A Grammar of the Greek Language Curtius

8/12/2019 A Grammar of the Greek Language Curtius

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The Student's Greek Grammar.

A GRAMMAROF THE

GREEK LANGUAGE.BY BE. GEORGE CURTIUS,

PROFESSOR IN TIIE UNIVERSITY OF.LKIPZIO.

.TRANSLATED UNDER THE REVISION OF THE AUTHOR.

BY WILLIAM _SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.,EDITOB OF THE CLASSICAL AND LATINJIIllTIONABIES.

For the Use of Colleges and the Upper Forms in Schools.

ELEVENTH EDITION.

LONDON:JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1882.


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,WORKS BY PHOFE33OH CUBTIU3,

A Smaller Graek Grammar. For the Middle mil LowerFoiius iu Schools. Abridged from the present U'u.K. r2mi>. 3t. tkl.

Greek Accidence; extracted from tho above Work. 12:no.2s. 6d.

Elucidations of the Student's Graek Grammar. Trans-lated by EVELYN ABBUT. PoU 8vo. 7. ttd.

Principles of Greek Etymology. Translated by A. 8.WILKINS, M.A., mid K. B. EXGLAXII, M.A. 2 vols. svo. li. each.The Greek Verb; Its Structure nnd Development. Trans-lated by A. S.'WiLKixs, M.A., aud E. II. ENUI.A.ND, M.A. vo. 18*.

Uniform with the present Work.The Student's Latin Grammar. For the Higher Forms in

Sc'iools. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L.., and THKoi-tiiLUa 1). HALL, M.A.1'o^t 8vo. e*.

A Smaller Latin Grammar. For the Mid.lle and LowerForms in Scuouls. Abi idgcd from tu-j above W^rlc. 12iuo. 3*. 6J.A School Manual of English Grammar ; with CopiousI.M-icises. liy WM. SMITH, U.C.L., unJ Tutoi'iiiLUa D. HALL, M.A.Post 8VO. 31. 6d.

A Primary English Grammar for Elemen'ary SchoolsWith 134 Exercises and U.

LONDON: I'RINTBl) BV WILLIAM CLOWKS ANU SONS, LIMITED, STAMFOBD STRr.RTAMD CMA KING CBOSS.


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EDITOR'S PREFACE.THE Greek Grammar of Dr. Curtius is acknowledgedby the most competent scholars, both in this countryand in Germany, to be the best representative of thepresent advanced state of Greek scholarship. It is,indeed, almost the only Grammar which exhibits theinflexions of the language in a really scientific form ;while its extensive use in the schools of Germany, andthe high commendations it has received from practicalteachers in that country, are a sufficient proof of itsexcellence as a school-book. It is surprising to findthat many of the public and private schools in thiscountry continue to use Grammars, which ignore all theimprovements and discoveries of modern philology, andstill cling to the division of the substantives into tendeclensions, the designation of the Second Perfect asthe Perfect Middle, and similar exploded errors. Dr.Curtius has stated so fully in his Preface the principleson which this Grammar is constructed, that it is unnec-essary to say more by way of introduction. It onlyremains to add, that the translation has been madefrom the fifth edition of the original work (1862), withthe author's sanction, and that the proof-sheets haveenjoyed the advantage of his final correction andrevision.An abridgment for the use of the lower forms ia

published simultaneously with the present work.W. S.

Ismdon, March, 1863. a2


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FROM THE AUTHOR'S PREPACK.THE fact that within a few years the present Grammarhas found its way into a large number of schools invarious countries of Europe seems to be a satisfactoryanswer to the question whether a thorough knowledgeof Greek is attainable by the method I have adopted.Much, therefore, of what I thought it necessary to stateon the first appearance of the book does not now re-quire to be repeated ; but I consider it incumbentupon me to make some observations upon the objects andthe use of the Grammar, and I beg to recommendthese to the careful consideration of teachers.Few sciences have within the last half century been

so completely reformed as the science of language.Not only has our insight into the nature and history ofhuman speech been greatly advanced, but and this isjustly regarded as a matter of still greater importancequite a different method in treating language in generalhas been discovered, after a new era had been openedup by the philosophical inquiries of William vonHumboldt, and the historical investigations of FrancisEopp and Jacob Grimm. No one, unless he desiresto exclude schools from the progress thus made, andto confine them to the mechanical repetition of imperfeet and antiquated rules, will probably doubt that thenew knowledge, the principles of which have stood thetest of nearly half a century, ought to exercise its in-fluence on the teaching of language.

If the teaching of a language in our schools is in-


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PREFACE. vtended to lead not only to a thorough understanding ofthe master-works of literature, but at the same time tocultivate and stir up the youthful

mindby indepen-dent exertion and by occupation with a subject so im-

mensely rich and so harmoniously quickening the mostdifferent mental powers as language, such teachingcannot possibly continue to keep aloof from the pro-gress of scientific inquiry, which is, unfortunately, still thecase in many places. The teaching of Greek, however,seems to be specially called upon to make a commence-ment. The modern science of language has, indeed, exer-cised its influence on every part of grammar, but nonehas been more affected by it than the first, commonlycalled the accidence. In Latin scientific inquiry into thestructure of the forms has not yet reached the samecompleteness as in Greek. The structure of the Latinlanguage is less transparent, and we miss so many aidswhich we possess for the Greek in the high antiquity ofits literature and in its dialects. A scientific treatmentof the structure of the Latin language in schools is,moreover, a matter of great practical difficulty, onaccount of the early age at which the elements mustnecessarily be learnt. We ought not, however, on thisaccount to separate the teaching of Latin from all con-tact with scientific inquiry, the influence of which canshow itself with advantage, at least, in a more suitablearrangement and distribution of the matter. Granting,therefore, that our boys, as heretofore, must commit tomemory a large portion of Latin forms ; granting thatthe most important object in learning Latin consists,perhaps, more in the acquisition of fixed laws of syntax,which obviously form the principal strength of theLatin language ; the case of the Greek is different.The Greeks are justly called an artistic people, and the


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VI niEFACE.Greek language is the most ancient work of art wlii< hthey have reared upon a very primitive basis. Tin-student, who approaches the Greek after he has alreadygone through a considerable preparation by the studyof Latin, ought to be impressed with the idea that thostructure of this language is one of the most marvellousproductions of the intellectual powers acting uncon-sciously. Everything lies here clear before us: thesources of our knowledge are more varied, and thenecessity of analysing the given forms is rendered soabsolute, even on account of the Homeric dialect, thatthis analysis has, in fact, never been entirely wanting,and after the first appearance of Buttmann, in 1782,made considerable progress. The attempt, therefore,to connect in a still higher degree the practice of theschool with the spirit of science, can here point tonumerous precedents, and it is, no doubt, mainly owingto this circumstance that it has met with so favourablea reception. My object has been to produce a con-sistent system, a careful selection, and a clear and pre-cise exposition, rather than an entirely new system.

In selecting and expounding the results of scientificinquiry, I have always kept in view the idea that thebook was intended for practical use in schoola Thefirst requisite, therefore, was not to admit anythingwhich is beyond the sphere of the school, to explain onlythat which is necessary, and to admit only that whichis absolutely certain. For a school-book must speakcategorically, must exclude all matters of mere opinion,and has no space for discussion and inquiry. It is,however, perfectly indifferent whether a result has beenobtained by special researches into the Greek language,or by the more general inquiries of comparativepliilology.


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PREFACE. VUf was further obliged to admit only those things

which find their explanation in the Greek languageitself, or at most in a comparison with the Latin ; but,even within these limits, I have confined myself tosuch innovations as really afford an important insightinto the structure of the forms, whereas all that belongsto philological learning and many other things havebeen passed over because they seemed unnecessary.Among such superfluous innovations I include espe-cially all changes of terminology, and the entire altera-tion of whole parts of Grammar which are often stillless necessary, but to which formerly too much impor-tance used to be attached.The new technical terms I have introduced have

generally been approved of, and the principle stated inmy preface to the first edition, though not followedwith pedantic consistency, if possible, to put signifi-cant names in the place of dead numbers, as for e. g.,A Declension, Declension, instead of First andSecond Declension, will scarcely be found fault with,for a name with a meaning at once gives a piece ofinformation, and therefore facilitates learning. Doubtshave been raised only about the expressions strong andweak, which I have employed to distinguish the twoAorists and Perfects. I am as well aware now as I wasat the first that, from the point of view of scientificinquiry, much may be said against the expressions, but[ nevertheless feel that I cannot give them up. Forthe old designation by numbers is unsatisfactory, unlesswe are prepared for its sake either to sacrifice a moreconsistent arrangement of the verb, or to mislead thepupil by calling the Aorist which is treated of first thesecond, and first the, one with which he is made ac-quainted afterwards. But a common name to distin-


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Till PREFACE.

piish tho two forms of the Aorist Active Middle and1'us.sive, and of the Perfect Active, is indispensablein a system of Greek Grammar. An innovation hadhere become necessary, for both negative and posi-tive reasons. The expressions strong and weak havethis advantage that after being introduced by Grimminto liis German Grammar, they have also been adoptedby English Grammarians ; and though I use them notquite in the same sense, they are easily intelligible.It will surely not be difficult to make a pupil under-stand that those forms are called strong which springfrom the root, as it were, by an internal agency, andweak those which are formed by syllables added ex-ternally especially as he may easily compare theEnglish take, took, and love, loved. I still know of nodesignation which, with so few disadvantages, offers somany advantages as tliis, and I shall retain it until abetter one is suggested; and, after all, in necessaryinnovations it is often more important that men agree,than on what they agree.The fact that the most essential changes I havemade in the arrangements of the subjects as, forexample, the strict adherence to the system of Stems inall the inflexions, and especially the division of theverb according to temporal Stems have met with theapproval of practical teachers, has been to me a sourceof great gratification, it being a clear proof that thedemands of scientific inquiry are by no means so muchopposed to a right system of teaching as is still imaginedby many. The arrangement of temporal Stems is madeless upon scientific than upon didactic grounds, in sucha manner that kindred forms are joined together, anddue regard is paid to the progress from that which iseasy to that which is more difficult.


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HIEFACE. IXThe chapter on the formation of words, though some-

what enlarged, has for the same reasons still been keptvery brief. But, in treating of the verbs, I have directedattention to the formation of verbal nouns : in treatingof the verbs of the different classes, I have alwaysdirected attention, by a number of characteristic exam-ples, to the application of the different Stems in theformation of words. By this means the learner has anopportunity, during the study of his grammar, ofmaking himself acquainted with a number of words,and I have no doubt that teachers will give their sanc-tion to this arrangement.

