B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012 A GRAMMAR COURSE Developed by Brendan McEnery, UCC Language Centre 1. Active or passive verb forms Page: 2 2. Adjectives Page: 5 3. Adverbs Page: 6 2. Articles (a/an/the/0) Page: 8 3. Commas Page: 11 4. Comparatives and superlatives Page: 13 5. Conditional sentences Page 15 6. Countable and uncountable nouns Page: 19 7. Gerund or infinitive? Page: 23 8. Linking words and expressions Page: 25 9. Noun + noun Page: 28 10. Participle clauses Page: 31 11 Present perfect tenses Page: 33 12. Relative clauses Page: 34 13. Reported speech Page: 38 14. Sentence structure Page: 41 15. State verbs Page: 47 16: Tenses in English: A quick review Page: 49
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B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
A GRAMMAR COURSE
Developed by Brendan McEnery, UCC Language Centre
1. Active or passive verb forms Page: 2
2. Adjectives Page: 5
3. Adverbs Page: 6
2. Articles (a/an/the/0) Page: 8
3. Commas Page: 11
4. Comparatives and superlatives Page: 13
5. Conditional sentences Page 15
6. Countable and uncountable nouns Page: 19
7. Gerund or infinitive? Page: 23
8. Linking words and expressions Page: 25
9. Noun + noun Page: 28
10. Participle clauses Page: 31
11 Present perfect tenses Page: 33
12. Relative clauses Page: 34
13. Reported speech Page: 38
14. Sentence structure Page: 41
15. State verbs Page: 47
16: Tenses in English: A quick review Page: 49
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
ACTIVE OR PASSIVE?
A: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
P: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Identify the subject and object in the active sentence. Shakespeare = subject; Hamlet = object
Identify the ‘agent’ and ‘victim’ in the active sentence. Shakespeare = agent; Hamlet = ‘victim’
Identify the ‘agent’ and ‘victim’ in the passive sentence. Shakespeare = agent; Hamlet = ‘victim’
Identify the subject of the passive sentence. Hamlet. (The object of the active sentence becomes
the subject of the passive version)
A: Plants produce oxygen. ‘Plants’ may be ‘old/known/previously mentioned’ information; ‘oxygen’
may be ‘new to the reader’ information.
P: Oxygen is produced by plants. ‘Oxygen’ may be ‘old/known’ information/previously mentioned’
information; ‘plants’ may be ‘new’ information.
A: The police have arrested the criminal.
P: The criminal has been arrested by the police. If you want to name the agent.
P: The criminal has been arrested. More common, as the agent is obvious, and this passive
sentence is shorter!
A: Someone has stolen my mobile phone.
P: My mobile phone has been stolen. The agent is unknown. Focus on the ‘victim’ rather than the
agent.
A: You/Users store the information on the hard disk.
P: The information is stored in the hard disk. More common, especially in written English, as it’s
more formal, less personal, and avoids the problem of naming the agent.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
A: Our hair grows every day
P: (NOT POSSIBLE) There is no ‘agent-victim’ relationship. The active sentence has no direct object.
A: My grandfather died last night.
P: (NOT POSSIBLE) There is no ‘agent-victim’ relationship. The active sentence has no direct object.
Exercise: Choose active or passive:
Cheese makes / is made from milk.
They make / are made cheese from milk.
Terrorists attacked / were attacked the building.
The building attacked / was attacked by terrorists.
The information stores / is stored on the hard disk.
Oxygen releases / is released by plants.
Plants release / are released oxygen.
Our hair grows / is grown every day.
The population will increase / will be increased in the next few years.
The pyramids at Giza built / were built by the ancient Egyptians.
The weather in Cork changes / is changed very often.
ACTIVE PASSIVE
The sun
heats the earth
PRESENT SIMPLE The earth
is heated (by the sun)
is heating PRESENT CONTINUOUS
is being
heated PAST SIMPLE was
has heated PRESENT PERFECT has been
is going to heat
FUTURE is going to be
will heat FUTURE will be
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
Complete the table:
ACTIVE PASSIVE
The school
a new computer
A new computer
(by the school)
is bought every year
is buying this week
bought last month
has been bought
recently
is going to buy
next week
will be bought
next week
Answer keys:
Cheese is made from milk. They make cheese from milk.
Terrorists attacked the building. The building was attacked by terrorists.
The information is stored on the hard disk.
Oxygen is released by plants. Plants release oxygen.
Our hair grows every day.
The population will increase in the next few years.
The pyramids at Giza were built by the ancient Egyptians.
The weather in Cork changes very often.
ACTIVE PASSIVE
The school
a new computer
A new computer
(by the school)
buys is bought every year
is buying is being bought
this week
bought was bought last month
has bought has been bought
recently
is going to buy
is going to be bought
next week
will buy will be bought
next week
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
ADJECTIVES (some problem areas)
She is absolutely nice.
The movie was rather perfect.
When modifying ‘gradable’ adjectives (e.g. nice, cold, expensive etc) you can
use a range of adverbs (a bit, a little, rather, fairly, quite (=fairly), very, really,
extremely) but not absolutely, totally or completely.
When modifying ‘ungradable’ adjectives (e.g. perfect, freezing, impossible etc)
you can use absolutely, totally, really, completely or quite (=completely), but
not a bit, a little, rather, fairly, quite (=fairly), very, extremely.
