2.1), Phytofluene (13±2),Rodriguez-Amaya (1992) Eugenia uniflora β-cryptoxanthin (47±2), ζ-carotene (4.7±1.6),Pernambuco, Brazil (OCC) γ -carotene (53±4) unidentified (3.4±0.4),

lycopene (73±1),rubixanthin (23±2)

Arima and Squash and pumpkin Menina verde β-Carotene (0.8–2.5) Lutein (0.7–7.4)Rodriguez-Amaya (pulp) Cucurbita (immature)n=5(1988, 1990) São Paulo, moschataBrazil (OCC)

Menina verde α-Carotene (8.3–42), cis-ζ-Carotene (0.9– n=5 β-carotene (14–79), 20), α-zeacarotene

α-cryptoxanthin (tr–2.3) (nd–13), lutein (tr– 6.4), cis-lutein (0.2– 3.1)

Bahia, Brazil (OCC) Baianinha n=3 α-Carotene (17–82), cis-ζ-Carotene (4.9-β-carotene (125–294), 30), zeinoxanthin (tr-cis-β-carotene (4.9–30), 6.3), lutein (4.8-14)α-cryptoxanthin (2.2–2.8)

São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) Cucurbita maxima Exposição n=5 β-carotene (3.1–28), Lutein (7.2–25), cis-α-cryptoxanthin lutein (ND–9.7),(ND-3.5) zeaxanthin (ND–9.7),

taraxanthin (ND–3.6),violaxanthin (ND–26),neoxanthin (ND–4.2)


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Table 3. Major provitamin A and nonprovitamin A carotenoids of fruits and fruit vegetables (continued)



analyzed

Bahia, Brazil (OCC) Jerimum Caboclo β-Carotene (14–34), cis-ζ-Carotene (1.5–

n=3 cis-β-carotene (1.5–2.7), 2.7),α-cryptoxanthin-α-cryptoxanthin (tr–6.7) 5,6-epoxide (nd–8.8),

lutein (6.4–129),taraxanthin (nd–6.0)

São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) Hybrid Tetsukabuto n=5 β-Carotene (8.7–18), Neurosporene (nd-β-cryptoxanthin (0.8–18) 5.4), zeinoxanthin (0.6-

10), lutein (3.5–34),zeaxanthin (tr–6.5),taraxanthin (nd–8.5),cis-violaxanthin (tr– 2.7)

Hart and Scott (1995) Tomato Lycopersicon Cherry n=4 β-Carotene (4.7) Lutein (1.0), lycopene Norwich, UK (HPLC) esculentum (27)

Flavortopn=4 β-Carotene (4.3) Lycopene (50)Tigerella n=4 β-Carotene (17) Lutein (1.9), lycopene

(12)Ida F1 hybrid β-Carotene (9.6) Lutein (1.0), lycopenen=4 (13)Shirley F1 n=4 β-Carotene (7.7) Lycopene (21)Craig n=4 β-Carotene (11) Lutein (1.5), lycopene

(29)Moneymaker β-Carotene (4.3) Lycopene (35) n=4Allicantin=4 β-Carotene (5.2) Lycopene (37)Beefsteak n=4 β-Carotene (8.8) Lycopene (27)Sungold (yellow) β-Carotene (22) Lutein (2.0), lycopenen=4 (3.9)

Khachik et al. (1992b) Undefined n=3 β-Carotene, trans+cis Lutein (1.3±0.2),Maryland, U.S.A. (HPLC) (2.8±0.2) lycopene (39±0),

neurosporene(3.0±0.1), ζ-carotene(8.4±0.2), phytofluene(5.1±0.8), phytoene(6.0±1.0)

Tavares and Santa Cruz n=10 β-Carotene (5.1±1.1) Lycopene (31±20), cis-Rodriguez-Amaya (1994) lycopene (3.0±2.4),São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) phytofluene (3.7±4.6)

Cavalcante and West Indian Cherry Undefined n=18 β-Carotene (26±4),Rodriguez-Amaya (1992) (pulp + peel) Malpighia β-cryptoxanthin (3.6±0.7)

Pernambuco, Brazil (OCC) glabra

Ceará, Brazil (OCC) Undefined n=4 β-Carotene (22±1),β-cryptoxanthin (2.1±0.4)

São Paulo, Brazil (OCC) Undefined n=4 β-Carotene (4.0±0.6)

a OCC, open-column chromatography; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography. bOnly carotenoids at ≥ 1µg/g are included. Unless otherwise stated, the fruits are ripe and the carotenoids are in the trans form. ND, notdetected; tr, trace.cAnalyzed as one composite sample.


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Carotenoids are not widely distributed in root crops.

Carrot, in which β-carotene and α-carotene predominate (Table 4), and yellow to orange sweet

potatoes, with β-carotene as principal carotenoid, arewell-known carotenoid-rich roots. Corn is an example

of a carotenogenic seed, although the concentrations

are not high.

Factors Influencing Carotenoid Composition

The carotenoid composition of foods are affected by

factors such as cultivar or variety; part of the plant

consumed; stage of maturity; climate or geographic

site of production; harvesting and postharvest handling;

processing and storage (Rodriguez-Amaya 1993, Gross

1991, 1987). A close look at some published values

reveals discrepancies that surpass those expected from

the effects of these factors, indicating analytic

inaccuracy. The analyst must take utmost care todifferentiate between natural and analytic variations.

Cultivar or varietal differences can be only in terms

of the quantitative composition, because essentially the

same carotenoids are found in the different varieties.

This is the case with American grapefruit, Brazilian

red-fleshed papaya, and British tomato, as shown in

Table 3, and Finnish carrot (Table 4). Greater variations,

both qualitative and quantitative, can be observed in

squash and pumpkin (Table 3), capsicums (Rahman

and Buckle 1980), gooseberry (Gross 1982/83),

mandarin (Gross 1987), and plums (Gross 1984).