In regard to Syntax, the positive results of recentlinguistic inquiries are as yet less numerous. In thispart of the Grammar, therefore, I follow the principleof stating the essential idioms of the Greek languagewith the utmost possible precision, and in the utmostlogical order. Only in some chapters, especially inthat on the use of the tenses, my system presents con-siderable differences from the usual one. All minutedisquisitions, conjectures, and more or less probabletheories among them especially the ever-repeatedtheory about the original local meaning of the cases,with which I cannot agree at all have been rigorouslyexcluded. In this part, also, I have never neglected tocompare the phenomena of the Greek language withthe corresponding ones of Latin, and occasionally alsoof English, where this could be done with brevity andadvantage ; for as the usage of a language must bomainly comprehended by a feeling of language, Iimagine that every appeal to a Latin usage alreadyembodied with our feeling of language, or to an Englishusage familiar to us from childhood, advances ourknowledge much more than philosophical definitions or


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* PREFACE.technical terms of vague or various meanings. For 1 hosame reason I everywhere attach great importance inan accurate translation of a Greek idiom into Englishor Latin. I need hardly guard myself against theopinion as if I considered such a translation to be aphilosophical explanation of a linguistic phenomenon.A real explanation is beyond the problem of aGrammar.

I scarcely need repeat here that the present book isnot intended, like an Elementary Grammar, to be com-mitted to memory paragraph by paragraph ; but, inteaching, a suitable selection, according to the degreeof the pupil's advancement, should be made by theteacher. By a difference in type I have myself, atleast partially, indicated this.

It may be remarked in general that the first businesseverywhere is that of memory, and only when theactual forms, with the aid of the paradigms, have beencommitted to memory, analysis may be added. Firstknowledge, then understanding this ought to be theleading principle ; but, as I have said in another place, Memory can neither accurately grasp the great varietyof Greek forms nor retain them, unless it be supportedby an analysing and combining intelligence, whichfurnishes, as it were, the hooks and cement to strengthenthat which has been learned, and permanently to im-press it upon the mind. If details learned at differenttimes and carefully committed to memory, during asubsequent repetition variously combine with one an-other, and form various groups; if, then, many thingsat first sight strange, appear to the pupil in the light ofa law pervading the language, such insight is certainlynot a mere support of memory, but animates the desireto learn, and incites to exercise the power of thought in


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PREFACE. XIa variety of ways. The present book offers to teachersabundant opportunities for such exercises, and acquiresits highest efficacy under the guidance of thinkingteachers who are truly familiar with it, and take adelight in its subjects. That the book has actuallyfound such teachers has been proved to me in variousways, and caused me sincere gratification,

G. 0.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.TUB QBEEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS.

FIKST PART. ETYMOLOGY.I. Letters and Sounds.

CHAP. I. THE GUEEK CHARACTERS. SEC.A. Letters .. .. 1 9B. Other Characters 1016C. Accents 1722D. Punctuation 23

CHAP. II. THE SOUNDS.A. The Vowels 2429B. The Consonants .. 3034

CHAP. III. COMBINATIONS AND CHANGES OF SOUNDS.A. Vowels in Combination 35 39B. Other kinds of Vowel Changes 40 43C. Consonants in Combination with one another .. 44 54D. Other Changes in the middle of a word .. .. 55 62E. Changes of Sound at the end of a word .. .. 63 69

CHAP. IV. DIVISION OF SYLLABLES AND THEIK QUANTITY.A. Division of Syllables 7073B. Quantity 7478

CHAP. V. ACCENTS .. 70 99


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XIV CONTENTS.

II. Inflexion.A. INFLEXION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

CHAP. VI. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJEC-TIVES.

FIRST PRINCIPAL (OR VOWEL) DECLENSION. SEC.A. TLe A Declension 112-113

(Commonly called the First Declension.)1. Femiuines 114 1192. Masculines 120 123

B. The Declension .. 124131(Commonly called the Second Declension.)

Attic Declension 132 133SRCOND PRINCIPAL (OR CONSONANT) DECLENSION .. 135 143

(Commonly called the Third Declension.}1. Consonant Stems :

a. Guttural and Labial Sterr.s 144 145b. Dental Stems 146149c. Liquid Steins 150 153

2. Vowel Stems :a. Soft Vowel Stems 1541586. Diphthong Stems 159161c. Stems 162163

3. Stems suffering Elision :a. Sigma Stems 104167K T-Stems 168169c. .-Stems 170171

Irregularities in Declension 174 177Case-like Terminations 178 179

CHAP. VII. OTHER INFLEXIONS OF THE ADJECTITSA. Gender 180191B. Comparison 192200C. Adverbs of Adjectives 201204

CHAP. VIII. INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS 205 219CHAP. IX. THE NUMERALS , . 220224


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CONTENTS XV

B. INFLEXION OP VERBS. SEC.General Kemarks .............. 225230

LIST OF PABADIGMS. TABLE.Et/xt, lam .......... ........ I.Synopsis of \vo>, I loose (exhibiting the meanings of

the Tenses) ................ II.VERBS IN Q.

A. Vowel Stems :1. Uncontracted, Xu


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XY1 CONTEXTS.CHAP. XI. SECON'D PRINCIPAL CONJUGATION OB VERBS

IK MI. sue.Preliminary Remarks 3023041. First Class 3053172. Second Class 318319

CHAP. XII. IRREGULAR VERBS or THE FIRST CONJU-GATION 320 327

Anomalies in Signification 328 330Outlines of the Accentuation of Verbal Forms .. 331 333Peculiar Verbal Forms of the Ionic Dialect . . 3l'.4 D 338 D

III. Derivation.CHAP. Xm.

A.. Simple Derivatives 3393401. The most important Suffixes for forming

Substantives 3413492. The most important Suffixes for forming

Adjectives 3503523. Derivative Verbs

B. Compound Derivatives :1. Form of the Combination 354 3582. Meaning of Combination 359360

SECOND PART. SYNTAX.Preliminary Remarks '.. 361

CHAP. XIV. NUMBER AND GENDER 362367CHAP. XV. THE ARTICLE .. ., 368391CHAP. XVI. USE OF CASES :

A. Nominative 392393B. Vocative 39*C. Accusative ,. .. 395 406D. Genitive 407423E. Dative 429443

HAP. XVII. THE PREPOSITIONS 444General view of the Prepositions 448L. Prepositions which take only One Case .. .. 449 4572. Prepositions which take Two Cases 458 4618. Prepositions which take Three Cases 462468


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CONTENTS. XVliSEC.

CHAP. XVIII. THE PBONOUNS 469475CHAP. XIX. THE KINDS OF VEBBS 476483CHAP. XX. USE OF THE TENSES 484

1. The forms for the Incomplete Action 486 4912. The forms for the Indefinite (Aorist) Action .. 492 4983. The Future 4995014. The forms for the Complete Action 602506

CHAP. XXI. USE OF THE MOODS.A. In Simple Sentences :1. Indicative 507

2. Subjunctive 5085133. Optative 5145174. Imperative 518

B. In Compound Sentences :Connexion of Sentences with one another .. 519 5241. Dependent, Declarative, and Interrogative

Sentences 525 5292. Sentences expressing a purpose 530 5333. Conditional Sentences 534 5504. Relative Sentences 551 5555. Temporal Sentences 556 558

CHAP. XXII. THE INFINITIVE.1. Use of the Infinitive in general 559 5662. The Case of the Subject and Predicate with theInfinitive 5675723. The Infinitive with the Article 5735744. The Infinitive with m 5755765. The Infinitive instead of the Imperative .. .. 577

CHAP. XXIII. ON PARTICIPLES.1. Attributive Use 5782. Appositive Use 5795833. The Participle with an Absolute Case .. .. 5845864. Supplements to Participles 587 5885. The Predicative Participle 5895946. The Participle with av 5957. Verbal Adjectives 596

CHAP. XXIV. SOME PECULIARITIES IN EELATIVESENTENCES 597 60E


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xviii CONTENTS.

CHAP. XXV. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCESCHAP. XXVI.- THE NEGATIVES.

1. Use of Simple Negatives2. Several Negatives combined3. Some Negative Phrases

CHAP. XXVIL THE PARTICLES.A. Conjunctions

1. Copulative Conjunctions2. Disjunctive3. Adversative4. Comparative6. Declarative6. Temporal7. Causal8. Inferential9. Final

10. Hypothetical11. Concessive

B. Emphatic Particles

SEC,606611

012518G19 fiiil022

623624625626627628630631632

633634635636637638639640

641643

EMGLIBH INDEX..QBBBK INDEX ..

PAQE.852356


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THESTUDENT'S GREEK GRAMMAR.

INTRODUCTION.THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS.

THE Greek language is the language of the AncientHellenes ('EXA^ve?), the inhabitants of Greece, with allits islands and numerous colonies. It is related to thelanguages of the Indians, Persians, Romans, Slavonians,Lithuanians, Germans, and Celts. These are all sister-languages, and together form the Indo-European family.The Greeks were early divided into races, each ofwhich spoke a different dialect. The chief dialects ofthe Greek language are the Aeolic, Doric, and Ionic.At first each race employed its own dialect both inpoetry and in prose.

1. The IONIC dialect was spoken by the Ionic race,especially in Asia Minor and Attica, in numerousislands, and in the Ionic colonies. It was the first ofthe dialects developed by poetry, and produced threedifferent but nearly related dialects, viz. :

a) The Old-Ionic or Epic dialect, which is preservedin the poems of Homer and Hesiod as well as of theirfollowers.

b} The New-Ionic dialect, which we know chieflyfrom the history of Herodotus.Obs. The Old and New Ionic dialects are also designated \>y thecommon name, Ionic, as distinguished from tbe Attic.c) The Attic dialect, in which are written the nume-

rous works in poetry and prose produced at Athene inB


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2 INTRODUCTION.the time of her glory. The principal writers of theAttic dialect are the tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophod.-sEuripides, the comic writer Aristophanes, the historiansThucydides and Xenophon, the philosopher Plato, thegreat orators Lysias, Demosthenes, and Aeschincs.Through the importance of Athens in Greece, and theexcellence of the Attic literature, the Attic became thechief dialect of the Greek language.

Obs. A less important distinction is made between the earlier andlater Attic writers. The tragedians and Thucydides belong tothe earlier Attic, and the remaining authors to the later. Thlanguage of Plato is intermediate between the two : that of thetragedians has also many other peculiarities.

2. The AEOLIC dialect was spoken by the Aeolians,particularly in Asia Minor, Boeotia, and Thessaly.Alcaeus and Sappho wrote in this dialect.