This is a ‘mixed’ conditional. It starts like a third conditional but finishes like a second conditional.
This is because the condition clause refers to the past but the result clause refers to the present.
EXERCISE B
Complete the following sentences using appropriate forms of the verbs from
the list in italics at the end.
1. He would be a good footballer if he _______________ some weight 2. If you freeze water, it _______________ ice. 3. If she _______________ he was a criminal, she would not have married
him. 4. If I were you, I _______________ to a doctor immediately. 5. Unless they ask me to pay, I _______________ 6. If I had worked harder, I _________________ a promotion last month. 7. If I ________________ not there at 3 o’clock, start without me.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
8. If you argue with complaining customers, it _______________ them even angrier.
9. I might go on holidays to South America next year if I _______________ enough money.
10. What _______________ if you found a burglar in your house?
be, become, do, get, go, have, know, lose, make, pay
ANSWERS
EXERCISE A:
In sentence (a), his wallet is a real wallet which has been lost and it is entirely possible that the
speaker will find this wallet. That’s why a first conditional is used.
In sentence (b), the wallet is an imaginary wallet. The speaker is fantasising about what he would do
in an unlikely or imaginary situation. That’s why a second conditional is used.
In sentence (c), the speaker is talking about the present and the future but she feels that getting the
phone number is unlikely. That’s why a second conditional is used
In sentence (d), the speaker is fantasising about the past. In reality, she didn’t know the telephone
number and so she didn’t phone him
EXERCISE B:
1. lost 2. becomes / will become (ZERO OR FIRST CONDITIONAL) 3. had known
4. would go / get 5. won’t (pay) 6. would have got 7. am / ‘m / don’t get
8. makes / will make (ZERO OR FIRST CONDITIONAL)
9. have/get/make (THE FIRST CONDITIONAL BECAUSE OF THE TIME EXPRESSION ‘next year’)
10. would you do
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Every English noun is either countable or uncountable:
A countable noun (C)* can be counted! It can be singular or plural.
e.g. a car, my car, the car, one car, every car, three cars, car, few cars
an artist, one artist, that artist, each artist two artists, many artists
A singular countable noun cannot be used alone – i.e. you normally put an article (a/an/the) before
it (or another word like my, his, our, this, that, each, every)
Uncountable nouns (U)* cannot be counted. They are always singular.
e.g. information, the information, this information, that information, our information, a lot of
information, too much information, very little information
You can use the (the definite article) before an uncountable noun but you cannot use a/an (the
indefinite article)
If you want to count an uncountable noun, there are two possibilities:
1. Put a countable noun + of before the uncountable noun: e.g. a slice of bread, one piece of information, two bits of advice, three items of clothing
2. Make a compound noun with the uncountable noun first and a countable noun second: e.g. a news story, a research paper
Some nouns can be countable in one context and uncountable in another context:
I had a coffee a few minutes ago. I drink too much coffee.
A new law about drink driving was introduced last month. She’s studying law at the moment.
Common mistakes: Correct versions:
I want to be singer I want to be a singer
There were three equipments in the room There are three pieces of equipment in the room
* A good dictionary will have the abbreviations C or U after each noun (or each use of the noun)
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
EXERCISE
Correct any mistakes in the following sentences. Not all the sentences contain mistakes.
1. She has apartment.
2. He has nice new apartment.
3. I bought a bread in the supermarket.
4. We will need two breads
5. Let me give you some advice
6. My father gave me two good pieces of advice
7. She is excellent teacher
8. She is my teacher
9. We went to the pub and had a few beers
10. Beer is my favourite drink
11. There are too many informations in the document
12. I heard a terrible news this morning
13. He wants to find a work in the city centre
14. She brought two luggages with her on holiday
15. Do you think he will make a good impression at the interview?
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS
1. She has an apartment. An article before a singular countable noun
2. He has a nice apartment. Even with an adjective before a singular countable noun, you still need
an article (or equivalent).
3. I bought bread / some bread / a loaf of bread / a roll in the supermarket. Bread in an
uncountable noun
4. We will need two loaves of bread / two slices of bread / two rolls.
5. Let me give you some advice. Correct. Advice is an uncountable noun and so it cannot have a/an
before it. It is never plural.
6. My father gave me two good pieces of advice. Correct. If you want to ‘count’ advice, you need to
use a countable noun with it.
7. She is an excellent teacher. A singular countable cannot be used alone.
8. She is my teacher. Correct. The possessive pronoun my replaces the article.
9. We went to the pub and had a few beers. Correct. Beer is a countable noun in this context
10. Beer is my favourite drink. Correct. Beer is an uncountable noun in this context
11. There are too many pieces of information / There is too much information in the document.
Information is uncountable.
12. I heard a terrible piece of news this morning. News is an uncountable noun. You cannot put
a/an directly before it.
13. He wants to find work / a job in the city centre. Job is countable; work is uncountable.
14. She brought two suitcases/ two bags/ two items of luggage with her on holiday. Suitcases and
bags are countable; luggage is uncountable.
15. Do you think he will make a good impression at the interview? Correct. Impression is a countable
noun.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
COUNTABLE NOUNS UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
How many? How much?
One, two etc a/an the the (or no article)
few / a few little / a little
several / a number of
some some
a lot (of) / lots (of) * a lot (of) / lots (of) *
a good deal of ***
plenty of * plenty of *
many much ****
a large number of a great deal of ***
a large amount of
* = informal *** = formal **** = very formal
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
GERUND OR INFINITIVE?