Carotenoids are not evenly distributed in the food

itself. Various investigators, for example, found thatcarotenoids are usually more concentrated in the peel

than in the pulp of fruits and fruit vegetables. In the

Brazilian cajá the total carotenoid content in the

deseeded fruit (pulp plus peel) was 26 µg/g whereasthat of the pulp alone was 17 µg/g (Rodriguez-Amayaand Kimura 1989). In the Cucurbita hybrid

tetsukabuto, the pulp and the peel had 56 and 642 µg/g total carotenoid, respectively (Arima and Rodriguez-

Amaya 1988). This distribution pattern was also noted

in kumquat (Huysken et al. 1985), mandarin hybrid

(Gross 1987), muskmelon (Flugel and Gross 1982), and

persimmon (Gross 1987). An exception to the usual pattern is seen in pink-fleshed guava (Padula and

Rodriguez-Amaya 1986) and red pomelo (Gross 1987),

in which the high lycopene concentration in the pulp

compensates for the greater amounts of other

carotenoids in the peel.

Table 4. Carotenoids of carrot cultivars from Finland

Concentration,µµµµµg/g

Cultivar Sitea nb ααααα-Carotene βββββ-Carotene γ γ γ γ γ -Carotene Lutein

Bangor F1 BZ

cB 5 25 66 8 1.6

Bergen F1 BZ B 3 25 56 12 1.3

Berlicum N C 3 26 60 8 4.0

Berlicum R C 3 46 85 24 5.6

Casey F1 BZ B 3 35 69 12 2.2

Chantenay R C 5 25 61 6 4.5

Flakkeer G C 6 22 55 6 2.1

Flakkeer R C 3 27 63 10 3.4

Flaxton F1 BZ D 5 27 56 13 1.3

Florence F1 BZ B 3 27 46 25 1.2

Fontana F1 BZ B 3 30 60 27 1.1

Nairobi F1 BZ B 2 30 60 9 3.6

Nantes Duke Notabene 370 A 2 39 84 17 2.0 Nantes Duke Notabene 405 B 3 42 79 16 1.8

Nantucket F1 BZ B 3 42 74 16 2.6

Napoli F1 BZ A 3 36 48 12 1.9

Narbonne F1 BZ B 3 48 103 19 3.8

Nelson F1 BZ B 3 49 90 16 2.2

Rondino F1 BZ B 3 34 66 12 1.5

Source: Heinonen (1990).aGrowing site of carrot cultivar: A, Pikkiö; B, Hahkiala; C , Jokioinen; and D, Säkylä.

b Number of replicate analysiscHybrid cultivar of Bejo Zaden


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In carotenogenic fruits and fruit vegetables, ripening

is usually accompanied by enhanced carotenogenesis

as chlorophylls decompose and the chloroplasts are

transformed into chromoplasts. The simple chloroplast

carotenoid pattern gives way to a complex composition,

the carotenoids increasing dramatically in number and

quantity. This is exemplified by Cucurbita meninaverde in Table 3.

Increased carotenogenesis with maturation or

ripening was also documented in Momordica

charantia (Rodriguez-Amaya et al. 1976a), yellow

Lauffener gooseberry (Gross 1982/1983), red pepper

(Rahman and Buckle 1980), badami mango (John et

al. 1970), and leaves (Hulshof et al. 1997, Ramos and

Rodriguez-Amaya 1987). The one factor that decisively

affects the carotenoid content is the maturity of the

plant food when harvested and offered for consumption.

Squashes and pumpkins showed substantial between-

lot variations of the same cultivars so that the rangesrather than the means are presented in Table 3. This

variability was attributed to the wide differences in

maturity stage, because these fruit vegetables can be

harvested over a long period and have a long shelf life

during which carotenoid biosynthesis continues.

In fruits in which the color at the ripe stage is due

to anthocyanins, such as yellow cherry (Gross 1985),

red currant (Gross 1982/1983), strawberry (Gross

1982a), and olive fruit (Minguez-Mosquera and Garrido-

Fernandez 1989), and in fruits that retain their green

color when ripe, such as kiwi (Gross 1982b), the

carotenoid concentrations decrease with ripening. The

same trend is seen with some fruits that undergo

yellowing simply by unmasking the carotenoids through

chlorophyll degradation (Gross 1987).

Carotenogenesis may continue even after harvest

as long as the fruit or vegetable remains intact, as shown

in tomato (Raymundo et al. 1967) and African mango(Aina 1990). Carotenoid biosynthesis in the flesh of

ripening Indian Alphonso mango was observed to be

maximal at tropical ambient temperature (28–32 °C)(Thomas and Janave 1975). Storage at 7–20 °C for 16–43 days caused a substantial decrease in total

carotenoid content even when the fruits were

subsequently ripened at optimal conditions.

Another example of ripening alterations is

presented in Table 5 for the mango cultivars Keitt and

Tommy Atkins. Because the mangos were analyzed

from the mature-green stage (not the immature-green

stage) at which the fruits are harvested commercially,the changes were essentially quantitative. Marked

increases in all-trans-β-carotene, all-trans-violaxanthin,and 9-cis-violaxanthin occurred during ripening in both

cultivars.

Carotenoid losses during postharvest storage

were reported in some vegetables, particularly leaves

(Kopas-Lane and Warthesen 1995, Simonetti et al.

1991, Takama and Saito 1974, Ezell and Wilcox 1962),

especially under conditions favorable to wilting, high

temperature, and light exposure. Wu et al. (1992)

simulated different retail market conditions in the

Table 5. Major carotenoids of ripening mango

Concentration,µµµµµg/ga

Cultivar/carotenoids Maturegreen Partiallyripe Ripe

Cv. Keitt

All-trans-β-carotene 1.7±0.3 4.2±0.4 6.7±1.6Luteoxanthin isomers 1.0±0.2 1.6±0.4 2.7±0.2All-trans-violaxanthin 5.4±1.7 11±2 18±49-cis-Violaxanthin 1.7±0.4 3.9±0.5 7.2±1.4

All-trans-neoxanthin 1.6±0.6 1.9±0.5 1.9±0.9

Cv. Tommy Atkins

All-trans-β-carotene 2.0±0.8 4.0±0.8 5.8±2.5Luteoxanthin isomers 1.3±0.7 2.7±1.1 2.0±0.6All-trans-Violaxanthin 6.9±3.0 18±7 22±99-cis-Violaxanthin 3.3±1.3 9.0±3.2 14±5All-trans-neoxanthin 2.6±1.8 6.6±5.1 4.9±4.5

Source: Mercadante and Rodriguez-Amaya (1998).aMean and standard deviation of three sample lots from São Paulo, Brazil, for each maturity stage. Only carotenoids at ≥1 µg/g areincluded.