3. The DORIC dialect was spoken by the Dorians,chiefly in Northern Greece, in the Peloponnesus, inCrete, and in the numerous Doric colonies, especiallySicily and Lower Italy. Doric is essentially the dialectof Pindar's lyric poems and Theocritus' bucolics (herds-man's poetry). The choruses in the tragedies also con-tain some Doric forms.

4. After Athens ceased to be the leading city inGreece, the Attic dialect still remained the language ofeducated Greeks. But it soon began to degenerate fromits primitive purity and excellence, and thus from thethird century before Christ the common Greek dialect(77 KOLVT] SiaXeicros) was distinguished from the Attic.On the boundary-line between the older Attic and thecommon Greek dialect stands the great philosopherAristotle. Amongst later authors, the most importantare : the historians Polybiw, Plutarch, Arrian, DionCassiiis ; the geographer Strabo ; the rhetoriciansDionysiw of Jlalicarnassus and Lucixn.


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PART FIRST.ETYMOLOGY.

I. LETTERS AND SOUNDS.

CHAP. I. THE GREEK CHARACTERS.A. Letters.

1. The Greek letters are the following :-Luge Character. Small Character. Name. Pronunciation.A


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4 LETTERS. 2.2. For s there is a double sign in the small charac-

ter: ff at the beginning and in the middle, and 9 at theend, of a word. Hence, crvv, creiw, r^crav, but TTOJ/O?, Kepas.In compound words 9 may also stand at the end of thefirst word in the compound : Trpos-epxo/jiai, 8iV/3aro9.

3. From the names of the first two letters arose theexpression Alphabet The characters of the Greekalphabet do not essentially differ from those of theLatin and of modern languages. All come from thealphabet of the Phoenicians.

In regard to pronunciation the following points areto be observed :

4. All Greek letters are always pronounced alike.But 7 is an exception, since, before 7, K, % or f, it ispronounced ng. Hence in Latin it is represented by nreyyw is pronounced tengo ; 0-iry/eaXtu, syngkftlo ; X^^T;,longche ; 6pp,iy%, phorminx

5. is pronounced like the English z. It is of verydifferent origin in different cases. Compare p-ei^wv (for/j.ejia)v) from /j,eya we pronounce as /, but probably the Greekspronounced the p and h separately ; hence ph, not /, isused in Latin for :


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14. OTHER CHARACTERS. 5nounced in a, y, &>. It is not written under, but after,capitals, as At, Hi, fit, but still remains unpronounced.

9. When two vowels, usually pronounced together,are to be pronounced separately, the latter has over ita diaeresis, (8lalpeais=separation) : thus Trai'9 is pruuounced pa-is ; ainrvos, a-upnos.B. Other Characters.

10. Besides the letters, the Greek language hasalso the sign ', which is placed over the initial vowelto which it belongs, and represents the h: e| is pro-nounced hex ; aTra%, hapax. This sign is called spiritusasper, rough breathing.

11. For more exact distinction, the Greeks alsomark those initial vowels which have not this breathingwith the sign

'i. e., the spiritus lenis,

gentle breathing.This sound indicates only the raising of the voice which

is necessary for the pronunciation of a vowel when noconsonant precedes : e/c is pronounced ek ; ayca, ago.

12. In diphthongs the breathing stands over thesecond vowel : ovros=howtos ; el8ov=eidon. But whenthe first vowel is in large character, the breathing standsbefore it: r/AtS^?= Hades ; 'liSr)=Ode.

13. Every initial p has the spiritus asper over it :pa^yBos, pevpa. In Latin the aspirate is written afterthe p : rhapsodus, rheuma. When two p's come togetherin a word, ' is usually placed over the first, and ' overthe second : T[vppos=Pyrrhus ; Ka\\ipp6r]= Callirrhoe.

Obs. Many write the double p without any breathing: Ilvppos ;KuXXippdjj.14. As in Latin, so in Greek, the sign ~ over avowel denotes that the vowel is long, w that it is short,and ~ that it is sometimes one, sometimes the other

In Greek they are used only with the vowels a, i, u.since e, 77, o, u> are distinguished by their form.


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6 ACCFNT8. i*lf>. The sign ' at tin 1 junction of two words indicate*

the omission of a vowrl


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23. PUNCTUATION. 7an accent on the final syllable are therefore calledbarytone (ftapvrova) : A,eya>, erepo?.

20. The sign \ however, also denotes a subduedacute, and occupies the place of an acute in everyoxytone not immediately followed by a pause : awo,from, but airo TOVTOV, from this ; /Sao-tXeu?, a king, but/SacriXet ? eyevero, he became king. Oxytones, therefore,retain their accent unchanged only at the end of asentence.

21. The signover a vowel is called the circumflexaccent (Trepio-Trw/Aewr) TrposwSla), from its shape. The

circumflex is a combination of the acute and the grave \A word having a circumflex on the last syllable iscalled perispomenon (TreptcrTrco/^evov) ; ayadots, cvaa?.A word having a circumflex on the last syllablebut one is called properispomenon

22. In diphthongs the accent, like the breathing( 12), is put over the second vowel: ev*yei, TOVTO.When the circumflex accent and the breathing meetupon the same vowel the accent is placed over thebreathing : OUTO?, ^#o


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8 VOWELS. U4.

CHAP. II. THE SOUNDS.A.TJie Vowels.

24. The Greek language, like the Latin, has fivevowi-ls, of which the first four are like the Latin,a, e, o, '. But instead of the Latin u, the Greekshave v (pronounced nearly like the French u and theGerman ii).

25. Tho vowels, apart from the distinction of longand short, are divided into two classes the hard andthe soft vowels : a, e, rj, o, v, which, however, only comes in place of av in the other dialects.OuvfM for davpa, wonder: CMVTOV for e'avrov, of himself: v mustbe pronounced

as ou.


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33. CONSONANTS. 9the spurious diphthongs, a, 17, w, in which the under-written iota is not heard. (Comp. 8.)

28. The Greek language also combines v with t, butonly before vowels: p,vla, a fly.29. We further distinguish the obscure o-sound (o, .

Obs. The aspirated consonants contain each a hard consonantwith the rough breathing, x therefore=' (kh); 6=r (th);=n (ph>33. 2. VOCALS (semivocales) :

(a.) Liquids (liquidae) X, p.(b.) Nasals (nasales) 7 (7 before gutturals, 4), v, /*,(


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10 VOWELS IN COMBINATION. 34.. L The double consonants belong to both kinds:

|f, -v/r, : fur gtca, i/r=7ro-, =8 with a soft sibilant( *)

Ois. Kfa, 7 rescue.

CIIAF. III. COMBINATIONS AND GUANOES OFSOUNDS.

A. Vowels in Combination.35. In the inner part of a word not all vowels may

34. Dialects. A peculiarity of the Greek language is the wantof the breathing v. The v, however, was not altogether wanting;for

1. The digamma ( 3, D.) occurred in the Homeric dialect inthe beginning of the following words: ayvvfu, break; SXis,rous ', dXiVnco/iat, am caught; uva, ruler} ai/acrcra), rule; aplease ; apuids, tender ; ao-rv, city ; tap, spring [ver] ; tdvos, swarm,people; ( moa-i, twenty [Dor. FIKOTI, Lat. vigintt] ; fi/cw, yield ; ftXw,press; (Kr/Ti, willingly ; (Kvpos, father-in-law; (KVV, willing ; (Xtrofiat,hope; the pronominal Stem e (to, sz) foixa, appear; tiros word;tirrov, spoke ; (pyov,

work ; epya>, close in ; fppa>, go on ; fpvta, draw ;fpe a), shtill say ; (fj.ai= oiofj.ai, I think: ira.'is=irais,boy: KXJS=VOVS, sense: 0tXf7re=rf>tX^r (ameiis) : tuKm>=&Ktvlunwilling. Some of the forms usua'ly uncoritracted are, on the


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37. VOWELS IN COMBINATION. 11combine. The dissimilar vowels pair with one anotherbest :

1. The soft generally remain unchanged before thehard vowels : cro


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VOWELS IN COMBINATION. 38.a) the obscurer vowel overpowers the clearer

( 20).Thus fromoo comes o> in

T)0


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5*3. OTHER VOWEL CHANGES. 13B. Other kinds of Vowel-changes.

40. Another change of the vowels consists in theirbeing lengthened. Two kinds of lengthening are dis-tinguished, viz. :

1. Organic lengthening, i. e., that which is required byinflexion or derivation. By organic lengtheninga generally becomes ij rifj.au>, I honour, Fut.D always o> 7X00), I am jealous,ei either

orsometimes

v eitheror

Troieo), / make, Troir].t ruo, I honour, rrcna.St. XITT, Pres. XetVo), / leave.01 XITT, Adj. Xowro'y, remaining.v Xuw, / loose, Fut. Xaaw.fv St.


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16 CONSONANTS IN COMBINATION. 41become and ^ : hence ir\( K-O-U becomes n\((a fromI weave ; \(in- from \fin


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51, CONSONANTS IN COMBINATION. 17r i >,fromSt.8eiKwi'TNom.cetKj/v-s,

rTTfj/5- crTretVa),- ,., .? I, , I am courageous.51. 7. v remains unchanged before mute dentals;

it becomes the nasal 7 before gutturals ( 4), //- beforelabials, and is assimilated before liquid consonants :

, JJOT< together, is unchanged.), / caZZ together, becomes crvyKaXe'a).s, contemporaneous, ,_, vvyxpovos.

s, experienced, efjLireipos from eV and n-eipa, ^>ro, I go, Present of the Sten? >ioX ; /3p's,mortal, for p.porof, from the Stem /ipo or /xop [rnor-ior, r>wtuus sum].