A gerund (‘ing’ form) is normally used:
after a preposition ( e.g. He’s interested in improving his English) *
as the subject, object or complement of the main verb in a sentence (e.g.
Learning a language takes a long time. I hate driving. Seeing is believing)
An infinitive is more common:
after an adjective (e.g. It’s difficult to pronounce that word) A full infinitive
to express purpose (e.g. I came to Ireland to learn English) A Full infinitive
after modal verbs (e.g. I should read more) A bare infinitive
In a V1 + V2 structure, the second verb can be a gerund or an infinitive. **
There are three possibilities:
1. It doesn’t matter if you use a gerund or an infinitive (e.g. She started speaking
English when she was five = She started to speak English when he was five)
2. You have no choice; V1 dictates whether V2 is a gerund or infinitive (e.g. I enjoy
learning new words; I need to improve my vocabulary)
3. You can use either a gerund or infinitive, but the meaning is different in each case.
He stopped smoking. ≠ He stopped to smoke.
I remember taking my medicine. ≠ I remember to take my medicine.
I forget taking my medicine. ≠ I forget to take my medicine.
I regret telling you that he left. ≠ I regret to tell you that he left.
Try opening the window. ≠ Try to open the window.
She went on learning the piano. ≠ She went on to learn the piano.
I didn’t mean waking the baby. ≠ I didn’t mean to wake the baby.
It doesn’t mean waking the baby
* When ‘to’ is a preposition (i.e. not part of the full infinitive), use a gerund (e.g. I’m
looking forward to meeting you; She’s used to driving on the left)
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
** V2 can sometimes take other forms (e.g. I recommend (that) you visit Dublin)
*** Gerunds and infinitive can be negative (e.g. not knowing, not to know) and
passive (being studied, (to) be studied)
Complete the following sentences. Choose a gerund or an infinitive.
Sometimes using the adjective doesn’t express your meaning (e.g. healthy
education, the musical teacher) so you use a compound noun instead (health
education, the music teacher)
Sometimes a triple compound noun is possible (e.g. oil production costs), or
even a quadruple compound noun (e.g. a wind energy research centre)
When pronouncing compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first noun
(e.g. ‘money problems). When writing compound nous, sometimes there is
more than one possibility (e.g. ski boots, ski-boots, and skiboots). The hyphen
option is becoming less common. Where both nouns are very short, we usually
make one word (e.g. bathroom) while for longer nouns we usually separate the
nouns (e.g. airport terminal). If in doubt, write two separate words.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
We often put an apostrophe after the first noun and a space between the two
nouns (N’s N) when the second noun belongs to, or is part of, or is used by or
produced by, the first noun, e.g. Peter’s house, Peter’s brother, Ireland’s
history, a woman’s face, a dog’s tail, women’s magazines, the government’s
decision, cow’s milk and the train’s arrival. This pattern is common when the
first noun is a person, an animal or an organisation, and it always used when
the first noun is the name of a person. Often, the idea could be reformulated
as an SVO sentence with the first noun as the subject and the second noun as
the object (e.g. women read these magazines or the government made the
decision)
Sometimes we put the preposition ‘of’ between the two nouns (N of N) (a map
of Cork, the centre of the room, the history of Ireland). This pattern is not as
common in English as in some other European languages.
Sometimes both N’s N and N of N are possible (Cork’s history, the history of
Cork), sometimes not (Cork’s map). If you are not sure, choose N of N (e.g. the
centre of Cork), except when one of the nouns is the name of a person.
Other prepositions are sometimes used between two nouns e.g. developments
in technology, education about health, the solution to the problem. (N P N)
When describing containers, both N of N and N+N are possible but the
meaning of each is different. A coffee cup is just a cup while a cup of coffee
means the cup and the drink inside.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
Correct any mistakes in the following N+N examples. Not every example is
incorrect.
1. a heart attack
2. the house of Stephen
3. North Ireland
4. hair growth
5. the tourist industry
6. a medicine problem
7. animal behaviour
8. a Physics teacher
9. the lesson’s end
10. a historical degree
1. a heart attack CORRECT
2. the house of Stephen Stephen’s house
3. North Ireland Northern Ireland / the North of Ireland
4. hair growth CORRECT (‘the growth of hair’ IS POSSIBLE BUT LESS COMMON)
5. the tourist industry CORRECT (‘the tourism industry’ IS ALSO COMMON)
6. a medicine problem a medical problem
7. animal behaviour CORRECT
8. a Physics teacher CORRECT (BOTH WORDS ARE SINGULAR)
9. the lesson’s end the end of the lesson
10. a historical degree a history degree / a degree in history
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
What do the underlined participle clauses mean? Rephrase them.
Coached effectively, children can quickly learn how to play tennis well.
Parking his car near the main entrance, he walked into the shop.
A group of tourists exploring the island discovered the ruins of an ancient church.
A famine has hit parts of Sudan, killing thousands of people.
Not having any money, I was unable to take a taxi home.
Having finished her degree, my sister decided to take a year off.
ANSWER KEY
‘Coached’ = ‘If they are coached’. Here the past participle replaces a full passive (conditional) clause.