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Table 6. Variation of the carotenoid composition (µg/g) of kale in relation to cultivar, season, and type of farm

Wintera Summera cv.Manteiga,

cv.Manteiga, cv.Tronchuda, cv.Manteiga, cv.Tronchuda, farmusing

Carotenoid naturalfarm naturalfarm naturalfarm naturalfarm agrochemicals

β-Carotene 54±5 b 60±14 b 44±3c 57±8 b 38±7d

Lutein plus violaxanthin 111±16 b 114±10 b 84±9c 109±10 b 71±8 d

Zeaxanthin 3±2 b 2±1 b 2±1 b 2±1 b 1±1 b

Neoxanthin 18±7c 19±4c 20±3c 26±3 b 17±2 d

Total 187±21 b 195±24 b 149±10c 194±19 b 127±14 d

Source: Mercadante and Rodriguez-Amaya (1991).aEach value is the mean and standard deviation of 10 sample lots analyzed individually.

b,c,d Values in the same horizontal line with different letters are significantly different.

United States for green beans and broccoli and found

no statistically significant changes in the β-carotenelevel. It would be interesting to verify the effect on

the other carotenoids.

Temperature and harvest time significantly

influenced the carotenoid concentration of tomatoes

produced in greenhouse controlled-environmentchambers (Koskitalo and Ormrod 1972). At diurnal

17.8/25.6 oC minimum-maximum temperatures, the

β-carotene concentration (µg/g) was 2.97, 2.18, and2.19, respectively, in fruits harvested after 7, 14, and

21 days following the onset of initial coloration. The

corresponding levels for lycopene were 43.5, 57.7,

and 64.8 µg/g. At 2.8/13.9 oC, β-carotene was foundat 3.56, 3.73, and 3.67 µg/g and lycopene at only 9.30,20.5, and 24.2 µg/g in tomatoes collected after 7, 14,and 21 days following color break.

Geographic effects were shown by Formosa

papayas produced in two Brazilian states with differentclimates. Those from the temperate São Paulo had

lower β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, and lycopeneconcentrations than did papayas from the hot state of

Bahia (Table 3). Similarly, the β-carotene content of West Indian Cherry from the hot Northeastern states

of Pernambuco and Ceará was found to be 5–6 times

greater than that of the same fruit from São Paulo

(Table 3). All-trans-β-carotene was twice as high inKeitt mango from Bahia (Table 3) as in Keitt mango

from São Paulo (Table 5), and all-trans-violaxanthin

and 9-cis-violaxanthin were also higher in the Bahianmangos. These differences were greater than those

between Keitt and Tommy Atkins mangos from São

Paulo, indicating that for carotenoids, climatic effects

could surpass cultivar differences. The above studies

show that greater exposure to sunlight and elevated

temperature heighten carotenoid biosynthesis in fruits.

In kale leaves collected at the same stage of

maturity and produced under commercial conditions,

the constituent carotenoids were significantly higher

in samples from a “natural” farm than in those from a

neighboring farm that used agrochemicals (Table 6).

In this same study the carotenoids of the two cultivars

analyzed showed significant difference only in the

summer. Theβ-carotene, lutein-violaxanthin, and total

carotenoid were significantly higher in the winter thanin the summer for the Cv. Manteiga, which appears

compatible with greater destruction of leaf carotenoids

on exposure to higher temperature and greater sunlight

(Young and Britton 1990). On the other hand, the

neoxanthin content was significantly higher in the

summer for the Tronchuda cultivar.

Carotenoids are susceptible to isomerization and

oxidation during processing and storage, the practical

consequences being loss of color and biologic activity

and the formation of volatile compounds that impart

desirable or undesirable flavor in some foods. The

occurrence of oxidation depends on the presence of oxygen, metals, enzymes, unsaturated lipids,

prooxidants, or antioxidants; exposure to light; type

and physical state of carotenoid present; severity of

the treatment (i.e., destruction of the ultrastructure

that protects the carotenoids, increase of surface area,

and duration and temperature of heat treatment);

packaging material; and storage conditions. Heating

promotes trans-cis isomerization. Alteration of the

carotenoid composition during domestic preparation,

industrial processing, and storage, with emphasis on

provitamin A carotenoids, was reviewed recently(Rodriguez-Amaya 1997). Some examples of these

studies will be cited here.

In guava juice, a significant fivefold increase in

cis-lycopene (from 1.2 µg/g) was observed on processing (Padula and Rodriguez-Amaya 1987). A

slight, statistically insignificant decrease in trans-

lycopene was also noted. Both isomers decreased

during 10 months of storage. The small amount of β-


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carotene (2.7 µg/g) was retained on processing andstorage.

The carotenoids were essentially retained during

the processing of mango slices (Godoy and Rodriguez-

Amaya 1987). The only significant change was the

increase in luteoxanthin, compatible with the

conversion of 5,6- to 5,8-epoxide. More evidentchanges occurred on processing mango puree. The

principal pigment β-carotene decreased 13%;auroxanthin appeared whereas violaxanthin and

luteoxanthin decreased. During storage of mango

slices in lacquered or plain tin-plate cans, no

appreciable loss of β-carotene was noted for 10months. Between the 10th and 14th months a 50%

reduction occurred. Violaxanthin tended to decrease

and auroxanthin to increase during storage.β-Caroteneshowed a greater susceptibility to degrade in bottled

mango puree (18% loss after 10 months) than in the

canned product. As with the mango slices, however, both bottled and canned puree suffered a 50% loss of

β-carotene after the 14th month. Violaxanthin andluteoxanthin tended to decrease whereas auroxanthin

maintained a comparatively high level throughout

storage. In commercially processed mango juice,

processing effects appeared substantial. Violaxanthin,

the principal carotenoid of the fresh mango, was not

detected; auroxanthin appeared in an appreciable level;

and β-carotene became the principal carotenoid(Mercadante and Rodriguez-Amaya, 1998).

Both lycopene (the major pigment) andβ-caroteneshowed no significant change during the processing

of papaya puree (Godoy and Rodriguez-Amaya

1991). ci s-Lycopene increased sevenfold, β-cryptoxanthin decreased 34%, and cryptoflavin

appeared. During 14 months of storage, β-carotene,lycopene and cis-lycopene remained practically

constant.β-Cryptoxanthin did not change significantly

during the first 10 months but decreased 27% after 14 months. Auroxanthin and flavoxanthin appeared

during storage.

