A. Grammar Review

GRAMMAR REVIEW

1. NORMAL SENTENCE PATTERN IN ENGLISH

SUBJECT VERB COMPLEMENT MODIFIERJohn and I ate A pizza Last nightwe studied “present perfect” Last week

A. SUBJECT

The subject is agent of the sentence in the active voice; it is the person or thing that performs or is responsible for the action of the sentence, and it normally precedes the verb. Note: every sentence in English must have a subject.The subject may be a noun phrase. A nun phrase is a group of words ending with a noun. (it cannot begin with a preposition)Example of subject:

The girls are not going to that movie. The chemistry professor canceled class today. George likes boats.

“it” can act as a pronoun for a noun or can be the subject of an impersonal verb. The pronoun is not actually used in a place of a noun, but is part of an idiomatic expression.

It rains quite often here in the summer.

“There” can act as a pseudo- subject and is treated like a subject when changing word order to a question. The true subject appears after the verb, and the number of the true subject controls the verb.

There was a fire in that building last month.

verb singular subject singular

There were many students in the room. Verb plural subject plural

B. VERBThe verb follows the subject in a declarative sentence; it generally shows the action of the sentence. Note: every sentence in English must have a verb. The verb may be the single word or the verb may be a phrase. A verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliaries and one main verb. The auxiliaries always precede the main verb. John drives too fast. (a single word) John is going to Miami tomorrow. (auxiliaries= is, main verb= going) Jane has been reading that book. (auxiliaries= has, main= been, verb= reading)

Example of verbs and verb phrase:

She will go to Boston next week. Jane is very tall. Joe has gone home She must have gone to the bank.

C. COMPLEMENT OR OBJECT.A complement completes the verb. It is similar to the subject because it is usually a noun or noun phrase; however, it generally follows the verb when the sentence is in the active voice. Note: every sentence does not require a complement. A complement cannot begin with the preposition. Example of complements:

John bought a cake yesterday. (What did John buy yesterday?) Jill was driving a new car. (What was Jill driving?)

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He wants to drink some water. (What does he want to drink?)D. MODIFIER

A modifier tells the time, place, or manner of the action. Very often it is a preposition phrase (a group of words that begin with a preposition and ends with a noun). Note: A modifier of the time usually comes last if more than one modifier is present. Example of prepositional phrases: in the morning, at the university, on the table etc. a modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial phrase. Example: last night, next year, hurriedly, outdoors etc. Note: Every sentence does not require a modifier. Example of modifiers:

John bought the book at the bookstore. (Where did john buy a book?) (modifier of place)

Jill was swimming in the pool yesterday. (When was Jill swimming?) (modifier of time)

Note: the modifier normally follows the complement, but not always. However, the modifier especially when it is prepositional phrases usually cannot separate the verb and the complement.

2. THE NOUN PHRASEThe noun phrase is the group of words that end with a noun. It can contain determiners (the, a, this, etc), adjective, adverbs and nouns. It cannot begin wit the preposition. Remember that both subject and complements are generally nouns phrase.A. COUNT AND NON COUNT NOUNS

A count noun is the one that can be counted. Example: book= one book, two books, three books; student= one student, two students, three students; person= one person, two persons, three persons.A non-count noun is one that cannot be counted. Example: milk= you cannot say one milk, two milks, three milks... It is possible, however to count some none=count noun if the substance is placed in a countable container. Example: glass of milk= one glass of milk, two glasses of milk, etc.Some determiner can be used only with count or non-count nouns, while others can used with either.

WITH COUNT NOUNS WITH NON-COUNT NOUNSA(n), the, some, anyThis, that, these, thoseNone, one, two, three, . . . ManyA lot ofA (large/ great) number ofA fewFewer . . . thanMore . . . than

The, some, anyThis, thatNoneMuch(usually in negatives or question)A lot ofA large amount ofA littleLess. . . thanMore . . . than

Be sure that you know the plurals of irregular count noun. The following list contains some irregular count nouns that you should to know.

Person- people Child- children Tooth- teethFoot- feet Mouse- mice Man- menWoman- women

The list of some no-count noun that we should know.

Sand soap Physics Mathematics News Mumps Air PoliticsMeasles Information Meat HomeworkFood Economics Advertising* Money

*note: Although advertising is a non-count noun, advertisement is a count noun, if you wish to speak of one particular advertisement, you must use this word.

There are too many advertisements during television shows.

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There is too much advertising during television shows.

Some non-count nouns, such as food, meat, money, and sand. May be used as count nouns in order to indicate the different types. The word “time” can be countable or non- countable depending on the context. When it means occasion, it is countable. When it means number of hours, days, years, etc. it is non-countable.

B. A AND ANA or an can be precede only singular count nouns, they mean one. They can use in the general statement or to introduce a subject whish has not been previously mentioned.