‘Parking’ = ‘After he (had) parked’. Here the present participle shows that the action in the participle
clause happened immediately before the main action
‘exploring’ = ‘when they were exploring’ or ‘’who were exploring’. In the former case, the present
participle shows that the main action happened during the action in the participle clause. In the
latter case, it replaces a relative clause.
‘killing’ = ‘and it killed’. Here the present participle expresses consequence/result, as well as the
sequence of actions.
‘Not having’ = ‘because I didn’t have’. Here the (negative) present participle expresses cause/reason.
‘Having finished’ = ‘After he had finished’. Here the action in the participle clause happened before
the main action, but not necessarily immediately before it.
Normally, the subject of the participle clause is also the subject of the main clause, as
in the examples above. However, sometimes this not true:
I saw a man standing outside the building.
Put the participle clause as close as possible to the person/thing which it refers to.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
PRESENT PERFECT (SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS)
Match the examples of the present perfect (a-d) with the five uses/meanings (1-4)
Example Describes….
a I’ve visited New York. 1 an action which started in the past
and is still in progress. The emphasis
in on the duration of the action.
b My hair’s wet because I’ve been
walking in the rain.
2 a recent action which has an impact
on the present. The result is
important.
c I’ve lost my keys. 3 a recent continuous action with an
impact on the present
d I’ve been waiting here for one
hour.
4 a life experience. The date/time is
not important
Correct any mistakes in the following sentences. Explain why the incorrect form is not
acceptable.
I’ve seen him yesterday.
We’re here since 8 o’clock this morning.
She’s lived here since 2 years.
I’ve been knowing him since we were in primary school.
They haven’t never been to New York.
Have you still finished the book?
He has finished his assignment yet.
I have read the book before I saw the movie.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
ANSWER KEY:
I’ve seen him yesterday.
I saw him yesterday.
We’re here since 8 o’clock this morning.
We’ve been here since 8 o’clock this morning.
She’s lived here since 2 years.
She’s lived here for 2 years.
She’s been living here for 2 years.
I’ve been knowing him since we were in primary school.
I’ve known him since we were in primary school.
They haven’t never been to New York.
They’ve never been to New York.
They haven’t ever been to New York.
Have you still finished the book?
Have you finished the book (yet)?
Are you still reading the book?
He has finished his assignment yet.
He has (already) finished his assignment (already).
He hasn’t finished his assignment yet.
I have read the book before I saw the movie.
I had read the book before I saw the movie.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
RELATIVE CLAUSES
You can join two short sentences together to make one longer sentence using a relative clause.
e.g. This is the car. It hit me. → This is the car which hit me
Sometimes you have to use a relative clause because there is no better way to express the idea.
e.g. I don’t like people who make mobile calls on the bus.
A relative clause usually begins with a relative pronoun. In the sentences below the relative clauses
are underlined and the relative pronouns are highlighted.
This is the car which hit me
This is the car that hit me
There is no difference in meaning between the two sentences above but the relative pronoun which
is a bit more formal than the relative pronoun that.
This is the car which I want to buy
This is the car that I want to buy
This is the car I want to buy
There is no difference in meaning between the three sentences above but the first is the most
formal and the third is the least formal. If the noun before the relative pronoun (i.e. car) is the object
of the verb in the relative clause (i.e. buy), the relative pronoun is optional – as in the last sentence
above.
He is the man who spoke to me
He is the man that spoke to me
There is no difference in meaning between the two sentences above but the relative pronoun who is
a bit more formal than the relative pronoun that.
He is the man whom I phoned
He is the man who I phoned
He is the man that I phoned
He is the man I phoned
There is no difference in meaning between the four sentences above but the first is the most formal
and the last is the least formal. If the noun before the relative pronoun (i.e. man) is the object of the
verb in the relative clause (i.e. phoned), the relative pronoun is optional – as in the last sentence
above.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
He is the man whose brother was injured in the crash
I don’t know the name of the company whose office was destroyed by fire.
We usually use whose to indicate ownership or some other close connection between the subject of
the main clause and the subject of the relative clause.
The relative pronouns for things are which, that and whose. The relative pronouns for people are who, whom, that and whose.
If the noun before the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative clause, the relative pronoun is optional (except whose)
Sometimes it is possible to put a preposition before a relative pronoun:
She is the friend who/whom I depend on more than any other
She is the friend on whom I depend more than any other.
Other relative pronouns are where (for place), when (for time) and why (for reason)
This is a photo of the village where I was born. (= in which)
This was the period when Ireland was ruled by the English (= during which)
That was the reason (why) I left the company
Defining and non-defining relative clauses
This is a photo of the boat which/that I bought last week.
This is a photo of the Titanic, which sank in 1912 on its first voyage.
The first sentence above contains a defining relative clause which gives us essential information
which we need to ‘define’ (or ‘identify’) which boat the speaker/writer has in mind. Do not put a
comma before a defining relative clause.
The second sentence above contains a non-defining relative clause because what comes after the
comma (i.e. which sank in 1912 on its first voyage) is non-essential information which the
listener/reader does not need to identify which boat is being described.
This a photo of the woman that/who/whom I met in Barcelona last month
This is a photo of my wife, who is Australian
The first sentence above contains a defining relative clause which gives us essential information
which we need to define (or identify) which woman the speaker/writer has in mind. Notice that
there is no comma before a defining relative clause.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
The second sentence above contains a non-defining relative clause because what comes after the
comma (i.e. who is Australian) is non-essential information which the listener/reader does not need
to identify which boat is being described.