I)


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18 CONSONANTS IN COMBINATION. 5252. 8. Sard mutes (tenues) unite with a following

rough breathing (spiritus asper) into aspirates (^, 0, r]p(pos,for a day.fait (8> I proceed.T/-&7/U 6l-6r)iit., Iput.irt-


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55. OTHER CHANGES OF SOUND. 19Ols. Sometimes the spiritus asper is changed to the lenis>because the following syllable begins with an aspirate : 8-(ppa,till, for 6- from St. e'x ( 327, 6).54. Some Stems beginning with T change this letter

to 6 when an aspirate at the end cannot be retained( 45). This happens :

a) In the Substantive Stem rpix, whose Nona, is 6pi%,hair, Dat. PI. Opi%L The other cases are regular,formed from the Stem rpi-% (Gen. T/DI^O?, Norn. PI.rpfyej).

b) In rcfxys, quic , whose comparative is Bacrcrwvfor Ta%ia)v ( 57 ; comp. 198).

c) In the following Verbal Stems :Tafp Pres. Sdnru), I bury, Fut. 0, Aor. Pass, (rdtprjv,Subs. ra(p6s, grave.rpp Tpe, I nourish, 6pftfsco, Subs, ffpepfui, cattle.rpfX TP(Xco, I run, 0pfopai j+pwf> 6pv7rTa>, I rub to pieces, Bptyv \ ( 260).rv(p Tv, I smoke, 6v^a> }

Obs. In the Passive First Aorist ( 296) and in the Infinitive ofthe Perf. Mid. the aspirate of the Stem remains unchanged, yetthe initial tennis is aspirated, because the Stem-consonant isnot felt to be necessarily an original aspirate, as it might havebeen modified by the influence of the after it ( 45) :

P. Other changes of Consonants and Vowels in themiddle of a word.

55. Important changes of sounds are produced bythe modifications of the soft vowel t in connection withconsonants (comp. 186, 198, 199, 250-253). Fre-quently, for instance,

1. 4 after v or p is put a syllable farther back,where it forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel.Hence,


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20 OTIIKIt CHANGES OF SOUND. 56Ttivta from rtv-tat, ] tti-ftrh, Pt. rtv [/eWv, better, ,, afj.iv,Ktipo) from Kfp-iv, I shear, Ktp.SoTftpa 8oTtp-ia, the giuer, fern. Sorfp (boTi)p, giver).Xtipuv x(P- *v> worse, X(P .

56. 2. i is assimilated to a preceding X :fwXXov from p.a\-tov, more, from fjn'iXa, much.oXXo/zat dX-to/iat, / spring, St. dX. [salio].uXXor ,, dX-ioj, unotlier [alius],OTfXXo) ,, (rreX-tea, / send, St. ortX.

57. 3. Gutturals (T and ^ less frequently) coalescewith a following i to


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22 CHANGES AT THE END OF WORDS. 6&when it has not arisen through the assimilations men-tioned above ( 47, 506, 51, 50). Thu liquid p is thomost frequently doubled : eppl^ra for epl-fya, I hurled ;apprjKrof for a-prj/cros, not breakable. The aspiratesbe doubled only by the corresponding tenuis :

E. Changes of sound at the end of a word.G3. When a word ending in a vowel is followed by

another beginning with a vowel, whether accompaniedby a spiritus lenis or asper, there is a hiatus. TheGreeks very often suffer the hiatus in prose ; but fre-quently the hiatus is avoided, especially if the first wordis a shorter one and of itself of little importance. Thisis done in three ways, that is, either by elision (rejec-tion of the final vowel), or by crasis (contraction ofthe two vowels), or by synizesis (collapse of two syllablesinto one).

eXXa/3e= Att. eXa^Se, he took ; 0iXo/^ui8ijv=Att. (^tXo/^eifiijr, readifyxinilintj ; tvvvr]Tos=Mt. tv-vrjTos, well-woven ; uV ol e eyeVoj/ro ev\ prydpoicri, of which sixwere born to him in the chambers.

4. A long vowel or diphthong before another in the thesis be-comes short, and causes only an improper or weak hiatus : 'ArpdbaiT( Kal oXXoi fiJKvf)iJ.i8(s 'Axaioi, Ye Atridae and ye other well-greavedAchae


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5 5. ELISION CRASIS. 2304. 1. Elision, or the rejection of the final vowel,

of which the apostrophe ( 15) is the sign, occurs onlywith short final vowels, but never with v; most fre-quently at the end of dissyllabic prepositions, conjunc-tions, and adverbs : CTT' avTai , with him, for e?rt auTXAoi=o aXXot the rest. The loss of a short initial vowelis sometimes indicated by the apostrophe ( 15) : ^ 'yo> = /xij eycoitc c


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24 SYNIZESIS. 66.whole, by the laws given for contraction ( 36 30). lioccurs chiefly after forms of the article, of the relativepronoun (especially

oquod

and aquae),

after thepre-position TT/JO, for, before, Lat. pro, and the conjunction

/cat', and. The syllable produced by crasis is necessarilylong. The sign of crasis is the coronis ( 10) : rayadd,bona, from ra aryaOd, ra\\a from ra a\\a, the otherthings, rovvopa, the name, from TO oVo/ia, ravro, the same,for TO avro.

Obs. 1. The rough breathing of tke article or relative maintainsits place in spite of crasis : avfjp the man irregular for 6 di/;;/j,in which case the coronis disappears ; in doi/jorioy from TOIfjurriov the dress, the spiritus asper has changed r into 6 ( 52),so also durtpov irregular for TO trtpov tlie other.

2. The new syllable, formed by crasis, has t subscript onlywhen t is the last of the contracted vowels : KOI eV and inbecomes KJ/, but KOL flra and then becomes Kara.

On the accent with crasis, 89.66. 3. Synizesis (sinking, comp. 39) occurs at the

meeting of two words, only after a long vowel, espe-cially after the conjunctions erret, as, ij, or, 77 num, /j,-tj,not, and after eyeo, I : eTrel ov,as not ; yrj a\\oi, ne alii,670) ov, I not. It is perceptible only in the poets, whoreckon the two syllables as one.

67. No Greek word ends in any consonant except thevocal ones, v, p, and 5 (%, -^r). The only exceptions are :the negative OVK (before consonants ov) and the prepo-sition eK, out of (before vowels e), which attach them-selves so closely to the following word that their K canhardly be looked upon as final.When any other consonant, except these three, appearsnt the end of a word, it is usually rejected :

fit\i honey (?ne?) for ^t\ir (Gen. //cXir-or) 1* / e-\ , f comp,


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tix MOVEABLE CONSONANTS. 23But mute Dentals in this case are often changed intovocal 5.

irpos for irpvr from irport to (Horn.).86s 8od 8061 give.repay rtpar Geu. repar-os miracle.

68. Certain words and forms have, after a shortvowel at the end, a moveable v (y efyekKvamicov). Thisv is used before words which begin with a vowelby which the hiatus is avoided and before longerpauses. Poets employ it also before consonants, espe-fially at the end of the verse, to make it more sonorous.The words and forms which have a moveable v arethe following :

1. The Dat. PI. in /ea, I gave to all ;but Tracrt, Bo/cel OVTO>S elvat, to all it seems to be so.

2. The designations of place in ert(v) : 'Afaqinjo-ip rjv,he was at Athens ; but 'AQijvyat roSe eyevero, this hap-pened at Athens.

3. The single words etoo-t(y), twenty ; jrepv


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76. QUANTITY. 27takes place when aspirates follow the correspondingtenues : 'Ar-01

73. Compounds are divided into the elements outof which they are formed : crw-e^o), I hold together ;

), I drive out.B. Quantity.

74. With regard to the quantity (length or short-ness) of syllables, the same rules, in general, hold goodfor the Greek as for the Latin. An important excep-tion, however, consists in one vowel before the othernot needing to be short in Greek : 6a>ij, penance ; Xao?,people ; j3e\Tiov, better. Nor do the special Latin rulesfor final syllables hold good in Greek.

75. A syllable is long by nature when it contains along vowel or diphthong : vpels, you ; Kpfvca, I decide ;uSfo, I sing. The recognition of quantity in Greek isrendered much easier by the characters : SO/AO?, room,house ; S&yta, house ; in other cases by the accent( 83, 84) ; the rest can be learnt only by practice,and from the lexicon.

Obs. Every contracted syllable must, of course, be long : Skav,unwitting = aiv, tpos = itpos, holy.76. A syllable is long by position, when a vowel is

74. Dialects. Diphthongs and long vowels are very seldomshortened before vowels in the same word : Horn, oioy (giialis ),and fifp\T)ai, with short rj.

75. Dialects. 1. The quantity of the common vowels is veryuncertain generally, but especially in Horn. 7o/iei/, let us yo, ApfsApes, Ares, Ares.

2. A final syllable ending in a long vowel or diphthong in Horn,and the tragic choruses is shortened before a following vowel : OIKOItfrav, they were at home ( ), f)p.tvr) kv, sitting in ( ). Com p.

63, D. 4. But those words which began with digamma ( 34, D.)leave a preceding vowel long in Horn. : KaXXe i re o-riX^cov /cm

( w ), glittering with beauty and garments.


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28 QUANTITY 77.followed by two or more consonants, or a double conso-nant, whetner

a) both consonants or the double consonant stand inthe same word : ^dp^a, joy (~ ), et?, mien (~ ), Katrrtwo

) the first concludes the first word, and the restbegin the second : fobs Be, but God ( ' ), eV TOZ/TW.meanwhile ( ), or

c) both or the double consonant stand at the begin-ning of the second word ra Krrjp-ara, the goods (~

' *),

%wv, the living one (~ ~).Obs. When the vowel thus placed is already long by mature, thismust be indicated in the pronunciation : the a in TrpSoxrw, 1

act, sounds differently from that of racra-a, I arrange, thoughboth words make a spondee in verse ; that in /zaXXop differentfrom that of KuXAor, beauty, though both form a trochee.77. When a vowel short by nature stands before amute with X, p, v, p, following, the syllable may be long

or short: TCKVOV, child (~ ), Tix^Xo?, blind (~ ), TI Bpas,what art thou doing (~ ) ?The syllable, however, is necessarily long in the fol-lowing cases :

78. a) when the mute stands at the end of the first,the liquid or nasal at the beginning of the secondword : e'/c vrjwv, out of the ships ( ), and in compoundsin which the mute belongs to the first element : e'/cXeyoj,1 speak out ( ) ;

d) when a soft mute (y8, 7, 8) is followed by X, /t, or v :s, book ( ), Tor^ua, task (

~), estiva, snake ( ).

77. Dialects. In Horn, a mute with X, p, v, p. following.almost regularly mates position : rtnvov ri icXawtr, child, u-lyweepest thou f ( ), VTTVOS Travfia/xarwp, all-subduing slcej>(

). Kay, even X, o, v, p, at the beginning of words have

often the power of lengthening the short final vowel of the pre-ceding word : Ka\f]fTf fj.(yd\r]VT(, a beautiful and great ( ---y8 in the Stwn 8i (Sflo-cu), fear, and in 8fjv, long, has the sameetiect.


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83. ACCENTS. 29

CHAP. V. ACCENTS.79. The general rules for the accentuation of words

are the following:1. Every word must have one and can never have

more tlian one principal accent, which is called simplythe accent: irokmrpay^ocrvvri, busy occupation ; ajrapa-a-KevacrTos, unprepared. On the designation of wordsaccording to the accent, see 17, 19, 21.

80. 2. There are two kinds of accents, the sharpaccent or the acute (oeta), and the lengthened or thecircumflex (Trepia-TrcofAevr/). On the mode of using both,see 17, 21.