A baseball is round (general- means all baseballs) I saw a boy in the street. (we don’t know which boy)

An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. A is used before words that begin with a consonant sound. But for the following words begin with a consonant sound and thus must always proceeded by a.

European eulogy Euphemism EucalyptusHouse Home Heavy Halfuniform University universal Union

The following words begin with vowel sound and thus must always proceeded by an.

hour heir Herbal honoruncle umbrella unnatural understanding

C. THEThe is used to indicate something that we already know about or something that is common knowledge.

The boy in the corner is my friend. (the speaker and the listener know which boy) The earth is round. (there is only one earth)

With non-count nouns, one uses the article “the” if speaking in specific terms, but uses no article if speaking in general.

Sugar is sweet. (general- all sugar) The sugar on the table is from Cuba. (specific- the sugar that is on the table)

Normally, plural count nouns when they mean everything within a certain class, are not preceded by the. Example: oranges are green until they ripen (all oranges) or athletes should follow a well- balance diet (all athletes).

Normally a proper noun is not preceded by an article unless there are several people or things with the same name and the speaker is specifying one of them. Example: there are three Susan Parkers in the telephone directory. Then, the Susan parkers that I know lives on First Avenue.

Normally words such as breakfast, lunch, dinner, school. Church, home college and work do not use any article unless to restrict the meaning. Example: we ate breakfast at eight o’clock this morning.

Use the following generalization as a guide for the use of the article the.

USE THE WITH DON’T USE THE WITHOceans, rivers, seas, gulfs, plural lakes (the Red Sea, the Atlantic ocean, the Persian Gulfs)

Singular lakes (lake Geneva. Lake Erie)

Mountains (the Rocky mountains) Mounts (mount Vesuvius)Earth, moon (the earth, the moon) Planets, constellations (Venus, Mars)Schools, colleges, universities, when the phrase begin with school etc.(the university of Florida, the college of arts).

Schools, college, universities when the phrase begins with a proper noun (Santa Fe Community College)

Ordinal numbers before nouns. (the first world Cardinal numbers after nouns (World War

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war) One)Wars (except world wars). (the Crimean War)Certain countries or groups of countries with more than one word (except Great Britain).

Countries preceded by New or an adjective such as a direction (new Zealand, South Africa)Countries with only one word (France, Sweden)Continents (Europe, Africa)States (Florida, Ohio)

Historical document ((the constitution, the Magna Charta)Ethnic group (the Indians, the Aztecs)

Sports (baseball, basketball)Abstract nouns (freedom, happiness)General areas of subject matter (mathematics, sociology)Holidays (Christmas, thanksgiving)

D. OTHERThe use of the word other is often cause of confusion for foreign students. Study the following formulas.

WITH COUNT NOUNS WITH NON-COUNT NOUNSAn+ other +singular noun (one more)Another pencil= one more pencilThe other + singular noun (last of the set)The other pencil = the last pencil presentOther + plural nouns (more of the set)Other pencils = some more pencils

Other + non-count nouns (more of the set_Other water = some more water

The other + plural nouns (the rest of the set)The other pencils = all remaining pencils

The other + non-count nouns (all the rest)The other water = the remaining water

Note: another and other are nonspecific while the other is specific. If the subject is understood, one can omit the noun and keep the determiner and “other “so that “other” function as a pronoun. If it is a plural count noun that is omitted, “other becomes “others “. The word other can never be plural if it is followed by noun.

I don’t want this book. Please give me another. (another= any other book – not specific)

I don’t want this book. Please give me the other (the other = the other book – specific)

The chemical is poisonous. Others are poisonous too. (others= other chemicals – not specific)

Note: Another way to substituting for the noun is to use other + one or ones. Example: I don’t want this book. Please give me another one – I don’t want this book. Please give me the other one.

3. THE VERB PHRASEAs mentioned in item 3, the verb phrase consists of the main verb and any auxiliaries.A. TENSES AND ASPECT

Simple present – he walks to school every day. Simple past – he walked to school every day. Present progressive (continuous) – he is walking to school now. Past progressive (continuous) – he was walking to school when he saw Jane. Present perfect – he was walked to school several times. Past perfect – he had walked to school before he hurt his foot.

It is very important that you know whether a verb is regular or irregular. You will notice that regular verbs are the same in the past tense and past principle; however, irregular verbs are very often different

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in these forms. The table bellow is some list of common regular verbs. The other irregular verbs you can look in the dictionary.