Non-defining relative clauses are separated from the main clause by a comma (or sometimes two commas!).
Do not use the relative pronoun ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses.
EXERCISE: Choose an appropriate relative pronoun for each of the following sentences. Sometimes no relative pronoun is necessary. Put in commas where the relative clauses are non-defining. The answers are given at the end of the page.
1. He’s the player __________ scored the goal. 2. I’ve lost the bag __________ I bought in Cyprus.
3. She’s the woman __________ son won the prize.
4. I like people __________ say what they think.
5. The Irishman I admire the most was Michael Collins __________ was born in Cork.
6. They are the people __________ bought our house.
7. That’s the type of music __________ I like.
8. He’s the neighbour _________ wife died.
9. That is the painting __________ is worth $1,000,000.
10. Next week we’re going camping __________ we’ve never done before.
11. That was the day ___________ we decided to get married.
12. This is the house __________ I spent much of my childhood.
13. Tomorrow is the deadline __________ applications will not be accepted.
14. I really loved her paella __________ she cooked amazingly quickly.
15. Poorer families cannot afford to buy fresh healthy food __________ can lead to medical
problems.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
ANSWER KEY:
1. who / that 2. which / that / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN 3. whose
4. who / that 5. ,who 6. who / that 7. which / that / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN
8. whose 9. which / that 10. ,which 11. when / on which / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN
12. where / in which 13. after which 14. , which 15. , which
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
REPORTED SPEECH
If the reporting verb (say, tell, ask etc) is in the present tense, there is no change of tense in the
reported statement.
“I had a great time in Portugal” David tells me that he had a great time in
Portugal
If the reporting verb is in the past tense there are usually tense changes in the reported sentence –
especially in formal English.
“I always go to Portugal for my holidays.” David said that he always went to Portugal for
his holidays.
David said that he always goes to Portugal for
his holidays.
“I’m going to Portugal tomorrow.” David said that he was going to Portugal the
following day / the next day / the day after.
David said that he was going to Portugal
tomorrow.
David said that he is going to Portugal
tomorrow.
“I’ve visited Portugal seven times.” David said that he had visited Portugal seven
times.
David said that he has visited Portugal seven
times.
“I flew back from Portugal two days ago”. David said that he had flown back from
Portugal 2 days before/previously.
David said that he had flown back from
Portugal 2 days ago.
David said that he flew back from Portugal 2
days ago.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
“I will be in Portugal for ten days.” David said that he would be in Portugal for ten
days.
David said that he will be in Portugal for ten
days.
“Could you go to Portugal?” David asked me to go to Portugal.
David asked me if I could go to Portugal.
“Phone the office in Portugal immediately.” David told me to phone the office in Portugal
immediately.
“Did you phone the office?” David asked me if/whether I had phoned the
office.
“When did you phone them?” David asked me when I had phoned them.
Tell/say/ask variations:
I told Martha. / I told Martha the price. / I told Martha (that) I would meet her at 8pm. / I told the
truth/a lie. / I told Martha to finish the work.
I said that I needed more time./ I said to him that I needed more time.
I asked Pablo to help me. / I asked Pablo for a few euro. / I asked Mary what she wanted. / I asked
Mary if/whether she wanted to go.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
EXERCISE:
“I always go to Portugal for my holidays.” David told me that he ……
“I’m going to Portugal tomorrow.”
“I’ve visited Portugal seven times.”
“I flew back from Portugal two days ago.”
“I will be in Portugal for ten days.”
“Could you go to Portugal?”
“Phone the office in Portugal immediately.”
“Did you phone the office?”
“When did you phone them?”
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Are the following sentences? Why? / Why not?
The children played. Yes. Subject + Verb (an intransitive verb)
The children played games. Yes. S + V (a transitive verb) + Object (direct object)
The children laughed Yes. S + V (intransitive verb)
The children sent. No. S + V (transitive verb) + no direct object
The children sent text messages. Yes. S + V + O
The children sent me text messages. Yes. S + V + O (indirect) + O (direct)
The children sent text messages to each other. Yes. S + V + O (direct) +O (indirect)
The children talked to each other. Yes. S + V (intransitive) + O (indirect)
The children were bored. Yes. S + be + Complement
The children were. No. S + be + no complement. But it could be an acceptable
sentence in response to the question: ‘Who was bored?’
The basic and normal structure of a clause or a sentence is SVO, SVC or SV,
depending on whether the verb takes an object, a complement, or neither (a verb
used intransitively). Some sentences/clauses have an SVOO structure i.e. the verb
takes an indirect object as well as a direct object.
Correct any mistakes in the following sentences and explain why the corrections are
needed. Not all the sentences contain mistakes.
1. This book I have never read.
2. Why she married him is something I cannot understand!
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
3. Parents are too worried about working to earn lots of money, which is bad for
family life.