81. 3. The acute may be upon long or shortsyllables, the circumflex only on such syllables as arelong by nature: as, \eya), I say ; \r)^w, I cease ; ra\o?,beautiful ; aXijdrjs, true ; avdpcoiros, man ; /ce/iez/o9,lying ; tceiTai, he lies ; aw^a, body ; ev, well.

82. 4. The acute accent can be only on one of thelast three syllables, and on the last but two onlywhen the last is short: aTroticos, colonist, but notaTToiKov (Gen.) ; eXeyov, I said, but not eXeyrjv, I wassaid.

83. 5. The circumflex can be only on one of the lasttwo syllables, and on the last but one only when thelast is short by nature: av/cov, fg, but not O-VKOV,(Gen.) ; crw/j,a, body, but not o-w/iaro? (Gen.) ; Trpaft?,act, but not 7rpdei$ (Nom. PL).

05s. 1. When the last syllable is long by position, it does nothinder the circumflex from being on the last syllable but one :av\a, furrow, Gen. avXaKos, but it does when it is long bynature as well as by position, $pa, breast-plate, Gen. dapaKos.Comp. 145.

2. Exceptions to 4 and 5 will be adduced separately in thechapters on inflexions. It is specially to be observed, that


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10 ACCENTS. S4most of the exceptions occur with the final syllables in , I reigned, not r\p*xpv ' ^-* f ine same 9e> n t, (Gen. 77X4*09) : Kparlvos, not Kparlvos. It in;iy,

however, be without an accent : eiVe, speak ; avQpwTros,man.Obs. 1. Apparent exceptions, such as SxrTt, so that, ijfc, this,are explained in 94.

2. So fixed is the rule, apart from these cases, that the quantityof the final syllable or of the last but one may often be inferredfrom the accent: Wi (t), go ; rrpwra [prima Nom. PL] (a);yvvaiicas (a), women, Ace. PI. ; yi/w/ias (u), opinions, Ace. PI.85. 7. Compound words have the accent on thelast part but one of the word, as far as is possible

according to 82, &c. : iiiridt,, go away ; ai\o


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ACCENTS. 31a) the circumflex, when the jtfrs of the uncontracted

syllables was accented : rt/^aet Tt/^a, Ae honours ;Xpvaov, of golden ;

b) the acute, when the last was accented:ecrra>9, standing.

88. 3. With elision ( 64) oxytone prepositions andconjunctions entirely lose their accent ; all other kindsof words throw it upon the previous syllable as acuteserr' avTu>, on him = en-t avrw, ovS1 eBvvdftwv, I couldnot even = ouSe ISwdfwjv, dp 'OSvo-ev?, / am Odys-seus == elul 'OSfcrei;?, enV fj(rav, there were seven = eirraijcrav.

89. 4. With crasis ( 65) the accent of the first wordis lost : rdyaOd, bona = ra dja&d, dolfidriov, the dress= TO ipdriov. Only when paroxytones change thefirst syllable by crasis into one long by nature, thisreceives a circumflex: ra aXXa, alia, gives raXXa, TOepyov, the work, rovpyov.On the changes of the accent in declension, see 107-109 ; oc

the accent of verbs, see 229, and 331-333.90. The dissyllabic prepositions, with the exception

of dp(f)i, dvri, avd, Bid, when placed after the noun or verbto which they belong, throw their accent on to the firstsyllable : rovrwv irkpi about those (jrepl TOVIWV) ; IDlike manner when, used adverbially, they include thesubstantive verb, as vrdpa = Trdpeari, it is there, near ;evi = evea-ri, it is therein, is possible. This drawingback of the accent is called anastrophe. Comp. 446.

91. Some words of one and of two syllables unite soclosely with the preceding word, that they throw theiraccent on to it. Such words are called enclitics (eyicXi

90. Dialects. Prepositions, whose final syllable is lost by elision,have not the accent even when they occupy the position indicated in

90. Horn. Tyo-i nap' fli'dfrts xdXiceuov, among them 2forged rtweyears long.


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32 ENCLITICS. $ aXe'ei?, i. e. inclining words), and the throwing back of thtaccent, is called inclination.

92. The following are enclitics :1. The indefinite pronoun rt?, rl, some one, somethingt

through all forms ( 214).2. The three personal pronouns, in the fonns /iou,

/AOI, /AC, WZ, Wifo', wie; o-oO, crot, o-e, w, $z, te;ou, ol, e, sui, iibi, se ; a


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97. ENCLITICS. 33d) Proparoxytones and properispomes retain their

accent, but receive also from the following encliticanother accent as acute on the last syllable, whichremains unsubdued: avdpwrros rt?, a man; 6e8cuoielaiv, they are firm ; aw^d ye, the body at least ; jraiSesT'69, some boys.

e) Atona ( 97) receive the accent of following enclitics asacutes : ov (prjaiv, he says not ; &s re, and now.94. Obs. Several words of one syllable form one word withenclitics following : thus, vsre, so that ; el-re, sive ; cure, neque ;ftrjTf, neque ; olosrt, capable ; OSTIS, whoever ; fjroi, truly ;Kairoi, and yet ; to this also belongs the Se mentioned in 92,5 : 58e, this one ; oiKaSe, homewards. These words form partlyapparent exceptions to 79 and 84.95. /) When several enclitics follow one another,

each throws its accent upon the preceding : el rt9 uoi770-4 Trore, if any one ever says to me.

96. The enclitics in certain cases retain their accent(become orthotoned), viz. :

1. when an enclitic forms the first word in the sen-tence, and therefore has nothing on which to throw itsaccent: rtye? \eyovcri, some say. This position, hovr-ever, is rare.

2. when an enclitic is made emphatic : ere Xe7, .mean you no one else ; el ea-nv, if it is really so. Wheie'urt denotes exist, be allowed, possible, it retains theaccent and that too on the last syllable but one : &n t#eo?, there is a Grod; OVK eariv, it is not allowed, notpossible. Comp. 315, Obs. 2.3. After elision : ravr ecrrt tyev&f), this is false =Tavrd ean frevSfj.

4. Enclitics of two syllables, in the case mentioned93, e.

97. Atona, i. e., words without accent, also calledproclitics or inclining forwards, are several words of oneD


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34 ATONA. f 98syllable, which have so little independence, that inregard to accent they combine with i\\Q following word.They are the following :1. of the article, the forms 6, 77, ol, al ;2. the prepositions, ev (in with the Dat.); e? or etV

(into with the Ace.), ex or e' out of ;3. the conjunctions, el, if, and o>


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100. DECLENSION. 35

II. INFLEXION.A. INFLEXION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

CHAP. VI. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES ANDADJECTIVES.

100. Inflexion is the change which nouns, pronouns-nd verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.A distinction must be made in inflexion between Stemand Termination. Stem is the fixed part, Terminationthe changeable part which is appended to the Stem toindicate the different relations.The inflexion of nouns and pronouns is called Declen-

sion. As the nominal and pronominal Stems are modi-fied according to Cases, the terminations added to themare called Case-endings. The form, which arises, from ucase-ending being added to a Stem, is called the Case-form. Thus Trpdy/AaT-os is a case-form of the StemTrpay/jLar, formed by means of the case-ending -05.Great care must be taken not to confound theStem and the Nominative case. The Nominative isitself a case-form, often quite different from the Stem.Thus the Nominative of the Stem ITpaypar is 7rpdy/j,a,thing, \6yos, speech, is the Nominative of the Stem ^070,which appears, for example, in the compound word Acr/o-7pa


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109. ACCENT IN DECLENSION. 37


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38 TrvJ A DECLENSION. HO,(Jen. Sing. f Trora/io?, river ; rififj Dat. Sing, of 7^77,honour ; TTO&WV Gen. PI. of TTOU?, /0o / UTJVOIV Gen.Dual of /iji>, month.

110. Originally there was only a single declension,for which reason much has still remained common,which we shall put together below, 173. But we dis-tinguish Two Principal Declensions according to theending of the Stems :

1. the First Principal Declension (vowel declension),which comprehends the Stems ending in a and o, and

2. the Second Principal Declension (consonant declen-itiori), which comprehends the Stems ending in conso-nants, but also those in the soft vowels t, v, in diphthongs,and a small number of Stems in o.

FIRST PRINCIPAL DECLENSION.( Vowel-declension.)

111. The first principal declension is subdividedinto two, viz. :

A. T/te A Declension.B.T7ie O Declension.

What is common to both is put together below, KM.A. THE A DECLENSION.

(Commonly called the First Declension.)112. The A Declension comprehends those words,whose Stems end in a. In certain cases, however, this

a becomes 17. Hence the A Declension of the Greekscorresponds both to the A or first, and to the E or fifthDeclension of the Latin language.

113. The A Declension contains only Masculinesand Feminine*. The two genders are most easily distin-guished in the Norn. Sing., in which the masculines take


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H5. THE A DECLENSION. 39of the Nom. Sing, are in the feminine a, 77, in themasculine a?, 179.

114. 1. Feminines.

Examples.


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40 TUT. A DECLENSION. II '.a) a remains in the Nom. Sing, after e, i or p, ( 41) :

St. ooia, Nom. Sing. crania, wisdom ; Dat. PL Trerpat?,Nom. Sing. jrerpd, rock.b) a remains in the Nom. Sing, after a- and after the

double consonants , , ^r, ercr(or T T ), XX, as well as inthe feminine designations in -aiva: St. a/*aa, Nom.Sing. a/jLa%d, carriage; Gen. PI. \e.cuvwv, Nom. Sing.Xeatvd, lioness.

c) After other vowels and consonants a is generallychanged into 77 in the Nom. Sing. : St. /3oa, Nom. Sing./3otj, cry; Ace. PI. vv(o/j,d ôur ;ToX/xa, boldness; Si'aira, mode of life.116. 2. In order to form the other cases in the

Singular according to a given Nom. Sing. :a) If the Nom. Sing, ends in 77, this letter remains

throughout the Sing. : BIKTJ, justice, SIKVS, SUp, SUijv, SLKIJ.b) If the Nom. Sing, ends in a, this letter remains

always in the Ace. and Voc. : a/j-aâ, ap,a%av.c) If the Nom. Sing, ends in a, this letter remains

also in the Gen. and Dat. when preceded by a vowel or p( 41) : Nom. Sing. ao(j>id, wisdom, Gen. c-oc/ua? ; Nom.Sing. cToa, colonnade, Dat. c-roa: also in some propernames with long a : Nom. Sing. Aâ, Gen. Aij&d


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120. THE A DECLENSION.118. The Gen. PI. has the ending iov, which com-

bines with the Stem a to form dwv, c'ontr. wv. This isthe reason that the Gen. PI. of all words in this declen-sion has the circumflex: %o>(oa ^wpwv, \eaiva \eaivojv(Exceptions, 181. Comp. 123).