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

SIMPLE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

Beat Beat beaten BeatingBegin Began begun BeginningBind Bound bound BindingCatch Caught caught CatchingChoose Choose chosen choosingDo Did done DoingDrink Drank drunk DrinkingFall Fell fallen fallingEat Ate eaten EatingGet Got Gotten gettingGive Gave given givingpay Paid paid PayingSell Sold sold SellingSend Sent sent SendingTake Took Taken TakingUnderstand Understood understood UnderstandingWear Wore worn wearing

You should also know that there is no change in the following verbs to indicate the different tenses.

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

SIMPLE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

bet Bet bet Bettingbid Bid bid Biddingcost Cost cost Costingfit Fit fit Fittingput Put put Puttingquit Quit quit Quittingshut Shut shut Shuttingspread Spread spread Spreading read Read read Reading

B. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSEThis tense is usually not used to indicate present time. However, it is used to indicate present time (now) with the following stative verbs.

Know Believe Hear see Wish SmellUnderstand Hate Love Like Sound Wanthave Need appear Seem Own taste

Note: The verbs listed above are almost never used in the present or past progressive (continuous), although it is possible in the same cases.Simple presents are used to indicate are regular or habitual action. Example:

They understand the problem now. (stative verb) Henry always swims in the morning (habitual verb)

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C. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS)Use the following formula to form the present progressive.

Subject + (am/ is/ are) + (verb+ ing). . .

The present progressive is used to indicate present time (now) with all but the stative verbs listed previously. Example: John is eating dinner now. And it also to indicate future time. Example: We are leaving for the theater at seven o’clock.

Example of present progressive: The committee members are examining the material now. (present time) George is leaving for France tomorrow. (future time) We are flying to Venezuela next month. (future time)

D. SIMPLE PAST TENSESimple past tense is used for completed action that happened at one specific time in the past. The italicized in the previous sentence are important because they show that simple past is not the same as past progressive or present perfect. Example:

John went to Spain last year Bob buy s new bicycle yesterday

E. PAST PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS)Use the following rule to form the past progressive.

Subject + (was/ were) + (verb + ing) ...

The past progressive is used to indicate: An action which was occurring in the past and was interrupted by another action. In

this case the general rule is:

When + subject 1 + simple past tense + subject 2 + past progressive. . . .

Or

Subject 1 + past progressive + when + subject 2 + simple past tense. . . .

When Mark came home, Martha was watching television.Or

Martha was watching television when Mark came home. Two actions occurring at the same time in the past. In this case, the following rules

usually apply.

Subject 1 + past progressive + while + subject 2 + past progressive . . . .

Or

While + subject 1 + past progressive + subject 2 + past progressive . . . .

Martha was watching television while John was reading a book.Or

While john was reading a book, Martha was watching television.Note: the following construction is also possible, but it is not as common as the preceding two.

While + subject 1 + past progressive + subject 2 + simple past . . . .

An action which was occurring at the some specific time in the past.

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Example of past progressive: John was walking to class when he lost his pen. George was watching television when his brother called. The student was reading while the professor was speaking.

F. PRESENT PERFECTUse the following rule to form the present perfect.

Subject + (has/ have) + (verb in the past participle) . . . .

The present perfect is used to indicate: An action that happened at an indefinite time in the past. Example: John has

traveled around the world. (we don’t know when) An action that happened more than once in the past. Example: George has seen this

movie three times. An action that began in the past and is still occurring in the present. Example: John

has lived in the same house for twenty years (he still live in there) or John has lived in the same house since 1975 (he still live in there).

Note: use FOR + duration of time (for five years, for ten minutes). Use SINCE + beginning time (since 1945. Since five o’clock). While adverb YET/ ALREADY is used to indicate something has happened (or hasn’t happened) at an unspecific time in the past. These adverbs are often used with the present perfect. ALREADY – affirmative sentence. YET – negative sentence and question.

Note: ALREADY usually appears between the auxiliaries and the main verb; however, it can appear at the beginning or the end of the sentence. YET appears at the end of the sentence.

Subject + (has/ have) + already + (verb in past participle) . . . .

Subject + has/ have) + not + (verb in past participle) . . . + yet . . .Examples of yet and already:

We have already written our reports. We haven’t written our reports yet.

Note: another option with the use of YET is sometimes possible. In this case, the verb is positive and the adverb YET doesn’t appear at the end of the sentence.

Subject + (has/ have) + yet + (verb in infinite) . . . .

John has yet to learn the material = john hasn’t learned the materials yet.

Note: this use of YET should not be con fused with the coordinating conjunction ye, which mean but. Example: I don’t have money, yet I really need the computer

G. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVEFor an action that began in the past and is still occurring in the present (present perfect rules, third item), it is also possible to use the present perfect progressive (continuous). Use the following rule to form this aspect.

Subject + (has/ have) + been + (verb + ing) . . . .

Example of present perfect: Jorge has already walked to school. (indefinite time) He has been to California three times. (more than once) Mary has seen the movie before. (indefinite time)

H. PAST PERFECT

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Use the following rule to form past perfect.