In olives, only β-carotene and lutein resisted thefermentation and brine storage (Minguez-Mosquera

et al. 1989). Phytofluene and ζ-carotene disappeared.Violaxanthin, luteoxanthin, and neoxanthin gave rise

to auroxanthin and neochrome. The total pigment

content did not change.

In carrot juice, canning (121 oC for 30 minutes)

resulted in the greatest loss of carotenoids, followed

by high-temperature short-time heating at 120 oC for

30 seconds, 110 oC for 30 seconds, acidification plus105 oC heating for 25 seconds, and acidification (Chen

et al. 1995). Heating increased cis isomers, 13-cis-β-carotene being formed in largest amount, followed by

13-cis-lutein and 15-cis-α-carotene.

Canning increased the percentage of total cis

isomers of provitamin A carotenoids in several fruits

and vegetables (Lessin et al. 1997). Canning of sweet

potatoes caused the largest increase (39%), followed

by processing of carrots (33%), tomato juice (20%),

collards (19%), tomatoes (18%), spinach (13%), and

peaches (10%).


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SOME PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CAROTENOIDS

A good understanding of some of the physical andchemical properties of carotenoids allows analysts todetermine carotenoids with greater ease and reliability.

Solubility

With very few exceptions, carotenoids are lipophilic.They are insoluble in water and soluble in organicsolvents, such as acetone, alcohol, ethyl ether, chlo-

roform, and ethyl acetate. Carotenes are readilysoluble in petroleum ether, hexane, and toluene; xan-thophylls dissolve better in methanol and ethanol.Crystalline carotenoids may be difficult to dissolve inthe above solvents but do dissolve in benzene anddichloromethane (Schiedt and Liaaen-Jensen 1995).Solubility of both ß-carotene and the xanthophyll luteinin tetrahydrofuran was shown to be excellent (Craftand Soares 1992).

Light Absorption

The conjugated double-bond system constitutes thelight-absorbing chromophore that gives carotenoidstheir attractive color and provides the visible

absorption spectrum that serves as a basis for their identification and quantification. The color enablesanalysts to monitor the different steps of carotenoidanalysis. Loss or change of color at any time duringthe analysis gives an immediate indication of degradation or structural modification. The color

permits visual monitoring of the separation of carotenoids in open-column chromatography, andmainly for this reason this classical technique is still aviable option for quantitative analysis of carotenoids.

The ultraviolet and visible spectrum is the firstdiagnostic tool for the identification of carotenoids.The wavelength of maximum absorption (λmax) andthe shape of the spectrum (spectral fine structure)are characteristic of the chromophore. The struc-

ture-spectrum relationship has been extensively dis-cussed. The λmax values of common carotenoids,

taken mainly from Britton’s (1995) compilation, areshown in Table 7 and will be discussed in relation tothe structures by using the absorption in petroleumether.

Most carotenoids absorb maximally at three

wavelengths, resulting in three-peak spectra (Figure8). The greater the number of conjugated double bonds, the higher the λmax values. Thus, the mostunsaturated acyclic carotenoid lycopene, with 11 conjugated double bonds, is red and absorbs at the long-est wavelengths (λmax at 444, 470, and 502 nm) (Fig-ure 8). At least 7 conjugated double bonds are neededfor a carotenoid to have perceptible color. Thus, ζ-carotene is light yellow. Being also acyclic, its spec-

trum has three well-defined peaks, but these are atwavelengths much lower than those of lycopene(λmax at 378, 400, and 425 nm), commensurate with

Figure8. Visible absorption spectra of lycopene ( ____ ), γ -caro-tene (- - -), β-carotene (-.-.-.), and α-carotene (....) in petroleumether.

350 400 450 500 550Wavelength (nm)

A b s o r b a n c e


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Some Physicochemical Properties of Carotenoids 15

Table 7. Ultraviolet and visible absorption data for common food carotenoids

Carotenoid Solvent λλλλλmax,nma %III/IIb

Antheraxanthin Chloroform 430 456 484Ethanol 422 444 472 55Hexane, petroleum ether 422 445 472 60

Astaxanthin Acetone 480 0Benzene, chloroform 485 0Ethanol 478 0Petroleum ether 468 0

Auroxanthin Acetone 381 402 427 101Chloroform 385 413 438Ethanol, petroleum ether 380 400 425 102

Bixin Chloroform 433 470 502Ethanol 429 457 484Petroleum ether 432 456 490

Canthaxanthin Chloroform 482 0Ethanol 474 0Petroleum ether 466 0

Capsanthin Ethanol 476Petroleum ether (450) 475 505

Capsorubin Petroleum ether (455) 479 510

α-Carotene Acetone 424 448 476 55Chloroform 433 457 484Ethanol 423 444 473Hexane, petroleum ether 422 445 473 55

β-Carotene Acetone (429) 452 478 15Chloroform (435) 461 485Ethanol (425) 450 478 25Hexane, petroleum ether (425) 450 477 25

β-Carotene-5,6-epoxide Ethanol 423 445 474

β-Carotene-5,8-epoxide Ethanol 407 428 452

β-Carotene-5,6,5´,6´-diepoxide Ethanol 417 440 468β-Carotene-5,8,5´8´-diepoxide Ethanol 388 400 425

δ-Carotene Chloroform 440 470 503Petroleum ether 431 456 489 85

γ -Carotene Acetone 439 461 491Chloroform 446 475 509Ethanol 440 460 489 35Hexane, petroleum ether 437 462 494 40

ζ-Carotene Ethanol 377 399 425Hexane, petroleum ether 378 400 425 103

Crocetin Chloroform 413 435 462Ethanol 401 423 447

Petroleum ether 400 422 450α-Cryptoxanthin/Zeinoxanthin Chloroform 435 459 487

Ethanol 423 446 473 60Hexane 421 445 475 60

β-Cryptoxanthin Chloroform (435) 459 485Ethanol (428) 450 478 27Petroleum ether (425) 449 476 25

Echinenone Acetone 460 0Chloroform 471Ethanol 461 0Petroleum ether 458 (482)


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Table 7. Ultraviolet and visible absorption data for common food carotenoids (continued)

Carotenoid Solvent λλλλλmax,nma %III/IIb

Lutein Chloroform 435 458 485Ethanol 422 445 474 60Petroleum ether 421 445 474 60

