A D. 400–1500 Regional Civilizations

A Global Chronology

Scientific/Scientific/TechnologicalTechnological

PoliticalPolitical

Social/CulturalSocial/Cultural Muhammad fleesMakkah (Islamic Year 1).

A.D. 622

Arabs conquer Jerusalem.

A.D. 638

Chineseinvent gunpowder.

A.D. 1000Arabs perfect the astrolabe.

A.D. 850

Justinian becomes Byzantine emperor.

A.D. 527

A.D. 500 A.D. 700 A.D. 900

A.D. 400–1500

RegionalCivilizations

Chapter 10 Byzantines and Slavs

Chapter 11Islamic Civilization

Chapter 12The Rise of MedievalEurope

Chapter 13Medieval Europe atIts Height

Chapter 14East and South Asia

Chapter 15The Americas

As this period opened, advanced civilizations began

to develop in many regions of the world. Although

some cultures were cut off from other regions, trade and migrations

spread ideas across continents and among several different peoples.

Emerging centers of trade and commerce brought more highly

organized social structures and governments. These regional civi-

lizations contributed many ideas that influenced the development

of the modern world. Christianity, Islam, Confucianism, and Bud-

dhism spread over wide areas. Scientific discoveries crossed cultures.

Some contact between cultures caused conflict that lasted for decades

or centuries.

henNow

240

U n i t3

See pages 394–395 forprimary source readingsthat accompany Unit 3.

Black Death strikes Europe.

A.D. 1348 Marco Polo beginsAsian travels.

A.D. 1271

Gutenberg prints the Bible.

A.D. 1453

The Crusades begin.A.D. 1095 King John

of England signsthe Magna Carta.

A.D. 1215

A.D. 1100 A.D. 1300 A.D. 1500

241

Mayan clay figurine of aman and a womanwrapped in a blanket, c. A.D. 700–1000.Campeche, Mexico

The Crusades left lastingeffects on the economic andpolitical development ofwestern Europe, bringingnew knowledge, increasedtrade, and new technology.

To better understandthe influence of the Crusadeson Europe, view videodiscChapter 7: The Crusades inTurning Points in WorldHistory.

and

Indus ValleyThe Use of Numerals

The Sumerians devised one of theworld’s earliest numbering systems.They used two wedge-like symbols forcounting. One symbol stood for 1, theother for 10. But these symbols—and others to follow—basically came fromthe Sumerian cuneiform. The wedges served double-duty for symbolizingwords and figures.

Other early peoples who invented numbering systems used letters fromtheir alphabets. Then, around A.D. 500, Hindu people in the Indus River val-ley abandoned the use of letters. They created instead special number sym-bols to stand for the figures 1 to 9. Although modernized over time, these 9Hindu symbols are the ones we use today.

242 Unit 3 Regional Civilizations

The invention of mathematicschanged the course of civi-lization. Astronomers used

mathematics to account for the move-ments of the sun and moon so they couldmark the seasons. Geometry enabled peo-ple to calculate the volume of a cylindri-cal granary. Mathematics supportedtravel, from the earliest sea travel to thedevelopment of the space program. It allbegan with the Sumerians.

SpreadThe

of

The

ofSpread

IdeasIdeas

Europe

MiddleEast

IndusValley

Mathematics

Sumerian cuneiform tablet

Unit 3 Regional Civilizations 243

The Middle EastThe Rise of Algebra

Trade introduced people in the Middle East to theHindu number system. About A.D. 825 an Arab mathe-matician, al-Khowarizmi of Baghdad, wrote a bookrecommending the new system to everyone. In a sec-ond book, al-Khowarizmi showed how the systemcould be used. He called the book al-jabr w’al-muqabal-ah, which roughly means “the art of bringing togetherunknowns to match a known quantity.” The word algebra comes from the key word in the title—al-jabr, or“bringing together.”

The wonder of the system caught Arab imaginations. Arabs especiallyliked the concept of zero—developed by the Hindus after they created thesymbols for 1-9. In explaining this concept, one Arab mathematician wrote:“When [in subtraction] nothing is left over, then write the little circle sothat the place does not remain empty.” With the use of zero, mathemati-cians could build numbers of astronomical size using just 10 symbols.