Subject + had + (verb in the past participle) . . . .

The past perfect is used to indicate: An action that happened before another action in the past; there usually are two

actions in the sentence. Example: John had gone to the store (1st action) before he went home (2nd action).

A state which continued for a time in the past, but stopped before now. Note that there is no connection with the present. Example: Abdu had lived in New York for ten years (1st action) before he moved to California (2nd action).

The past perfect is usually used before, after or when. Look the following formulas.

Subject + past perfect + before +subject + simple past tense. . . .John had gone to the store before he went home.

Subject + simple past tense + after + subject + past perfect . . . John went home after he had gone to the store.

Before + subject + simple past tense subject + past perfect . . . Before John went home, he had gone to the store.

After + subject + past perfect + subject + simple past tense. . . .After john had gone to the store, he went home.

Note: the adverb When can be used in place before or after in any of these formulas without change in meaning.

I. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS)This past perfect concept can also be conveyed by the past perfect progressive (continuous). Study the following rule.

Subject + had + been + (verb + ing) . . .

Example of past perfect progressive (continuous): The professor had reviewed the material before he gave quiz George had worked at the university for 45 years before he retired or George had

been working at the university for 45 years before he retired.

4. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENTA. SUBJECT SEPARATED FROM THE VERB

Very often if the subject and verb are separated, they will be separated by a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase has no effect on the verb.

Subject + (prepositional phrase) + verb

Example:

The study of languages is very interesting. (The study – singular object. Is – singular verb)

Several theories on this subject have been proposed. (Several theories – plural object, have been proposed – plural verb).

The following expression also have no effect on the verb.

Together with Along withAccompanied by As well as

Example: the actress, along with her manager and some friends is going to party tonight.

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Note: if the conjunction and is used to instead of one of these phrases, the verb would then be plural. Example: the actress and her manager are going to the party tonight.

B. WORDS THAT ALWAYS TAKE SINGULAR VERBS AND PRONOUNSThe following words must be followed by singular verbs and pronouns in formal written English.

Any + singular noun

No + singular noun

Some + singular noun

Every + singular noun

Each + singular noun

(anybody, anyone, anything)

(nobody, no one, nothing)

(somebody, someone, something)

(everybody, everyone, everything)

(either*, neither*)

*either and neither are singular if they are not used with or and nor.Example:

Everybody who has not purchased a ticket should be in this time. If either of you takes a vacation now, we will not be able to finish the work.

C. NONE/ NONone can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun which follow it.

None + of the + non-count noun + singular verb

- None of the counterfeit money has been found.

None + of the + plural count noun+ plural verb

- None of the students have finished the exam yet.

No can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the noun which the follows it.

No + (singular noun/ non-count noun) + singular verb

No example is relevant to this case.

No + (plural noun) + plural verbNo examples are relevant to this case.

D. EITHER/ NEITHERWhen either and neither are followed by or and nor, the verb may be singular or plural, depending on whether the noun following or and nor singular or plural. Study the following formulas.

(neither/ either) + noun + (nor/ or) + plural noun + plural verb

neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today either John or his friends are going to the beach today

(neither/ either) + noun + (nor/ or) + singular noun + singular verb

Neither John nor Bill is going to the beach today. Either John or Bill is going to the beach today.

E. GERUNDS AS SUBJECTSIf a sentence begins with (verb + ing) or (gerund). The verb must also be singular. Example:

Knowing her has made him what he is. Not studying has caused him many problems.

F. COLLECTIVE NOUNSThe following nouns are usually singular. In some cases they are plural if the sentence indicate that the individual members are acting separately.

Congress Family Group Committee Class Organization Team Army Club Crowd

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Government Jury Majority* Minority Public*Majority can be singular or plural (if it is alone it is usually singular)Examples of collective nouns:

The committee has met, and it has rejected the proposal. The family was elated by the news. Congress has initiated a new plan to combat inflation.

Collective nouns indicating time, money, and measurements used as a whole are singular. Example: Fifty minutes isn’t enough time to finish this exam.

G. A NUMBER OF/ THE NUMBER OF

A number of + plural noun + plural verb . . .

The number of + plural noun +singular verb . . .

Example:

A number of students are going to the class picnic. (a number of = many) The number of residents who have been questioned on this matter is quite small.

H. NOUNS THAT ARE ALWAYS PLURALThe following nouns are always considered plural they cannot be singular. And must say “a pair of . . . “

Scissors shorts Pants Jeans Tongs Trousers Eyeglasses Pliers Tweezers

Examples: The pants are in the drawer – A pair of pants is in the drawer The pliers were on the table – A pair of pliers was on the table.

I. THERE IS/ THERE ARE

(there is/ there was/ there has been) + singular subject (or non-count) . . . .