Lutein-5,6-epoxide Chloroform 433 453 483Ethanol 420 441 470 85Hexane, petroleum ether 420 440 470 85

Lycopene Acetone 448 474 505Chloroform 458 484 518Ethanol 446 472 503 65Petroleum ether 444 470 502 65

Mutatoxanthin Chloroform 437 468Ethanol 409 427 457 50Petroleum ether 407 426 456 45

Neoxanthin Acetone 416 440 470 85Chloroform 423 448 476Ethanol 415 439 467 80Petroleum ether 416 438 467 87

Neurosporene Chloroform 424 451 480Ethanol, hexane 416 440 470Petroleum ether 414 439 467 100

Phytoene Hexane, petroleum ether (276) 286 (297) 10

Phytofluene Hexane, petroleum ether 331 348 367 90

Rubixanthin Chloroform 439 474 509Ethanol 433 463 496 40Petroleum ether 434 460 490

Violaxanthin Chloroform 426 449 478Ethanol 419 440 470 95Petroleum ether 416 440 465 98

α-Zeacarotene Hexane 398 421 449β-Zeacarotene Ethanol, hexane, petroleum ether 406 428 454

Zeaxanthin Acetone (430) 452 479Chloroform (433) 462 493Ethanol (428) 450 478 26Petroleum ether (424) 449 476 25

Source: Britton (1995) and Davies (1976).a Parentheses indicate a shoulder.

b Ratio of the height of the longest-wavelength absorption peak, designated III, and that of the middle absorption peak, designated II,taking the minimum between the two peaks as baseline, multiplied by 100.

its conjugated system of 7 double bonds (Figure 9).The two carotenoids that precede ζ-carotene in

the desaturation biosynthetic pathway, phytoene (3conjugated double bonds) and phytofluene (5 conju-

gated double bonds), are colorless and absorb maxi-mally at 276, 286, and 297 nm and at 331, 348, and367 nm, respectively (Figure 9). The degree of spec-tral fine structure is small for phytoene, increases

through phytofluene and ζ-carotene, then decreasesagain as the chromophore is extended. Neurosporene,which has a structure intermediate between ζ-caro-tene and lycopene (9 conjugated double bonds), ex-hibits maximum absorption at 414, 439, and 467 nm.

Cyclization results in steric hindrance betweenthe ring methyl group at C-5 and the hydrogen atom

at C-8 of the polyene chain, taking the π electrons of the ring double bond out of plane with those of the

chain. Consequently, a hypsochromic shift (displace-ment of λmax to lower wavelength), hypochromic

effect (decrease in absorbance), and loss of finestructure (spectrum with less-defined peaks) are ob-served. Thus, bicyclic β-carotene, although possess-ing the same number of conjugated double bonds as

lycopene, is yellow orange and has λmax at 450 and477 nm and a mere inflection (shoulder) at 425 nm(Figure 8). Monocyclic γ -carotene is red orange andexhibits a spectrum intermediate between those of lycopene and β-carotene in λmax and shape, reflect-ing a structure that is intermediate between the other two carotenoids. The double bond in the ε ring of α-


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carotene is out of conjugation, leaving 10 conjugateddouble bonds (9 in the polyene chain and 1 in the βring); thus, this carotenoid is light yellow and its ab-sorption spectrum is more defined with λmax at slightlyshorter wavelengths (422, 445, and 473 nm) thanthose of β-carotene.

An isolated carbonyl group, which is not in conjugation with the chromophore, does not alter the spec-

trum. A carbonyl group in conjugation with the seriesof conjugated double bonds extends the chromophore.This results in a bathochromic shift (displacement to

higher wavelengths) and loss of spectral fine struc-ture, to the extent that the three-maxima spectrum isreplaced by a single broad curve, unsymmetrical with

λmax at 458 and a shoulder at 482 nm for echinenone(orange) and symmetrical with the λmax at 466 nmfor canthaxanthin (red orange) (Table 7).

The introduction of hydroxy and methoxy sub-stituents in the carotenoid molecule does not affectthe chromophore and therefore has virtually no ef-fect on the absorption spectrum. Thus, the spectra of lutein, zeinoxanthin, and α-cryptoxanthin resemblethat ofα-carotene, and those of β-cryptoxanthin andzeaxanthin are identical to that of β-carotene.

Cis-isomerization of a chromophore’s double bondcauses a slight loss in color, small hypsochromic shift(usually 2 to 6 nm for mono-cis), and hypochromiceffect, accompanied by the appearance of a cis peak in or near the ultraviolet region (Figure 10). The in-tensity of the cis band is greater as the cis double bond is nearer the center of the molecule. Thus, the15-cis isomer, in which the cis double bond is in the

center of the molecule, has an intense cis peak.The 5,6-monoepoxide and 5,6,5´,6´-diepoxides of

cyclic carotenoids, having lost one and two ring double

bonds, respectively, absorb maximally at wavelengths

some 5 and 10 nm lower (Table 7) and are lighter colored than the parent compounds. When a 5,6-ep-oxide is rearranged to the 5,8-epoxide (furanoid), anadditional double bond (this time from the polyenechain) is lost. Thus, the λmax of the 5,8-monoepoxideand 5,8,5´,8´-diepoxide are 20–25 and 50 nm lower,respectively, than those of the parent carotenoids.Because only the polyene chain conjugated double bonds remain, the degree of spectral fine structure

increases, resembling that of acyclic carotenoids.Slightly different λmax values are reported in the

literature, which is understandable considering that

the reproducibility of recording spectrophotometer inthe 400–500 nm region is about ±1–2 nm. Instru-mental errors should be kept at a minimum by cali-

brating the instruments (e.g., using a holmium oxidefilter and recording the spectra of authentic caro-tenoid standards).

The absorption spectra of carotenoids are mark-edly solvent dependent (Table 7). This has to be re-membered when spectra are taken by the photodiodearray detector in high-performance liquid chroma-tography (HPLC), in which the spectra are taken inmixed solvents in isocratic elution and in varying

mixed solvents in gradient elution. The λmax valuesrelative to hexane and petroleum ether are practi-cally the same in diethyl ether, methanol, ethanol, andacetonitrile and higher by 2–6 nm in acetone, 10–20nm in chloroform, 10–20 nm in dichloromethane, and18–24 nm in toluene (Britton 1995).