4. Casablanca is my favourite movie.
5. We should clean our teeth twice a day.
6. It exists a cheap and easy solution.
ANSWER KEY
1. I have never read this book. SVO (SUBJECT - VERB - OBJECT)
This is a book which I have never read. (SVC FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE CLAUSE)
2. CORRECT. (SUBJECT – VERB - COMPLEMENT).
YOU CAN ALSO SAY/WRITE I cannot understand why she married him WHICH HAS AN SVO
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
3. Parents are too worried about working to earn lots of money and this/it is bad for family life. (THE
VERB ‘is’ IN THE SECOND CLAUSE NEEDS A SEPARATE SUBJECT)
4. Casablanca is my favourite movie. OR My favourite movie is Casablanca. (SVC)
(IN FORMAL WRITTEN ENGLISH, DON’T HAVE A NOUN AND A RELATED PRONOUN
IN THE SAME CLAUSE. IN OTHER WORDS, DON’T DUPLICATE THE SUBJECT)
5. We should clean our teeth twice a day.(SVO) (PUT THE DIRECT OBJECT IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE
VERB. DON’T SEPARATE THEM)
6. A cheap and easy solution exists. (SUBJECT BEFORE VERB) (SV)
There is a cheap and easy solution. (SVC) (FIRST MENTION)
It is a cheap and easy solution. (SVC) (SECOND MENTION)
How many clauses are in the following sentence?
I met Peter in a café and he told me about his new job.
What is a clause?
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
A clause is a group of words which contains (at least) a subject and a verb.
What is a sentence?
A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. It contains one or
more clauses.
When we want to join clauses (C+C), we use co-ordinators and subordinators.
There are seven co-ordinators, which are often collectively called FANBOYS. (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so). They come in the middle of the sentence, between the
two clauses. You can put a comma before these co-ordinators, but not all writers do
so. In formal written English, it is not good style to begin a sentence with and, but or
any of the other seven FANBOYS.
for We went into the house for it was very cold outside.
and He is works very hard and he earns a lot of money.
nor We didn’t eat very much nor did we feel very thirsty.
but He works very hard but he likes his job.
or You can go on foot or you can drive there.
yet He works very hard yet he doesn’t earn a lot of money.
so She wasn’t happy in that job so she left.
You can put a comma before these co-ordinators, especially if one (or both) of the clauses is (are) long.
Subordinators:
We went into the house because it was very cold.
Because it was very cold, we went into the house.
He doesn’t earn a lot of money although he works very hard.
Although he works very hard, he doesn’t earn a lot of money.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
Subordinators can come between the two clauses which they join (usually without a
comma) or before the first clause (with an obligatory comma at the end of the first
clause). The clause introduced by the subordinator is usually considered (slightly) less
important than the other clause, which is called the main clause.
Time conjunctions (e.g. after, as soon as, before, just as, since, until, when, while etc)
can be subordinators if they introduce a clause:
I’ll stay here until they arrive.
Relative pronouns (e.g. who, whose, whom, which, that) are subordinators because
they introduce relative clauses, which are subordinate to the main clause. The
relative clause always comes after the main clause.
She is the athlete who finished second in the race.
Peter arrived late for the lecture, which is not surprising.
Conjunctions in conditional clauses (if, even if, unless) introduce subordinate clauses.
If you leave your mobile phone there, it will be stolen!
There are many other subordinators which can show the connection between
If you wish to show the connection between a sentence and the sentence(s) before
it, you can use conjunctive adverbs (e.g. However, … Therefore,…. In addition, ….
After that, … ) These S+S linkers usually come at the start of the sentence and are
followed by a comma.
He works very hard. However, he earns very little.
After a while it started to get rather cold. Therefore, we went inside.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
Correct any mistakes in the following examples of written English:
1. The movie was very interesting. And I really enjoyed it.
2. We all went home before the end of the match. Because the weather was bad.
3. I have visited many European countries. For example, France, Spain and Greece.
4. Spending money is easy earning it is more difficult.
5. Spending money is easy, earning it is more difficult.
6. My wife and I left our home town. Then we stayed with friends in the capital city.
We stayed there for two months. Then we finally got our visas for Australia. We
travelled to Australia. We live there now.
7. My wife and I left our home town, and we stayed with friends in the capital city for
two months, but finally we got our visas for Australia, so we travelled to Australia,
and we live there now.
8. If you have an important job interview you should arrive a little before the time of
the interview, wear smart formal clothes, try to predict the questions you will be
asked, it is also important to prepare relevant questions which you can ask the
interviewer such as about salary or working hours.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
SUGGESTED ANSWERS:
1. The movie was very interesting and I really enjoyed it.
COORDINATORS JOIN TWO CLAUSES TO FORM ONE SENTENCE. USE A CO-ORDINATOR TO AVOID SHORT
CHOPPY SENTENCES.
2. We all went home before the end of the match because the weather was bad.
A SUBORDINATOR IS A C+C LINKER, NOT AN S+S LINKER.
3. I have visited many European countries, for example, France, Spain and Greece.
THE LAST SIX WORDS ARE ONLY A PHRASE. THEY CANNOT BE A SENTENCE AS THERE IS NO SUBJECT+VERB. USE
A COMMA TO SEPARATE A PHRASE FEOM THE REST OF THE SENTENCE.
4&5.
Spending money is easy but earning it is more difficult. (Optional comma before but)
Whereas spending money is easy, earning it is more difficult.
Spending money is easy. Earning it is more difficult.
Spending money is easy; earning it is more difficult.
SENTENCE 4 ON THE PREVIOUS PAGE IS CALLED A ‘RUN ON’ BECAUSE ONE SENTENCE RUNS INTO THE NEXT
WITHOUT ANY LINKING DEVICE.