(there are/ there were/ there have been) +plural subject . . . .

Example: There is a storm approaching. (singular) There have been a number of telephone calls today. (plural) There were too many people at the party. (plural)

5. PRONOUNSA. SUBJECT PRONOUNS

Subject pronouns occur in the subject position of a sentence or after the verb be. The following list subject pronouns.

Note: also use the subject pronouns after then, as and that.Example:

I am going to the store. She and I have seen this movie before. We students are going to have a party.

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I We You You HeShe They it

Note:” we”, “you” and “us” can be followed directly by a noun.

B. COMPLEMENT PRONOUNComplement pronoun occur in complement position, whether they complement a verb or preposition.

Note: you and it are same for subject or complement position. Examples:

They called us on the telephone. (complement) The policeman was looking for him. (after

preposition)

C. POSSESIVE ADJECTIVESPossessive adjectives are not the same as possessive pronouns. These simply modify, rather than replace, nouns; possessive pronouns replace nouns. Possessive forms indicate ownership. Note: possessive adjectives are used to refer to parts of a body. Examples: John is eating his dinner. Note: “Its” is not the same as it’s. “It’s” means it is or it has.

D. POSSESIVE PRONOUNSThese pronouns cannot precede a noun. They are pronouns and thus replace the noun. The noun is understood from the context and is not repeated.Note: his and its are the same whether they precede a noun or not.

Examples: This is my book. This is mine. Your teacher is the same as his teacher. Yours is the same

as his.

E. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS These pronouns usually follow the verb and indicate that the subject is both giving and receiving the action.

Note: in the plural, themselves, changes to selves.Note: most forms are made by adding the suffix to the possessive adjective; however, himself, itself and themselves are made by adding the suffix to the complement form. The form his self and their selves are always incorrect.

Examples: She served herself in the cafeteria. They were talking among themselves.

Reflexive pronoun can also be used for emphasis. This means that the subject did action alone. In this case normally follows the subject. Example: I myself believe that the proposal is good.

6. VERBS AS COMPLEMENTA. VERBS THAT ARE ALWAYS FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE

Sometimes the verb functioning as the complement must be in the infinitive (to + verb) and sometimes be in the gerund form. The following verbs are always followed by the infinitive if the complement is a verb.

Agree Strive Fail Learn Wish DemandDesire Attempt Claim Pretend Refuse HesitateHope Expect Tend Want Need OfferPlan Intend Prepare Decide Forget Seems

Examples: John expects to begin studying law next semester. The president will attempt to reduce inflation in the next four years.

B. VERBS THAT ARE ALWAYS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND.Other verbs must always be followed by the gerund. These verbs include:

Admit Postpone Resent Quit Resume risk

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Me Us You YouHim Her Them it

My Our Your Your HisHer Their Its

Mine Ours Yours yoursHis Hers TheirsIts

Myself Ourselves Yourself YourselvesHimselfHerself Themselves Itself

Delay Deny Avoid Finish Consider Miss Appreciate Enjoy Can’t help MindReport Suggest Practice Resist Recall

Examples: Would you mind not smoking in this office? Michael was considering buying a new car until the prices went up.

Note: these sentence are made negative by adding the negative particle not before the infinitive or gerund. Example: John decided not to buy the car.

C. VERBS + PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUNDIf a verb + preposition, adjective + preposition, noun + preposition, or preposition alone is followed directly by a verb, the verb will always be in the gerund form. These lists consists of verb + prepositions:

Approve of Worry about Be better off Think about Count on Put offGive up Rely on Succeed in Keep on Depend on Think of

The following expressions contain the preposition to. These expression must also be followed by the gerund.

Object to Look forward to Confess toExamples:

John gave up smoking because of his doctor’s advice. Mary instated on taking the bus instead of the plane. We are not looking forward to going back to school.

D. ADJECTIVES + PREPOSITION FOLLOWED BY THE GERUNDThe following adjectives + preposition are also followed by the gerund.

Accustomed to Afraid of Capable of Fond ofIntent on Interested in Successful in Tired of

Examples: Mitch is afraid of getting married now. Alvaro intent on finishing school next year.

E. NOUNS + PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUNDThe following nouns + preposition are also followed by the gerund.

Choice of Excuse for Intention of Method forPossibility of Reason for Method of

Examples: George has no excuse for dropping out of school. There is no reason for leaving this early.

Anytime a preposition is followed directly by a verb, the verb will be in the gerund form. Example: after leaving the party, Ali drove home.

F. ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE.The following adjectives are always followed by the infinitive form of the verb and never be the gerund.

Anxious Easy Prepared Difficult Hard Eager Boring Common Ready StrangePleased Usual Dangerous Good Able*

*able is followed by the infinitive (different with capable is followed by of + the gerund.Examples:

Mohammad is eager to see his family. It is difficult to pass this test.