The absorption spectra are now rarely presentedin published papers. To give an idea of the spectralfine structure, the %III/II (Figure 11) can be pre-

sented, along with the λmax values. The %III/II isthe ratio of the height of the longest-wavelength ab-

Figure9.Photodiode array spectra of ζ-carotene ( _____ ), phyto-fluene (– – –) and phytoene (....). Mobile phase: acetonitrile–

ethyl acetate–methanol (85:10:5).

250 300 350 400 450Wavelength (nm)

A b s o r b a n c e

Figure10.Photodiode array spectra of all-trans-lycopene ( ____ ),

15-cis-lycopene (- - -), and 13-cis-lycopene (....). Mobile phase:

acetonitrile–ethyl acetate–methanol (85:10:5).

300 360 400 460 500Wavelength (nm)

A b s o r b a n c e


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Table 8. Absorption coefficients (A1%1cm

) of common food carotenoids

Carotenoid Solvent λλλλλmax,nm A1%1cm

Antheraxanthin Ethanol 446 2350

Astaxanthin Hexane 470 2100

Auroxanthin Ethanol 400 1850

Bixin Petroleum ether 456 4200Canthaxanthin Petroleum ether 466 2200

Capsanthin Benzene 483 2072

Capsorubin Benzene 489 2200

α-Carotene Petroleum ether 444 2800Hexane 445 2710

β-Carotene Petroleum ether 450 2592Ethanol 450 2620Chloroform 465 2396

β-Carotene-5,6-epoxide Hexane 444 2590

β-Carotene-5,6,5´,6´-diepoxide Hexane 440 2690

δ-Carotene Petroleum ether 456 3290

γ -Carotene Petroleum ether 462 3100Hexane 462 2760

ζ-Carotene Hexane 400 2555

Crocetin Petroleum ether 422 4320

α-Cryptoxanthin/zeinoxanthin Hexane 445 2636

β-Cryptoxanthin Petroleum ether 449 2386Hexane 450 2460

Echinenone Petroleum ether 458 2158

Lutein Ethanol 445 2550Diethyl ether 445 2480Diethyl ether 445 2600

Lutein-5,6-epoxide Ethanol 441 2400

Ethanol 441 2800Lycopene Petroleum ether 470 3450

Lycoxanthin Acetone 474 3080

Mutatochrome Diethyl ether 428 2260

Neoxanthin Ethanol 438 2470Ethanol 439 2243

Neurosporene Hexane 440 2918

Phytoene Petroleum ether 286 1250

Phytofluene Petroleum ether 348 1350Hexane 348 1577

Rubixanthin Petroleum ether 460 2750

Violaxanthin Ethanol 440 2550

Acetone 442 2400α-Zeacarotene Petroleum ether 421 2450

Hexane 421 1850

β-Zeacarotene Petroleum ether 428 2520Hexane 427 1940

Zeaxanthin Petroleum ether 449 2348Ethanol 450 2480Ethanol 450 2540Acetone 452 2340

Source: Britton (1995).


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Solventfront

Origin1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure12.Thin-layer silica-gel chromatogram of carotenoids

and reaction products, developed with 5% methanol in toluene.

1) β-Carotene, 2) lycopene, 3) β-cryptoxanthin, 4) β-cryptoxan-

thin methylated with acidic methanol—negative response, 5) β-cryptoxanthin acetylated with acetic anhydride, 6) lutein, 7) lutein

methylated with acidic methanol, and 8) lutein acetylated with

acetic anhydride.

Table 9. Elution pattern of some carotenoids in magnesium oxide–Hyflosupercel and alumina columnsa

Magnesiumoxide–Hyflosupercel Alumina

Phytoene Phytoene

Phytofluene Phytofluene

α-Carotene α-Carotene

β-Carotene β-Carotene

ζ-Carotene ζ-Carotene

δ-Carotene δ-Carotene

Zeinoxanthin/α-cryptoxanthin γ -Carotene

γ -Carotene Lycopene

β-Cryptoxanthin Zeinoxanthin/α-cryptoxanthin

Lycopene ß-Cryptoxanthin

Rubixanthin Rubixanthin

Lutein Lutein

Zeaxanthin Zeaxanthin

Source: Rodriguez-Amaya et al. (1976a, 1975).aColumns developed with petroleum ether containing increasing amounts of ethyl ether and then acetone. Carotenoids listed according to order of elution.

cryptoxanthin elutes before and after lycopene inmagnesium oxide–Hyflosupercel and aluminacolumns, respectively (Table 9). This indicates thatthe influence of cyclization is greater than that of the

presence of hydroxyl substituents in the magnesiumoxide–Hyflosupercel column.

In the current widely used reversed-phase HPLC,

in which partition is the major chromatographic mode,the order is more or less the reverse of that seen innormal-phase adsorption open-column chromato-graphy. The more polar xanthophylls (the trihydroxy-5,6-epoxy neoxanthin, the dihydroxy-5,6,5´,6´-diepoxyviolaxanthin, and the dihydroxy lutein and zeaxanthin)

elute well before the carotenes (Figure 13); the mono-hydroxy carotenoids elute between these two groups.Elution of carotenes does not always follow the expected pattern and differs with the type of column

(monomeric or polymeric) and the mobile phase, with

β-carotene eluting after (Figure 14) or before lycopene. α-Carotene usually elutes before β-caroteneas in normal phase chromatography (Figure 15).

Isomerization and Oxidation

The highly unsaturated carotenoid is prone to isomer-ization and oxidation. Heat, light, acids, and adsorp-tion on an active surface (e.g., alumina) promoteisomerization of trans carotenoids, their usual con-

figuration, to the cis forms. This results in some lossof color and provitamin A activity. Oxidative degra-dation, the principal cause of extensive losses of caro-

tenoids, depends on the availability of oxygen and is

stimulated by light, enzymes, metals, and co-oxida-tion with lipid hydroperoxides. Carotenoids appear tohave different susceptibilities to oxidation,ζ-carotene,lutein, and violaxanthin being cited as more labile.Formation of epoxides and apocarotenoids (caro-

tenoids with shortened carbon skeleton) appears to be the initial step (Figure 16). Subsequent fragmen-tations yield a series of low-molecular-weight compounds similar to those produced in fatty acid oxida-

tion. Thus, total loss of color and biologic activitiesare the final consequences.