119. The Dat. PI. originally ended in a-i, beforewhich i is added to the a of the Stem. The ai


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( 12.V THE O DECLENSION. 43(contracted from /3ope'd-s north wind), contracts the ori-

ginal ao in the Gen. Sing., after Doric fashion, into a: poppCi.The same takes place with some Doric and Roman proper names,and a few other words : SvXAay, Sulla, opvidodrjpas, fowlerGen. Sing. a.123. In the Dual and Plural the Declension of the

Masculines is the same as that of the Feminines.Exceptions to the accentuation prescribed in 118 are

usurer, frrja-iai, trade-winds, Gen. PI.the 0-declension from xPWr s> good) and

B. THE DECLENSION.(Commonly called the Second Declension?)

124. The O Declension comprehends those wordswhose Stems end in o, together with the few whoseStems end in w ( 132). It answers to the o- or SecondDeclension in Latin.

125. The O Declension is the complement of theA Declension in regard to gender. It contains Masculinesand Neuters, but only few Feminines.The termination of the Masculines and Feminines inthe Nom. Sing, is 0-9, that of Neuters o-v [Lat. u-s, u-m\.The Masculines and Feminines are declined alike ;the Neuters are distinguished from them (comp. 105}only by

1. The Nom. and Voc. Sing, taking the Accusative-ending v : Swpo-v (gift) \donu-m\.

2. The Nom. Ace. and Voc. PI. ending in a:\dond\.


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4-i THE O DECLENSION.126.

126.

Ivxamj.les.


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130. THE O DECLENSION. 455. Single words : ,3t/3Xor, Joo& ; pdfiBos, stajf 6ia\ros, dialect ;

j/o'eros, disease; SpocroS) dew ; &OKOS, beam. Many designationsof personal beings are common, that is, with the same form theyare masculine when they denote a male, feminine when theydenote a female : 6 6eos , god ; i] 6(6s, goddess ; 6 avdpurrosand T av128. The ending of the Gen. Sing, is -o, which with

the o of the Stem is contracted into ov (conip. 122) :dvdpo)7ro-o =

129. The Nominative form is sometimes usedinstead of the Vocative form : the Vocative of 6eosis always the same as the Nom. : & 6eos [Lat. dens'] :d8eX~jroto, TreSt'oio (n-f8iW, field). We also, however, find the Attic ov.Other Epic peculiarities are : -ouv = oiv in the Gen. and Dat.Dual : up.ouv (u/ioy, shoulder ) : OKTI^V ) = ais in the Dat. Flur. :ai'#pa>7rot(Ti(i>), which is also New-Ionic and is found even in Atticwriters (comp. 119).

$ 130. Dialects. The Ionic dial, leaves the forms uncontracted.


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(6 CONTRACTED O DECLENSION.

Examples.


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48 CONSONANT DECLENSION. 135.1. the masculines have in the Norn. Sing, the

eil'lhlg -9.2. the masculines have in the Gen. Sing. ( 122, 1 Js )the ending -ov.3. all three genders have i subscriptum with a longvowel in the Dat. Sing.4. all three genders have -v in the Ace. Sing.5. all three genders have the Stem vowel lengthened

in the Nom. Ace. and Voc. Dual.6. all three genders affix -/ to the Stem vowel irthe Gen. and Dat. Dual.7. all three genders have -wv in the Gen. PI.8. all three genders affix -aiv or 5 with preceding i to

the Stem vowel in the Dat. PI.9. the masculines and feminines affix -i to the Stem

vowel in the Xom. PI.10. the masculines and feminines affix -9 (for i>


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13*. CONSOKANT DECLENSION. 49Hence for the exact recognition of a word of this declension, not only

the Nominative but also the Stem or the Genitive is necessary :as, Norn. 8ais, St. 8


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50 CONSONANT DECLENSION. 140.in p preceded by a short vowel in t-lie Nom. : St.Minn, o-co/ia, body; St. êi/e?, Nom. 7^09, genus; St.ond Nom. yijpas, age; St. and Nom. a-ivdm, mustard;St. and Nom. aoru, city ; St. and Nom. Trrop, heart.

140. The following words must be noticed sej >ar;ildy :q yaa-rrjp (St yaarep}, belly ; 6 Trot;? (St. TroS),17 x64/3 (*^k X l p)> fand ; TO ou? (St. tor), ear; 6(St. TT^XU), forearm; fj pijv (St. pev), diaphragm,mind; 6 TreXeû? (St. 7reXe/ct), axe; 6 florpvs (St.Borpv), bunch of grapes ; 6 o-raû9 (St. crra^y), earof com; 6 cr^>7;| (St. O-^TJK), wasp; 6 /if)9 (St.w>wse [mws] ; 6 tî5? (St. l%6v\ fsh ; 6 arjp (St. a

azr; TO TTV/J (St. TT v p), fre ; TO uSa>/3 (St. vSOf two genders (common) are several names of animals, as : 6 and

TJ akfKTpvcav (St. dXeicrpvoi'), coc/j and hen; 6 and 17 vr, or


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143, CONSONANT DECLENSION. 51142. The accent in the Second Principal Declen-

sion deviates from the rules laid down in 107 inthe following point :Words of one syllable accentuate the Gen. and Dai.of all numbers on the case-ending (circumflex if thevowel be long, 109) : 77-08-69, iroS-t (but iraS-a), TroSolv,TToBiOV, TTOCTl.

EXCEPTIONS. 1. Participles, as: &v, being, OVTOS; fids, going,fidm-os accentuate the Genitive and Dative of all numbers onthe last syllable but one.

2. iras, omnis, has iravros, iravrt, but Travrcov, ms, slave; 6d>s, jackatt; Tpwy, Trojan ;

TO (f)S>s, light; fj (pus, blister ; 77 8as, torch; TO ovs, ear; 6


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52 CONSONANT DECLENSION. 5 144.

1. CONSONANT STEMS.144. l. Guttural and Labial Stems,

i. e. Stems in K, % 7, TT, , /?.Examples.


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CONSONANT DECLENSION. 53

1 16. 2. Dental Stems, i. e. Stems in T, #, S, v.

Exam.


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54 CONSONANT DECLENSION. 147pigma the consonants r, 8, 0, when they stand alone,disappear altogether ( 49) : Xa/iTraS-?, Xa/iTra-?,KopvO-s, Kopv-s, helmet; but v and vr have the shortvowels of the Stem lengthened by way of conijii-n-sution ( 42), so that a, t, t/, become a, t, 5; but ebecomes e t, and o, o u : Travr-s, Tra-?, every ; ei>-


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149. CONSONANT DECLENSION. 55148. The Vocative of masculines and feminines

sometimes has the pure Stem, as far as is possible :vApre/z.i (St. 'Apre/itS), Alav (St. Alavr), , HotreiSav, which are like the Nom.,shorten the vowel and draw back the accent in the Voca-tive : 'ATToXXoi/, n6T(Nom. Sing. xapifls > graceful, Dat. PI. xapiWt(i'). See In-flexion, 18V;.

148. Dialects. The Vocative of the Stem O.VO.KT (Xom. Sing.iva, rider') is in Horn, ava (shortened from dvaKT : comp. the neuteryaAa, 147 V) ; some Stems in vr lose the v in the Voc. : ArXa for'ArXai'(r).

149. Dialects. Homer forms the Dat. PI. iroa-


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CONSONANT DECLENSION. 1501 - >0. 3. Liquid Stems, i. o. Stems in X and p.

Kxam.


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CONSONANT DECLENSION. 57yao-rep, A^/iT/re/o (Noras. Trarrfp, father ; fj,t]rr/p,motlicr ; dvydrrjp, daughter; jaarrjp, belli/; A^yLtr/r^p),reject e in the Gen. and Dat. Sing. ( 61,


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58 CONSONANT DECLENSION. K.5.155. The Nom. Sing. Mnsc. and Fern, is alwaysformed by Sigma. The Neuter Sing, as well as the

Vocative Sing, of all genders has the pure Stem. Yetsometimes the Norn, form is used for the Vocative, andthis is the case in all monosyllables. In the Ace. Sing.Masc. and Fern, v is affixed to the Stem.On the lengthening of monosyllabic Stems, 142 b.But this lengthening takes place also in the Nom. andAce. Sing, of some polysyllabic words.

15(5. Bart/tones in IT, tS, tO, vS, vd (Nom. t?, 1/9),form the Ace. Sing, generally by affixing v afterrejecting the Stem-consonant: St. e/u8 (Nom. ept-


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O CONSONANT DECLENSION. 159.I . >:). 2. Diphthong Stems, i. c. Steins in eu, av, ov.

Kxain.


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162. CONSONANT DECLENSION. 61Some compounds of 7rou-9, foot, form the Ace. Sing.

like Stems in ov: rpiirovs, three-footed, Ace. rpiTrovv.For mt)-9, see among the irregular words, 177, 11.

161. The stems in ev moreover have in thea) Gen. Sing., eu? for 09. Comp. 157.b) Dat. Sing., et always contracted for et.c) Ace. Sing, and PL, a is long and not contracted.d) Nom. and Voc. PL, ee? contracted by older Attic

writers into 77 9, by the later into 649.e) Words which have a vowel before ev may be con-

tracted also in the Gen. and Ace. Sing., and in the Ace.PL: St. Heipatev, Nom. Heipaiev-s, port of AtJiens,Gen. Heipaiw, Ace. Heipatd ; ^oeu-9, measure, Ace. PLObs. The Gen. in -ens has arisen by transmutation of quantity

( 37, D. 2) out of the Horn. 17 os. Hence the length of thefinal syllable. In the same manner the Ace. Sing, td hasarisen out of jja : still 5 is also found, like eas in the Ace. PI. ;(as is contracted by later writers into (is.

162. 3. O Stems, i. e. Stems in o and a).Examples.


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CONSONANT DECLENSION. 163Example* for Declension.t - VX) ecjt

, AJ;TO), 6/ico-s (St.-c (St. /iijrpw), avunculus.

163. The Stems in o, all feminine, form the Nom.Sing, without sigma, except the Stem at So, Nom. Sing.,ai'Sco-9, shame, Ace. ai'Su. The Ace. which is liki- tin'Num. is oxytoue (contrary to 87) : 7rei0o>, not TreiOw.The Vocative ends in ot; all other cases are con-tracted. The Ace. of Stems in o> usually remains un-contracted. The Stem eo>, Nom. 77 eiw-?, dawn, \i-ia).