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Note: some verbs can be followed by either infinitive or the gerund but the meaning changes. They are stop, remember and forget. Example: John stopped studying (john is not going to study anymore) ; John stopped to study (john stopped doing something in order to study).

G. PRONOUNS BEFORE THE GERUND OR INFINITIVE.Some common verbs which are followed by the infinitive and which often require an indirect object are listed here.

Allow Ask Beg Convince Expect instructInvite Order Permit Persuade Prepare PromiseRemind Urge Want

Examples: Joe asked Mary to call him when she woke up. I urge you to reconsider your decision.

7. QUESTIONSWhen forming a question, one place must the auxiliary or the verb be before the subject. If there is no auxiliary or be, one must use the correct form of do, does, or did, after that, the simple form of the verb must be used. .the tense and person are shown only by this auxiliary, not by the main verb.A. YES/ NO QUESTIONS

These are questions for which the answer is yes or no.

(auxiliary/ be/ do, does, did)+ subject + verb . . . .

Examples: Is Mary going to school today? Do you want to use the telephone?

B. INFORMATION QUESTIONSThese are question for which the answer is more than yes or no, there must some information in the answer.

Who or what in subject question. A subject question is one in which the subject is unknown.

(who/ what) + verb + (complement) + (modifier)- Who opened the door? (Someone opened the door)

Whom and what in complement questions. The complement is unknown.

(whom/ what) + (auxiliary/ do, does. Did) + subject + verb + modifier- Whom does Ahmad know from Venezuela? (Ahmad knows someone from

Venezuela) When, where, how and why questions. These question are the same as complement

question.

(when, where, how, why) + (auxiliary/ be/ do, does, did) + subject + verb + complement + modifier . . .

- When did John move to Jacksonville?

C. EMBEDDED QUESTIONSAn embedded question is one which is included in a sentence or another question. Study the following rule:

Subject + verb (phrase) + question word + subject + verb

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Note: there must not be an auxiliary between the question word and the subject in an embedded question. Example:

Question : where will the meeting take place? Embedded question: we haven’t ascertained where the meeting will take place.

The following rule applies if the embedded in another question.

Auxiliary + subject + verb + question word + subject + verb- Do you know where he went?

Note: question words can be single words or phrases. Phrases include: whose + noun, how many, how much, how long, how far, what time and what kind. Example: I have no idea how long the interview will take.

Note: there is no change in the order of subject position questions because the question word is functioning as the subject. Example: who will paint that picture?

D. TAG QUESTIONIn a tag question the speaker makes a statement, but is not completely certain of the truth, so he or she uses a tag question to verify the previous statement. Sentences using the tag question should have main clause separated from the tag by a comma. Observe the following rules:

Use the same auxiliary verb as in the main clause. Or use do, does, did. If the main clause negative, the tag is affirmative and vice versa. Don’t change the tense. Use the main subject in the main clause and the tag. Negative forms are usually contracted (n ’t). There is, there are and it is forms contain a pseudo- subject so the tag will also

contain there or it if it were subject pronoun. The verb “have” may be used as main verb or it may be used as an auxiliary.

Examples:

There are only twenty-eight days in February, aren’t there? You and I talked with the professor yesterday, didn’t we?

8. AFFIRMAYIVE AGRREMENTTo avoid needles repetition of words from the affirmative statement, use the conjunction and, followed by a simple statement using so or too. The order of this statement will depend on whether so or too is used.

When a form of the verb “be” is used in the main clause, the same tense of the verb “be” is used in the simple statement that follows.

Affirmative statement (be) + and +Subject + verb (be) + tooSo + verb (be) + subject

- I am happy, and you are too.- I am happy, and so are you.

When a compound verb (auxiliary + verb), for example: will go, should do, has done etc. occur in the main clause, the auxiliary of the main verb is used in the simple statement, and the subject and verb must agree.

Affirmative statement + and +(compound verb)

Subject + auxiliary only + tooSo + auxiliary only + subject

- They will work in the lab tomorrow, and you will too.- They will work in the lab tomorrow, and so will you.

When any verb except be appears without any auxiliaries in the main clause, the auxiliary do, does or did is used in the simple statement. The subject and the verb must agree and the tense must be the same.

Affirmative statement + and + Subject + do, does, or did + too

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(single verb except be) So + do, does, or did + subject- Jane goes to school, and my sister does too.- Jane goes to school and so does my sister.

9. NEGATIVE AGREEMENTEither and neither function in the simple statement much like so and too in affirmative sentences, however, either and neither are used to indicate negative agreement.

Negative statement + and Subject + negative auxiliary or be + eitherNeither + positive auxiliary or be + subject

- I didn’t see Mary this morning. John didn’t see Mary this morning.I didn’t see Mary this morning, and john didn’t either.I didn’t see Mary this morning, and neither did John.