Conditions necessary for isomerization and oxi-


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neoxanthin

violaxanthin

lutein

β-carotene

cis-β-carotene

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

3 5

4 0

Figure13. HPLC chromatogram and photodiode array spectra

of the carotenoids of water cress. Column: polymeric C18

Vydac

218TP54, 4.6 x 250 mm, 5 µm; mobile phase: gradient of 10%

H2O to 10% tetrahydrofuran in methanol. The other major peaks

are of chlorophylls.

Figure14.HPLC chromatogram of the carotenoids of tomato.

Column: Spherisorb S5 ODS2, 2.0 × 250 mm, 5 µm; mobile

phase: acetonitrile–methanol–ethyl acetate (73:20:7). 1) lutein,

2) lycopene, 3) cis-lycopene, 4) γ -carotene, 5) cis-ζ-carotene, 6)ζ-carotene, 7) β-carotene, 8) phytofluene, and 9) phytoene.

0.40

0.38

0.360.34

0.32

0.30

0.28

0.26

0.24

0.22

0.20

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.10

0.080.06

0.04

0.02

0.00

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70Minutes

A U

Figure15.HPLC chromatogram of the carotenoids of carrot.

Column: Spherisorb S5 ODS2, 2.0 × 250 mm, 5 µm; mobile

phase: acetonitrile–methanol–ethyl acetate (73:20:7). 1) lutein,

2) cis-ζ-carotene, 3) α-carotene, 4) β-carotene, 5) phytofluene,and 6) phytoene. Detection at wavelengths of maximum absorp-

tion (max plot).

0 10 20 30 40 50 60Minutes

A U

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

Figure16. Possible scheme for the degradation of carotenoids.

Trans-CAROTENOIDS

isomerization

oxidation Cis-CAROTENOIDS

oxidation

EPOXY CAROTENOIDS APOCAROTENOIDS

LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT

COMPOUNDS

1

2

3

4 5 67

89

1

2

3

4

56


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dation of carotenoids exist during preparation, pro-cessing, and storage of food. Thus, retention of natu-rally occurring or added carotenoids in prepared, pro-cessed, and stored foods is an important consider-ation. Carotenoids are also subject to isomerizationand oxidation during analysis, and preventative mea-

sures must be taken to guarantee the reliability of analytic results.

Chemical Reactions of Functional Groups

Xanthophylls undergo group chemical reactions that

can serve as simple chemical tests in the identifica-tion of carotenoids. Many of the chemical reactions,in extensive use in the late 1960s and early 1970s,have now been supplanted by mass and nuclear mag-netic resonance spectrometry. However, some reac-tions remain useful and can be performed quicklywith only a small amount of the test carotenoid and

are amenable to rapid monitoring by ultraviolet or vis-ible spectrometry, thin-layer chromatography, or HPLC.

For example, primary and secondary hydroxygroups are acetylated by acetic anhydride in pyri-dine. Allylic hydroxyls, isolated or allylic to the chro-

Figure17.Visible absorption spectra of violaxanthin ( ___ ) and its

furanoid derivative (– – –).

300 350 400 450 500 550 600Wavelength (nm)

A b s o r b a n c e

Figure18.Visible absorption spectra of canthaxanthin ( ___ ) and

its reduction product (– – –).

350 400 450 500 550Wavelength (nm)

A b s o r b a

n c e

mophore, are methylated with acidic methanol. In bothreactions a positive response is shown by an increasein the silica thin-layer chromatography R

F value or

the retention time in reversed-phase HPLC, the ex-tent of the increase depending on the number of hy-droxy substituents.

Epoxy groups in the 5,6 or 5,6,5´,6´ positions areeasily detected by their facile conversion to thefuranoid derivatives in the presence of an acid cata-lyst, reflected by a hypsochromic shift of 20–25 or

50 nm, respectively (Figure 17).Ketocarotenoids, such as echinenone and

canthaxanthin, and apocarotenals undergo reduction

with LiAlH4 or NaBH

4, manifested by the appear-

ance of the three-maxima spectra of the resultinghydroxycarotenoid (Figure 18).


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General Procedure and Sources of Errors in Carotenoid Analysis 23

GENERAL PROCEDURE AND SOURCES OF ERRORS IN

CAROTENOID ANALYSIS

Trends in the analysis of carotenoids have mirrorednot only advances in analytic instrumentation, but moreimportantly the perception of the changing or widen-ing role attributed to these compounds from their col-

oring properties to their provitamin A activity and their

potential protective effect against degenerative dis-eases. Determination of the total carotenoid content,through the visible absorption at the λmax of the prin-cipal carotenoid, although still done and attractive for its simplicity, yields insufficient information and isconsidered inadequate except as an estimate of thetotal pigment content. This type of work has givenway to the determination of individual carotenoids because of their differing physicochemical proper-

ties and bioactivities.Analyzing individual carotenoids, however, is in-

herently difficult because of several factors(Rodriguez-Amaya and Amaya-Farfan 1992, Rodri-guez-Amaya 1990, 1989):• There are many naturally occurring carotenoids.

More than 600 natural carotenoids are now known,including the enormous variety of carotenoids inalgae, fungi, and bacteria. The number of caro-

tenoids found in foods is much less but the foodcarotenoid composition can still be very complex.

• The carotenoid composition of foods varies quali-tatively and quantitatively. Thus, the analytic pro-cedure, principally the chromatographic step, hasto be adapted to the carotenoid composition of eachtype of food sample. The identification of the caro-

tenoids in every food has to be done carefully and,in fact, inconclusive or incorrect identification ap-

pears to be a common flaw encountered in theliterature.

• The carotenoid concentrations in any given foodvary over a wide range. Typically, one to four prin-cipal carotenoids are present, with a series of caro-tenoids at low or trace levels. The separation, iden-

tification, and quantification of these minor caro-tenoids are a formidable challenge to food ana-lysts.

• The highly unsaturated carotenoid molecule is sus-ceptible to isomerization and oxidation, reactionsthat can easily occur during analysis.

Because of these confounding factors, the reli-

ability of a substantial part of current data on food

carotenoids still appears to be questionable.

Special Precautions in Carotenoid Work

The main problem in carotenoid analysis arises fromtheir instability. Thus, whatever the analytic methodchosen, precautionary measures to avoid formationof artifacts and quantitative losses should be stan-dard practice in the laboratory. These include comple-tion of the analysis within the shortest possible time,exclusion of oxygen, protection from light, avoiding

high temperature, avoiding contact with acid, and useof high purity solvents that are free from harmful

impurities (Schiedt and Liaaen-Jensen 1995, Britton1991, Davies 1976).