SENTENCE 5 IS CALLED A ‘COMMA SPLICE’. A COMMA ONLY SEPATATES. IT DOESN’T SHOW CONNECTION
BETWEEN THE TWO THINGS THAT IT SEPARATES. A SEMI-COLON SHOWS A CONNECTION.
6&7. My wife and I left our home town and stayed with friends in the capital city for
two months. When we finally got our visas, we travelled to Australia, where we now
live.
6 IS TOO ‘CHOPPY’. WE MAKE LONGER SENTENCES USING COORDINARTORS AND SUBORDINATORS.
7 IS TOO ‘STRINGY’. THE IMPROVED VERSION HAS TWO SENTENCES, EACH CONTAINING TWO CLAUSES.
8. If you have an important job interview, you should arrive a little before the time of
the interview, wear smart formal clothes, and try to predict the questions you will be
asked. It is also important to prepare relevant questions which you can ask the
interviewer, such as about salary or working hours.
A LIST OF THREE THINGS IS ALWAYS WRITTEN LIKE ‘A, B and C’. THE COMMA AFTER B IS OTIONAL.
START A NEW SENTENCE WITH ‘It is..’ AS THIS IS A NEW TOPIC WITH A NEW SUBJECT+VERB.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
STATE VERBS (non-continuous verbs)
The verbs below are either rarely/never used in the continuous form, or have a different meaning
when used in continuous form. This list is not complete!
believe agree love appear be
doubt disagree prefer feel (it feels) belong
feel (=think) deny like hear consist of
forget mean dislike look (=seem) contain
imagine (=think) promise hate resemble depend (on)
know surprise see deserve
realise seem exist
remember smell fit
see
(=understand)
sound include
suppose taste involve
think matter
understand need
want own
wish weigh
* I think it’s a good idea. ≠ Please be quiet! I’m thinking.
Do you see the problem? ≠ Are you seeing Peter later today?
John comes from Scotland ≠ John is coming from Scotland.
I believe you I’m believing you
His actions surprised me His actions were surprising me
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
You will love their new CD You will be loving their new CD
This pizza tastes delicious This pizza is tasting delicious
This house has belonged to us since my
father died.
This house has been belonging to us since
my father died.
When we want to stress that an activity is temporary, we sometimes use a state verb in the
continuous form:
This trip is costing me a lot of money!
You’re being very unhelpful this morning.
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
TENSES IN ENGLISH - A QUICK REVIEW OF THE MAIN
TENSES
NAME OF TENSE
EXAMPLES OF
DIFFERENT USES
MEANINGS OF THOSE
USES
NOTES ON GRAMMATICAL
FORMS
PAST SIMPLE I booked my
holiday yesterday.
ONE SHORT
COMPLETED ACTION
IN THE PAST. THE
DATE/TIME IS
USUALLY GIVEN OR
KNOWN
Regular verbs:
Positive: he arrived
Negative: he did not arrive /
he didn’t arrive
(arrive = INFINITIVE)
Question: Did he arrive?
Irregular verbs:
She went, she didn’t go
Did she go? (=INFINITIVE)
They lived in Paris
for 2 years.
ONE LONGER
COMPLETED ACTION
IN THE PAST. THE
DATE/TIME IS
USUALLY GIVEN OR
KNOWN
We went to the
cinema every week
when we were
students.
A SERIES OF
COMPLETED PAST
ACTIONS. THE TIME
PERIOD IS USUALLY
GIVEN OR KNOWN
PAST PERFECT
(SIMPLE)
I had read the book
before I saw the
movie.
The robbers had
left by the time the
police arrived.
A PAST ACTION WHICH
WAS COMPLETED
BEFORE ANOTHER
PAST ACTION
They had left / they’d left
They had not left / they
hadn’t left
Had they left?
PAST CONTINUOUS He was hit by a car
as he was crossing
A CONTINUOUS
ACTION WHICH
HAPPENED AROUND
I /he/she/it was crossing
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
Patrick Street.
We were watching
a movie when she
phoned.
THE SAME TIME AS
THE MAIN PAST
ACTION
We/you were crossing
I was not watching / I wasn’t
watching
Were you watching?
Yesterday I was
cycling to work. The
sun was shining
brightly and
……………
SETTING THE SCENE AT
THE START OF A STORY
PRESENT PERFECT
SIMPLE
I have been to
Canada but I’ve
never been to the
U.S.
AN EXPERIENCE IN
YOUR LIFE.
THE DATE AND TIME
ARE NOT IMPORTANT
Regular verbs:
I/we/you have started
He/she/it has started
I have not started / I haven’t
started
Have you started?
Irregular verbs:
He has gone (gone = PAST
PARTICIPLE)
He hasn’t gone
Has he gone?
She has lived here
since 2002.
AN ACTION WHICH
STARTED IN THE PAST
AND IS STILL IN
PROGRESS NOW
The President has
died.
HOT NEWS. THE
TIME/DATE IS NOT
GIVEN
I’ve lost my keys. A RECENT PAST
ACTION WITH AN
IMPACT ON THE
PRESENT. THE
DATE/TIME ARE NOT
GIVEN
PRESENT PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
She has been living
here since 2001.
I’ve been waiting
here for the last
half an hour!