10.NEGATIONTo make a sentence negative, add the negative particle not after the auxiliary or verb” be”. If there is no auxiliary or be, add the appropriate form of do, does, or did and place the word not after that.

John is rich – john is not rich. Mark is has seen Bill – Mark has not seen Bill. Marvin likes spinach – Marvin does not like spinach. Isaac went to class – Isaac did not go to class.A. SOME/ ANY

If there is a noun in the complement of a negative sentence, one should add the particle any before the noun. Note: the following rule applies to use of some and any.

Some – affirmative sentenceAny – negative sentences and questions.

- John has some money – John doesn’t have any money.

It is also possible to make sentences such as this negative by adding the negative particle no before the noun. In this case, the verb cannot be negative.

B. HARDLY, BARELY, RARELY, SELDOM, ETC.Usually incorrect to have two negatives together, this is called a double negative and is not acceptable in Standard English.

Hardly/ barely/ scarcelyMean

Almost nothing or almost not at all

Rarely/ seldom/ hardly everMean

Almost never

- John rarely comes to class on time (John usually does not come to class on time)- Jerry hardly studied last night (Jerry studied very little last night)- She scarcely remembers the accident (She almost doesn’t remember the

accident)

11.COMMANDSA command is an imperative statement. One person orders another to do something. It can be preceded by please. The understood subject is you.

Close the door Leave the room Pay your rentPlease turn off the light Open the window Be quiet

A. NEGATIVE COMMAND The negative command is formed by adding the word “don’t” before the verb. Example: don’t close the door or please don’t turn off the light.

B. INDIRECT COMMAND

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Usually the verb order, ask, tell or say are used to indicate an indirect command. They are followed by the infinitive (to + verb). Example: John told Mary to close the door or J.ack asked Jill to turn off the light

C. NEGATIVE INDIRECT COMMANDTo make an indirect negative command, add the particle not before the infinitive.

Subject + verb + complement + not + (verb in infinitive)- John told Mary not to close the door- Jack asked Jill not to turn off the light.

12.MODAL AUXILIARIES Modal auxiliaries generally used to indicate something which is potential or uncertain. The modal include:

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSEWillCanMayShallMust (have to)

Would (used to)CouldMightShould (ought to) (had better)(had to)

Note: this words in parentheses ( ) indicate semi modals. These have similar meaning to the modal.A. NEGATION OF MODALS

To make a modal negative, add the particle not after modal. Example: John would like to leave – John would not like to leave.

B. QUESTIONS WITH MODALSTo make a question, place the modal et the beginning of the sentence. Example: would John like to leave?Note: a modal is always followed by the simple form (verb word). That’s mean after a modal can never be: (verb + ing), (verb +s ), past tense, or infinitive.There are two ways that a modal can occur: Modal + simple form of the verb Modal + have + (verb on past participle).

C. CONDITIONAL SENTENCESThe modals will, would, can and could often appear in conditional sentences. Usually conditional sentence contain the word if, there are two types of conditionals: the real (factual and habitual) and the unreal (contrary to fact hypothetical). The real or future possible is used when speaker expresses an action or situation which usually occurs, or will occur if the circumstances in the main clause are met. Hypothetical situation: If I am not planning anything for this evening, when someone asks me if I want to go to the movies, I will say: “If I have the time, I will go” – “I will go unless I don’t have time”.However, the unreal condition expresses a situation (past, present, or future)that would take place or would have taken place if the circumstance expressed were or had been different now or in the past. Hypothetical situation: if I don’t have time to go to the movies, but I actually want to go, I say: “if I had the time. I would to go” (I know I don’t have time and therefore I can’t go to the movies)The if clause can come first or last in the sentence with no change in meaning. Notice that when the if clause comes first, it is followed by a comma. Examples:

If we didn’t have to study, we could go out tonight.Or

We could go out tonight if we didn’t have to study.Both sentence mean: we can’t go out tonight because we have to study)

Note: the word if is generally not followed directly by the modal; the modal appears in the other part of the sentence unless there are two modals in one sentence.

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If + subject + conjugated verb . . . . + modal . . .Or

Subject + modal . . . . + if . . . + conjugated verbNote: in the unreal condition, the past tense form of be is always were in conditional sentence, it can never be was incorrect English.

If a verb in unreal conditional sentence is negative, the meaning is actually positive and vice versa. Example:

If I were rich, I would travel around the world. (I am not rich, I’m not going to travel around the world)

If I didn’t in a hurry, I wouldn’t have spilled the milk. (I was in a hurry, I spilled the milk)

Remember:

Past perfect = had + (verb in past participle)

Modal + perfect = modal + have + (verb in past participle)

D. REAL CONDOTIONS (POSSIBLY TRUE)

FUTURE TIMEIf + subject + simple present tense . . + (will, can, may, must) + (verb in simple form)

- If I have the money, I will buy a new car.