Oxygen, especially in combination with light andheat, is highly destructive. The presence of eventraces of oxygen in stored samples (even at deep-freeze temperatures) and of peroxides in solvents(e.g., diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran) or of any

oxidizing agent even in crude extracts of carotenoidscan rapidly lead to bleaching and the formation of artifacts, such as epoxy carotenoids and apocarotenals

(Britton 1991). Oxygen can be excluded at severalsteps during analysis and during storage with the use

of vacuum and a nitrogen or argon atmosphere. An-tioxidants (e.g., butylated hydroxytoluene, pyrogallol,and ascorbyl palmitate) may also be used, especiallywhen the analysis is prolonged. They can be added

during sample disintegration or saponification or addedto solvents (e.g., tetrahydrofuran), standard solutions,and isolates.

Exposure to light, especially direct sunlight or ul-traviolet light, induces trans-cis photoisomerizationand photodestruction of carotenoids. Thus, carotenoidwork must be done under subdued light. Open col-


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umns and vessels containing carotenoids should bewrapped with aluminum foil, and thin-layer chroma-tography development tanks should be kept in thedark or covered with dark cloth or aluminum foil.

Polycarbonate shields are now available for fluores-cent lights, which are notorious for emission of high-energy, short-wavelength radiation. Absorbing radia-tion of 375–390 nm and shorter wavelengths, theseshields allow the use of full, usual light in laborato-ries. However, this should not preclude coveringflasks, columns, etc., whenever possible.

Speed of manipulation and shielding from lightare especially important in extracts containing

chlorophylls (e.g., extracts of green leafy or nonleafyvegetables) or other potential sensitizers. In the pres-ence of these sensitizers, photodegradation andisomerization occur very rapidly, even with brief exposure to light.

Because of the thermolability of carotenoids,

heating should be done only when absolutely neces-sary. Carotenoid extracts or solution should be con-centrated in a rotary evaporator at reduced pressure

and a temperature below 40 oC, and the evaporationof solvent should be finished with nitrogen or argon.Care should be taken to prevent the extract fromgoing to complete dryness in the rotary evaporator because this may result in degradation of carotenoids,especially lycopene (Tonucci et al. 1995). Addition-ally, part of the carotenoids (especially the more po-

lar ones), may adhere strongly to the glass walls, pre-cluding quantitative removal from the flask.

Carotenoids may decompose, dehydrate, or isomerize in the presence of acids. 5,6-Epoxycaro-tenoids, such as violaxanthin and neoxanthin, readilyundergo rearrangement to the 5,8-epoxides. Mostcarotenoids are stable towards alkali. A neutralizingagent (e.g., calcium carbonate, magnesium carbon-ate, or sodium bicarbonate) may be added during

extraction to neutralize acids liberated from the foodsample itself. Strong acids and acidic reagents shouldnot be used in rooms where carotenoids are handled.

Reagent-grade, ultraviolet-and-visible-grade, or HPLC-grade solvents should be used. If only techni-

cal-grade solvents are available, these should be pu-rified, dried, and freshly distilled before being usedfor extraction or chromatography. Diethyl ether andtetrahydrofuran should be tested for peroxides, which

can be removed by distillation over reduced iron pow-der or calcium hydride. Because it easily accumu-lates peroxides, tetrahydrofuran is usually supplied

stabilized with the antioxidant butylated hydroxytolu-ene, but there is a time limit to its use.

Chloroform is best avoided because it is difficultto remove all traces of hydrochloric acid. In addition,

it is generally stabilized with 1% ethanol, which canaffect its properties as a solvent for chromatography. Benzene, although an excellent solvent, shouldalso be avoided because of its toxicity. Chloroform

can be replaced by dichloromethane and benzene bytoluene.

Fractions or isolates should be kept dry under nitrogen or argon or dissolved in a hydrocarbon sol-vent, petroleum ether or hexane, and kept at –20 oCor lower when not in use. Leaving carotenoids in sol-vents such as cyclohexane, dichloromethane, diethylether (Craft and Soares 1992), and acetone can leadto substantial degradation. In our laboratory, caro-

tenoids extracted with acetone are immediately trans-ferred to petroleum ether.

It must also be remembered that storing caro-tenoids in flammable volatile solvents, such as ether,in a refrigerator is a safety hazard and should beavoided. An explosion-proof refrigerator is also rec-

ommended.

General Analytic Procedure

Carotenoid analysis usually consists of

• sampling and sample preparation,• extraction,• partition to a solvent compatible with the subse-

quent chromatographic step,

• saponification and washing,• concentration or evaporation of solvent,• chromatographic separation, and

• identification and quantification.Errors can be introduced in each of these steps.Common sources of error in carotenoid analysis are

samples not representing the food lots under investi-gation; incomplete extraction; physical losses duringthe different steps, such as incomplete transfer of

carotenoids from one solvent to the other when par-tition is carried out, loss of carotenoids in the wash-ing water, and partial recovery of carotenoids adher-ing to walls of containers when carotenoid solutionare brought to dryness; incomplete chromatographicseparation; misidentification; faulty quantification and

calculation; and isomerization and oxidation of caro-tenoids during analysis or storage of food samples before analysis. A good understanding of the pur-

pose of each step and the possible errors is thereforewarranted.

Because of the various factors that affect thecarotenoid composition of foods as discussed previ-ously, proper sampling and sample preparation to ob-tain representative and homogeneous samples for

analysis are of paramount importance. In addition,results should be accompanied by pertinent informa-


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General Procedure and Sources of Errors in Carotenoid Analysis 25

tion, such as the variety, stage of maturity, season,geographic origin, and part of the plant analyzed. Er-rors incurred in sampling and sample preparation caneasily surpass those of the analysis per se.

Laboratory work should be planned so that thesamples are analyzed as soon as they are collected because it is difficult to store samples without chang-ing their carotenoid composition, even at very lowtemperature. Because carotenoid concentration isexpressed per unit weight of sample, changes in thefood’s weight during storage also affect the final re-sult. The Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research(Mantoura et al. 1997) does not recommend storage

of filtered microalgae at –20 oC for longer than 1we

A Guide to Carotenoid Analysis in Foods 1999

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