Obs. Several Stems in ov follow the above declension in some oftheir forms: drjbvv, nightingale, Gen. drjftovs, with aijfidfoy;etKtiv, image, Gen. etxovs (comp. 171).

lives also in cos and Cy CoSvo-fCr), Datives in el, ft, and Accti-Eat : vcs in ea, ?; : TvS^.The New-Ionic dial, leaves e frequently uncontracted : fBacriXf-ts.

163. Dialects. Horn, contracts ^pwt into rjpip, Mlvaa intoMtVu. The old and poetic form for ca>-j is ^co-r (St. 170), declinedlike ai5c )-s. Some proper names in a in the Nom. Sing, have in theNow-Ionic dial, an Ace. in ovv : AiproCv, 'low.


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65. CONSONANT DECLENSION. 63III. ELIDED STEMS, i. e. Stems which reject the final

consonant in certain forma.164. 1. 2 Stems, i. e. Stems which elide sigma.

Exam.


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64 CONSONANT DECLENSION. 166.into o in the Nom. Ace. and Voc. Sing.: St.7evo9. Neuter adjectives leave unchanged:Masculines and Feminines form tlie Nom., Sir.g bylengthening e? into 779 ( 147, 2), as 9 cannot be ullix.-il :fvyewjs from evyeves, like Trot/jitjv from Trot/iev.

Masculines and Feminines have the pure Stem in theVoc. Sing., and in compound words which are not oxy-tone in Nom. Sing, the accent is on the last syllablebut two (comp. 148, 85): Nom. SWparT??, Voc.SwAcpaTe? ; Nom. A^/iocrêj^?, Voc. A^/iocrêi/e?.06s. The Neuter d\rjd(s (Masc. dXijdfjs, true) draws buck the

accent in interrogations : aXrjdts, really *166. In all other forms 5 is rejected ( 61 and 49) :

yeve-l for yeve^9 (St. (f>ve$) have vr) and va:evvij, well-disposed, evûfj and evva.

Obs. Barytone adjectives have the accent in the Gen. PI. on thelast syllable but one, contrary to 87 : avrapiuav (Nom. avrdpnijs,self-sufficient). So also rpiTjpijj, trireme, used as a substantive,Gen. PI. Tpif/peav.167. Proper names in -*cXjr compounded with xXeoj, glory(St. (cXeer), have a double contraction in the Dat. Sin^., and asingle one in all the other cases : Nom. (lIc/MJcXf^ff) ElfpiKXijr,Gen. (rifpt/cXeeoj) IlfpiK\fovs, Dat. (ll(piK\ff'i, HeputXtti) Tltpt.-K\('I, Ace. (Ilfpt/cXeea) IkpucXco, Voc.166. Dialects. A vowel before e is often contracted with it in

Hum. : (rnfos or (nrflos, cave, Gen. fftiaos, Dat. a-Trfj-i (from


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172. CONSONANT DECLENSION.172. Synopsis of terminations in the

fipal Declension.

67Second Prin-

Nona.


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C8 CONSONANT DF,( I.F.NSION.

Xora.


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i 3. CONSONANT DECLENSION. 69

N jrn.


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70 IRREGULARITIES IN DECLENSION. 174The principal differences in the endings arc :1. In the Gen. Sing., where the Second PrincipalDeclension always has 09 (to?).2. In the Nom. PI., where Masc. and Fern, of the

Second Principal Declension always have 9.Irregularities in Declension.

174. The mixing of two Stems which may have oneNom. is called Heterodising (eTepoK\icria, different in-flexion) : Nom. cvc6T09, darkness, Gen. CTKOTOV (O-Declen-sion), and O-KOTOVS (Second Principal Declension) ; TUT/CO?,hare, according to the Attic declension, but Ace. \arf5).An important irregularity of this kind occurs withproper names in 179: ^.wKparij^ (St. 2 &> Kpa re 9), butAce. ZaKparnv (as if from Stem ^.cofcpara of the A-Declension) with ^.wKpdrij. But those in -/cX% ( 167)follow the Second Principal Declension exclusively.

175. The formation of some cases from a Stemwhich cannot be that of the Nom. is called Metaplasm(fj,eraTr\aa-fi6


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177. IRREGULARITIES IN DECLENSION. 71Neuter Stems in apr, as (frpeapr. They reject r in theNom. Ace. and Voc. Sing., and p in the other cases : TO(frpeap, well, Gen. ^pearo? (also (j)prjr6^) ; TO rjirap, liver,Gen. rjTraros ', TO aXei^ap and a\.ei(j)a, salve, Gen.To these correspond the Stems a tc a (p) T and v&a(p)r:Nom. o-KMp, dirt, Gen. cvcaTo? ; #o\wp, Gen. /SaT09.177. Social irregularities in alphabetical order :

1. avrjp, man, (comp. 153) rejects e of the St. dvep,and inserts 8 in its place (51, Obs. 2) : av-S-p-os, av$pi,avSpa ; Voc. avep ; Dual, avftpe, avftpo'iv ; PI. avbpes,

2. A/37J9 (the god Ares): St. 'Ape 9, Gen. Ape


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178. CASE-LIKE TERMINATIONS. 73Case-like Terminations.

178. Besides the case-endings, there occur certainsuffixes or appendages, which in meaning very nearlyresemble case-endings. To these belong :

1. -6 1, answering to the question where: d\\o-6i,elsewhere ;

2. -6ev, to the question whence : olKo-Oev,from home ;

3. - 8 e, to the question whither : ol/ca-Be,hometvards.

Dialects. 20. 6 eptor, Jove, Stems epcor and f'po, poet. Ace. epo-v.21. Befus, justice, St $e/xi and $f^ucrr, PI. $e'/xi


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74 INFLEXIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 179.These suffixes are joined to the Stem of the noun :

A0/)VTj0ev, from, AtJtem, (with Ion. rj) ; KVK\60ev, fromthe circle, (KVK\O-


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182. INFLEXIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 75

Sing.


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INFI.KXIOXS OF ADJECTIVES. 183., the Bias . Ix-ini: used for the IVm. : Masr. and

Fein, ô-uôs. NVut. â-vôv, quirt. Coninoioidtives especially are all of only two endings : are/cz/o?, child-less ; Kapiroffropos, fruitful.

183. Adjfctircs ciidini; in eo


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INFLEXIONS OF ADJECTIVES.the Attic 0-Declension ( 132): t'Xe&x?, Neut, tXea>v,gracious; d^to^pea)?, Neut. -wv, considerable; 7r\e&>9,TrXea, ir\ewv, full, aws (from o-ao9, saluus) has in theNom. Sing. Fera. and Neut. PI. era; but also the forms(TW09,


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78 INFLEXIONS OF ADJECTIVES.Examples for Declension.

y\VKi>s, sweet /3pa^vf, short tipvs, broad,fjpa&vs, slow raxvs, swift

Obs. 6?f\vs,female, differing also in accent, occurs as a Feminine.186. 2. Stems in v. The i in ia is tran.-:'

to the preceding syllable ( 55): St. p,e\av, Nm.Masc. /ieXa?, Fern. p,i\aiva (from fj,e\av-ia), Kent./LteXaz>, black.

Singular.


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137. INFLEXIONS OF ADJECTIVES.


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&0 INFLEXIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 18sOb. Tlie form of the Fern, is explained from r before t becoming

v, accord in 4 to ( 0, t U-in^ dropped after tr, and v before a I'dtij;thrown out and OOmpettMted fir 1-y a IciiL'tlu'iiin^ of tlie v.mv :iravria, iravcria, irava-a, Trutra ; \votma, Xuovirtu, Xuoi/era, Xuovcra.188. 4. Stems in or. The partir-iples of the

feet Active in or (Norn. Sing. Muse, ox?, Neut 09)have via in tlie Fern. : XeXu/cco?, \e\vKvca, \e\vic6s,one who has freed. See 146, 147.

Singular.


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82 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 1*4.from the Stems peya and fj.eya\o; in 7ro\v9, fromand TroAAo; in irpaos, from irpao and Trpav.Sing.Norn.Gen.Dot.Ace.Foe.


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197. COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES. 83193. The following points are to be observed :

l. The Stems in o leave o unchanged only when thepreceding syllable is long ( 74, &c.), but lengthen itto to when that is short : Troi^/jo-repo?, worse ; Tri/cpo-TO/TOV, most bitter ; aotjxa-Tepos, wiser ; aîco-Tarr), mostworthy. Every syllable with a vowel followed by twoconsonants or a double consonant is here considered long( 76, 77).

194. 2. The o is always rejected after at in the adjectiveyepaios, senex, sometimes in nuXatos, antiquus, and crôXatof,at leisure : yepairepos, TraXairaros.195. 3. The o or CD is changed to at in pea-os, medius; icros,like; euftios, clear; jrputios, early; oîos, late: /neerairaroy,Trpooi'aiTepoi'. rj


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84 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 198The compounds of xPt? grace, favour, form their Comparativeand Superlative as if they ended in âptro-r : eVtâptrwrepot,more obliging.

198. The second and rarer termination of the Com-parative is t o v (Nom. Masc. and Fern, t, &> v, Neut tor),of the Superlative, to- TO (Nom. to-ro?, ta-rn, KTTOV). TheStem-vowel is rejected before i. The accent is placedas far as possible from the end in the Comp. and Superl.Inflexion of the Comp., 170. So is formed from :

Positive. Stem. Comparative. Superlative.Tj8vs, agreeable f)8v fjO'itov, -ov ^Sicrror -ij -ovrci^vs, swift ra\v Qdtro-uv -ov ra^tcrros -rj -ov

(from ra^twv, according to 54, 57)myas, large ptya pdfav -ov p.eyiv=

fidKLOtv (naKpos, long), Sup. firjKioros (Dor. âKicrroi) ; Kv8ia>v(wSpos, famous} ; p./fwj', New-Ion, for ptifav.199. Dialects. 1. Horn. Comp. apt tu>v, Positive Kparv-s, Superl.