HABITUALIf + subject +simple present tense + simple present tense . . .

- John usually walks to school if he has enough time.

COMMANDIf + subject + simple present tense + command form . . .

- If you go to the post office, please send this letter for me.

E. UNREAL CONDITIONS (NOT TRUE)

PRESENT OR FUTURE TIMEIf + subject + simple past tense + (would, could, might) + (verb in simple form)

- If I have the time, I would go to the beach with you this weekend. (I don’t have the time) ( I’m not going to the beach with you)

PAST TIMEIf + subject + past perfect . . + (would, could, might) + have + (verb in past participle

- If we had known that you were there, we would have written you a letter.(we didn’t know that you were there) (We didn’t write you a letter)

Note: it is also possible to indicate a past unreal condition without using the word if. in this case auxiliary had is before, rather than after the subject. The clause will usually come first in the sentence.

Had + subject + (verb in past participle) . . .

F. AS IF/ AS THOUGHThese conjunctions indicate something unreal or contrary to fact and thus are very similar in form conditional sentences. The verb which follows these conjunctions must be in the past tense or past perfect. Always use were never was.

Subject + verb (present) + (as if/ as though) + subject + verb (past) . . .

- The old lady dresses as if it were winter even in the summer (it is not winter)- He acts as though he were rich. (he is not rich)

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If I were. . . If we were . . . If you were . . . If you were . . . If he were . . If she were . . . If they were . . .If it were . . .

Subject + verb (past) + (as if/ as though) + subject + verb (past perfect) . . .

- Jeff looked as if he had seen a ghost (he didn’t see a ghost)- He looked as though he had run ten miles. (he didn’t run ten miles)

Note: the two preceding rules apply only when as if or as though indicate contrary to fact meaning. At times the do not have that meaning and then would not be followed by these tense. Example: he looks as if he has finished the test (perhaps he has finished).

G. HOPE/ WISHThe verb hope is used to indicate something that possibly happened or will possibly happen. The verb wish is used to indicate something that definitely did not happen or definitely will not happen. The verb hope can be followed by any tense. The verb wish must not be followed by any present tense verb or present tense auxiliary. Example:

We hope that they will come (we don’t know if they are coming) We wish that they could come (they are not coming)

Note: in the following rules, notice that the word that is optional.

FUTURE WISHSubject + wish + (that) + subject + {(could/ would + verb) / (were + verb + ing)}- We wish that you could come to the party to night. (you can’t come)

PRESENT WISHSubject + wish + (that) + subject + simple past tense . . .

- I wish that I had enough time to finish my homework (I don’t have enough time)

PAST WISHSubject + wish + (that) + subject + {past perfect/ (could have + verb in past participle)}

- I wish that I had washed the clothes yesterday (I didn’t wash the clothes)- She wishes that she could have been there (she couldn’t be there)

H. WOULDIn conditional sentence, would can also mean a past time habit. Example: “When David was young, he would swims once a day”

I. USED TOThe expression used to means the same as would. Used to is always in this form, it can never be use to.

Subject + used to + verb in simple form . . .- When David was young, he used to swim once a day. (past time habit)

Subject + (be/ get) + used to + verb + ing. . .- John is used to swimming every day. (he is accustomed to swimming every day)- John got used to swimming every day. (he become accustomed to swimming

every day).

J. WOULD RATHERWould rather means the sane as prefer. But “would rather” must be followed by a verb. Example :

John would rather drink coca- cola than orange juice John prefers drinking coca cola to drinking orange juice

Note: would rather is followed by “than”, but prefer is followed by “to”.

Would rather depending on the number of subject and the meaning of sentence.

PRESENTSubject + would rather + verb in simple form . . .

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- Jim would rather go to class tomorrow than today

PASTSubject + would rather +have + verb in past participle . . .

- John would rather have gone to class yesterday than today.

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVESubject 1 + would rather that+ subject 2 + verb in simple form . . .

- I would rather that you call me tomorrow.

PRESENT CONTRARY TO FACTSubject 1 + would rather that + subject 2 + verb in simple past tense . . .

- Henry would rather that his girlfriend worked in the same department as he does. (his girlfriend does not work in the same department)

“Would rather” when there are two subjects and the time in the past.

PAST CONTRARY TO FACTSubject 1 + would rather that + subject 2 + past perfect . . .

- Jim would rather that Jill had gone to class yesterday. (Jill didn’t go to class yesterday)

Note: for the present and past contrary to fact sentence, use didn’t + (verb in simple form) and hadn’t + (verb past participle) respectively.

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