AN ACTION WHICH
STARTED IN THE PAST
AND IS STILL IN
PROGRESS
(THE EMPHASIS IS
OFTEN ON THE
ACTIVITY RATHER
THAN THE PRESENT
IMPACT)
I have been waiting / I’ve
been waiting
He has not been playing /
he hasn’t been playing /
he’s not been playing
How long have you been
working here?
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
PRESENT SIMPLE She often walks to
work.
I never smoke.
REPEATED ACTIONS.
THE TIME PERIOD
INCLUDES THE PAST,
THE PRESENT AND
PROBABLY THE
FUTURE
I/you/we/they walk
He/she/it walks
I/you/we/they do not /
don’t walk
He/she/it does not / doesn’t
walk
Do I /you we/they walk?
Does he/she/it walk?
The match starts at
3pm tomorrow.
A FUTURE
TIMETABLED EVENT
PRESENT
CONTINUOUS
He’s staying in Cork
for a month.
AN ACTION IN
PROGRESS AT THE
MOMENT
I am staying / I’m staying
You/we/they are/’re staying
He/she/it is/’s staying
I am not going / I’m not
going
Are you going? Is she going?
I’m reading an
interesting book at
the moment.
AN ACTION
HAPPENING AROUND
NOW
We’re meeting at 7
this evening.
A FIXED FUTURE
ARRANGEMENT
FUTURE –
GOING TO +
INFINITIVE
We’re going to buy
a new car.
A PLAN OR DECISION
MADE PREVIOUSLY
I am going to sell it / I’m
going to / I’m gonna sell it
(US/INFORMAL)
You/we/they are going to
leave
He/she/it is going to fall
It’s not / It isn’t going to fall
Is it going to fall?
Look at the clouds.
It’s going to rain.
A FORECAST (USUALLY
BASED ON PRESENT
EVIDENCE)
She’s going to be 21
tomorrow.
A FUTURE FACT
FUTURE SIMPLE I see we don’t have
any milk. I’ll buy
some later.
A DECISION MADE
WHILE SPEAKING OR
JUST BEFORE
I/you/he/she/it/we/they
will go
I/you/he/she/it/we/they ‘ll
go I think the price of
oil will rise next
A FORECAST
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
month.
I will not buy it / I won’t buy
it
Will you buy it?
She’ll be 21 next
month.
A FUTURE FACT
FUTURE
CONTINUOUS
This time next
week, we’ll be lying
on a beach in Spain.
A CONTINUOUS
ACTION IN PROGRESS
AT A FIXED TIME IN
THE FUTURE
She will be lying on a beach.
He will not / won’t be
coming
When will they be arriving?
I’ll be meeting him
tomorrow.
A FUTURE
ARRANGEMENT OR
FACT
FUTURE PERFECT By next March, they
will have
completed the
motorway from
here to the capital
city.
AN ACTION WHICH
WILL BE COMPLETED
BEFORE (OR AT) A
GIVEN TIME IN THE
FUTURE
They will have completed it
They will not / won’t have
completed it by then.
Will they have completed
it?
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
Complete the following sentences using the correct tense of the verbs in
brackets. More than one tense may be possible. The answers are given on the
next page.
1. I _______________ in Italy in 1978. (be born=PASSIVE)
2. I _______________ the first ten years of my life in Naples and then my family _______________ to Rome. (spend, move) 3. Now I _______________ in Florence, the home town of my boyfriend. (live)
4. I first met him while I _______________ in Rome University. (study)
5. Last year we _______________ a small apartment in Florence. (buy)
6. I work in an IT company called Technosoft and my boyfriend _______________ in a legal firm. (work) 7. I started as a secretary in Technosoft but I _______________ Assistant Marketing Manager for the last two years. (be) 8. In my free time I _______________ tennis and squash. (play) 9. When I was a teenager I _______________ 20 cigarettes a day but last year I _______________ smoking completely. (smoke, give up) 10. At the moment, I _______________ a Masters in Marketing at Florence University. (do) 11. I _______________ never _______________ USA but I hope to go there next summer. (visit) 12. My boss _______________ at the end of next month and I _______________ him. (retire, replace) 13. The next few months __________________ extremely busy! (be)
B. McEnery UCC Language Centre 2012
ANSWERS:
1. I was born in Italy in 1978.
2. I spent the first ten years of my life in Naples and then my family moved to Rome. 3. Now I live / am living in Florence, the home town of my boyfriend. (THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS MAKES THE ACTION SOUND MORE TEMPORARY / SHORT TERM)
4. I first met him while I was studying in Rome University.
5. Last year we bought a small apartment in Florence.
6. I work in an IT company called Technosoft and my boyfriend works / is working in a legal firm. (THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS MAKES THE ACTION SOUND MORE TEMPORARY / SHORT TERM) 7. I started as a secretary in Technosoft but I have been Assistant Marketing Manager for the last two years. (= I am still Assistant Marketing manager) I was Assistant Marketing Manager for the last two years. (= I recently finished working as Assistant Marketing manager) 8. In my free time I play tennis and squash. 9. When I was a teenager I smoked / used to smoke (A PAST HABIT) 20 cigarettes a day but last year I gave up smoking completely. 10. At the moment, I am doing a Masters in Marketing at Florence University. 11. I have never visited USA but I hope to go there next summer. 12. My boss is retiring / is going to retire / will retire at the end of next month and I am going to replace / will replace him. 13. The next few months will be / are going to be extremely busy!