; Comp. Xtoirtpof ; New-Ion. Kpttrmw = Kpticrtruiv ; poet,r, /3t\raTo$, (peprepos, (pepraros, or (pepicrroy, Tnore excellent,

most excellent.2. Horn. KaKcartpos ; x^P7?^) xePf 'iXePei TfPos> xflP^TrP s > New-

Ion. o-v = rjo-o-cov. (Comp. Kpe


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199. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 85with other peculiarities in the following adjectives,where the changes of sound of 55-58 are often applied :

1. For the idea of good :Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

dyad6s[St. dp.fv] dfiflvav, apetvov[St. apes] [apflw, Horn.] apioTOS, 77, ov[St. jSeXro] j3f\Tia>v, fteXriov /SeXi-tcrror, 17, ov[St. Kpai-v] Kpfiffcrav ^Kpflrrutv) KpaTMrros, r), ovN. Kpdcrtrov (jipfirrov)[St. X u> u] Xcoicuf or Awcof Xwcrros1, r], ovN. \'iov or Xa>oi/

Obs. dp,eij/coi> and apio-ros rather express excellence, capacity;Kpti (wXfoi') TrXetcrroj^. ir\tov (also TrXeTi/)6. /caXdf, beautiful, as if from

/caXXof, beauty KoXAuoi/ A^. xaXXtov KaXXioros7. paStoy, easy

[St. pa] p^cov N. paoi/ pqo-ros8. oXyftvof, painful, as if from

oXyoy, ^>ain. aXyt'wv N. aXytoj/ aXyioros

Dialects. 5. Horn, contracts TrX/ov to TrXeiJj', TrXtoi/ej to 7rXev>es ;Plur. also, TrXe'e?, TrXeas, TrXta.

7. Ion. prjiSios ; Horn, p^irepor, ptj'iV,dog ) ; ptytov, worse, plyos, cold, shudder.

Defectives : eWpTepoi, also tragic veprepoi (inferi, for whichPositive evepot) ; Horn. Trvparos and Xolo-^os, Xoi'cr&or, last, vorartos=: vffraros, SeuTaror, in a like sense, 7rp&>Trros=:7rpcoTos, the first.


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86 ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES. 200.200. Finally observe further the Defectives :

vvTfpos, later voraror, ultimuseo-âror, extremus

(v/or, new) viaros, novissimus(vwfp, over) VTTCLTOS, summus(irp6, before) irportpos, prior Trpwror, primus,(irfpav, on the other side) irtpairepos.

C. Adverbs of Adjectives.201. Adverbs are derived from the adjective Stem

by affixing to it the syllable w 9. The o of the Stem isentirely dropped : $1X09, adv. 9. The Stems of theSecond Principal Declension have the same form as inthe Genitive: raîx;, swift, raêw?; cra


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88 PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 206.206. The Stems of the Sing, are: e>e, for the

first person;


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311. REFLEXIVE AND OTHEK PKONOUNS. 89209. auro-9, afar), avro, self, is declined like acommon adjective, except that the Neuter in the Nom.

Ace. Voc. Sing, has no v (comp. the article TO).o auro9 (auTO?), rj ai/r// (avrr)}, TO avTO (ravro orTCIVTOV), the same, Lat. idem.

210. The Stems of the Personal Pronouns, combinedwith auTo?, produce the Reflexive Pronouns.

Singular. Gen. M. N. F. DatM.N. F. Ace. M. F. S.1st person efiavrov -rjs e/iavTa) -17 tp-avrov -r\v myself2d person creavroC -rjs creavrw ~fj crfavrov -rjv thyself

or trauroC -f/s cravrw -fj cravTov -i}v3d person eavrou -fjs eaur


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IK) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 212

Dual.


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214. RELAT. AND INTEEKOG. PKONOUNS. 91

TOIVToti/S

Dual.

T&TO. TO>

ro)8e rdof T ( _ _.TCUTCO ravra TOVTCO \TOVTOIV ravraiv TOVTOIVThe adverb of 58e is 3>oV ; that of OVTOS oirreay or ovro>, in this way.

Like ouroy are declined :Too-ovroy Toa-avTr] TO


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92 INTERROQ. AND INDEF. PRONOUNS. 215.guished only by the accent. The Interrogative Pronounhas the accent always on the Stem syllable ; the Inde-finite is enclitic : hence rk, who f rl


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217. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 93216. The following are called Correlative Pronouns:

Interrogative.


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94 CORRELATIVE ADVERBS. 218.

Interrogative. Indefinite. Demonstrative. Relative.

ITOV, where t(Wf)', wh nce(unde f)

irol, whither t(quo .*)

TTOre,

wliattime f

TTCOf, how t( whither ?

( way?

TTodfl(nli- \some-cuncle)] where7J. ) some

iroTe, sometime

TTIOS, somehow

~ i some whithern^\in someway

(VTtvdfV(vdatvravQa.Tart, thenTTJVlKa

there(ibi)fromthere

ov07TOU

thither

oirodtv )(ol

uncle)

TTJVlKaVTU

ravTflthither,in thisway

ijw'/ca )oiTTviKa ) time

coy, oTrcor, as

(whither,in whatway.

Obs. tvda and ev6ev, in their original demonstrative sense, occuronly in a few combinations in Attic prose (i'vda 8fj, just then}tvQa KOI fvOa, here and there) ; but they are regularly used in arelative sense : where, whence.To the Correlative Adverbs there belong also Hag, quamdiu (Rela-tive, as long) \ rews, tamdiu (Demonstrative, so long ), as wellas the poetic o0pa (for o(f>pa, 53, c, Oos.) used in the samemeaning as ay, and i-Jr.To the simple (Kelvos (that, 212) correspond among the Adverbsof place fKfi, there ; fKfWtv,from there; e'/ceTo-e, thither. The De-monstrative ws occurs in Attic prose only in KOI &s, even thus,and ovo' 3>s, not even thus. It is also written 2>s in these com-binations.218. The conjunctions 8^, S^rore, and ovv (meaning ever, Lat.cunque), and the enclitic irtp, may be joined to any relative pro-noun or adverb to give prominence : Saris 817 Trore, whosoever,OTTWJ ovv, (utcunque), &s, /x^Sd/^cos1, in no way.


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220. THE NUMERALS. 95CHAP. IX. THE NUMERALS.

220. The Cardinal, Ordinal, and Adverbial Numerals,with their value and signs, are :

1


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96 THE NUMERALS. 221Obs. The letters of the alphabet are used in numbers also in un-interrupted succession. In the most frequent designation,given above, stigma (g1 ) is inserted after e for the number 6 ;a to ff are therefore units ; i is 10, K 20 ; after IT (= 80),Cf (koppa =90) is inserted; and after o> (=800) ^ (satnpi=900). The alphabet begins again at 1000, but here eachletter has the accent under it ; hence ;3i>i8'=2344,=1862.221. The Cardinal Numbers 1 to 4 are declined.

1. Nom.


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224. NUMERALS. 97222. The numerals 5 to 199 are indeclinable.

We also find Tpfls, rpla KOI 8(KU, Ttcro-apts, Tf


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98 THE VERB.

B. INFLEXION OF VERBS.General Remarks.

225. The Greeks distinguish in the Verb1. Three Numbers : {Singular, Dual, and Plural.2. Three Voices:

Active: cXva-a, I loosedMiddle : \,v


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227. THE PERSONAL ENDINGS TENSE-STEMS. 90226. The Personal Endings had originally the

following forms :Active.


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100 TENSE-STEMS. 228.2. The Strong Aorist Stem, from which the Second or

Strong Aorist Act. and Mid. are formed.3. The Future Stem, from which the Future Act andMid. are formed.4. The Weak Aorist Stem, from which the First or\Vcak Aorist Act. and Mid. are formed.6. The Perfect Stem, from which the Perfect, Plu-

perfect, and Future-Perfect are formed.These five Stems belong to the Active and Middle.There are added to them, for the special forms of thePassive :6. The Strong Passive Stem, from which the Second

or Strong Aorist Passive and Second Future Passiveare formed.

7. The Weak Passive Stem, from which the Firstor Weak Aorist Passive and First Future Passive areformed.The form from which all the Tense-Stems of a verbmay be derived is called the Verbal Stem.

228. The Subjunctive is indicated between the Stemand the ending. Long vowels are peculiar to it :\v-a>-fj,v,solv-d-mus ; \V-TJ-TC, solv-d-tis.The vowel t is characteristic of the Optative, whichgenerally becomes a diphthong with other vowels:\v-oi-pev, we would looee. The Subjunctive has theendings of the principal tenses; the Optative (except1 Sing. Act.) those of the historical tenses.The Imperative has the following peculiar endings :

Active. Middle.Sing. 2. -di -(TO3. -TO) -Dual 2. -TOV -V or -rtocrav ird&v or

$ 228. Dialects. The Horn. dial, often shortens the long vowelof the Subjunctive in the Dual and Plural.


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^ 230. CONJUGATIONS. 101229. The general law for the accentuation of the

verb is, that the accent is placed as far back as possiblefrom the end, final at not being considered long, exceptin the optative : \va>, \vere, \vo^ai.

Obs. An exception is formed by the Participles, which in declen-sion (chap, vii.), if possible ( 79-87), always keep the accenton the same syllable as in the Nom. Sing. Masc. : Part. Pres.Act. jSao-iAeueoi/, regnar.s, Neut. ftao-iXevov (not jSacriXevoj/according to 84), Part. Fut. Act. fiao-iXtvo-aiv, reynaturus,Neut. fiaariXfvaov. (The special exceptions, see 331-333.)230. We distinguish Two Principal Conjugations :1. The First the far more frequent connects the

personal endings with the first two Tense-Stems by ai-onnecting vowel: \v-o-p,ev. The verbs belonging toit are called verbs in o> because the first Pers. Sing.Pres. Act. ends in &> : \vw.

2. The Second the less frequent, but older affixesthe personal endings to the first two Tense-Stems withouta connecting vowel: ea-pev. They are called verbs in^ t because the 1 Sing. Pres. Act. preserves the originalending /j, i : el-pi.The forms of the other five Tense-Stems are commonto both conjugations.The Paradigms of the verbs are given first : the for-

mation of each Tense-Stem is then explained in order.LIST OF THE PARADIGMS.

Ei>, lam Table I.Synopsis of \uo>, I loose (exhibiting the meanings ofthe Tenses) IL

VKUIIS IN Q.A. Vowel Stems.

1. Uncontracted, \vta IIT2. Contracted, Tifj.da>, iroitw, $ov\6w IV,

B. Consonant Stems.1. Guttural Stems, ir\e/cw, tvyw, -rda-ffco . V.2. Dental-Stems, $e8. Labial Stems, irt/xTrco, \ei7ro>, Ka\vimt>4. Liquid Stems, Sfpw, ayye'AAco, o-irefpa)VERBS IN MI.

First Class, -rlOyni, 5i5a>jUi, Icrrrj^tSecond Class, Kfii>u>j.t .. .. .. .. ..

VIVII'VIII]IX.X


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102 PARADIGMS OF VEIJBS. TaMe L

PAKADIGMS OF VERBS.Eif , 7am. Stem is.

Moods.


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Table II. PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 10S


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104 PARADIGMS OF VERBa VERBS IN fi. Table III.A. VOWEL STEMS.

ACTIVE

Tenses.

8/12/2019 A Grammar of the Greek Langua

A Grammar of the Greek Language Curtius

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