EuropeThe Triumph of Arabic Numerals

Muslims ruled in Spain from the A.D. 700s to the A.D. 1400s.Their presence opened the door for European use of the newHindu-Arabic number system. At first, many Europeans reject-ed it. They clung instead to Roman numerals. The Italian city-state of Florence even passed a law banning the use of theHindu-Arabic system.

Later, however, “Arabic numerals,” as they were called,proved a more powerful conqueror than Arab soldiers.European merchants found knowledge of the symbols neces-sary for dealings with merchants inMuslim ports. Europeans who learned thenew arithmetic also found it easier to dotheir tallies. By the A.D. 1400s, the numberscould even be found in popular art.

As you will read in this unit,Europeans began to adopt other practicesfrom the Middle East as well. The pace ofchange quickened as wars and tradebrought more people in contact with eachother.

LINKING THE IDEAS

1. How did the Hindu system of numbers differfrom earlier systems?

2. What was the importance of the invention ofzero?

Critical Thinking3. Cause and Effect What was the role of con-

quest and trade in spreading the use of theHindu-Arabic number system?

Persian astronomer

The astrolabe was used by Muslimastronomers and navigators to observe andcalculate the position of stars and otherheavenly bodies.

Book of Hours with Arabic numerals

10C h a p t e r

A.D. 400–1500

Byzantinesand Slavs

> Conflict Byzantines fight offinvaders and struggle over use oficons. Section 1

> Innovation Byzantines developEastern Orthodox theology and distinctive art forms. Section 2

> Cultural Diffusion Trade routesand invasions spread beliefs andideas. Section 3

SThetoryteller

The awestruck visitor arriving in A.D. 600 in the city of

Constantinople in southeastern Europe scarcely knew where to

turn. Splendid public buildings as well as simple private homes

lined the streets; the scent of rare spices perfumed the air; people

dressed in fine silk thronged the church of Hagia Sophia. “One

might imagine that one has chanced upon a meadow in full

bloom,” the Greek historian Procopius wrote about the newly

built church. “For one would surely marvel at the purple hue of

some [columns], the green of others, at those on which the crim-

son blooms, at those that flash with white, at those, too, which

nature, like a painter, has varied with the most contrasting col-

ors.” The church’s grandeur reflected that of Constantinople,

“city of the world’s desire,” capital of a prosperous empire that

controlled east-west trade and laid the basis for the Greek and

Slavic cultures of modern Europe.

What cultural achievements did the Byzantines pass onto western Europe? How did their civilization affect thedevelopment of the peoples of eastern Europe?

Historical Significance

244

Chapter Themes

Chapter 10 Byzantines and Slavs 245

The archangel Gabriel, an icon on wood, from theRussian State Museum, St. Petersburg, RussiaArt&

History

Find out about a specific law inJustinian’s Code in an encyclopedia or abook on the history of legal systems. Writethe law as an illuminated manuscript,an art form described in this chapter.

Your History JournalChapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 10—Chapter Overview to preview the chapter.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whthetea2003/content.php4/601/1

After the Roman Empire was dividedin A.D. 395, the eastern half becameknown as the Byzantine Empire. At

its height in the A.D. 500s, the Byzantine Empireincluded most of the Balkan Peninsula, Italy, south-ern Spain, Asia Minor, Syria and North Africa. Itsmajor population group, the Greeks, lived mainlyin the central part of the empire. Also included inthe empire were Egyptians, Syrians, Arabs,Armenians, Jews, Persians, Slavs, and Turks. Thesevaried peoples and cultures gave Byzantine civi-lization an international character.

Byzantine Foundations The location of Constantinople, the Byzantine

capital, reinforced this multicultural character. Thecity was located near the centers of earlyChristianity as well as on major trade routes.

A Strategic CityIn A.D. 330 the Roman emperor Constantine

built Constantinople at a strategic place whereEurope and Asia meet. Located on a peninsula,Constantinople overlooked the Bosporus, the nar-row strait between the Sea of Marmara and theBlack Sea. A second strait, the Dardanelles, con-nects the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean Sea,which leads to the Mediterranean. These straitsgave the occupiers of the peninsula control overmovement between the Mediterranean and theBlack Seas and, as a result, over the routes leadingeast to Asia and north to northern Europe. The siteof Constantinople itself offered natural protectionfrom attack at a time when Germanic invaderswere assaulting Rome to the west. Water protectedthe city on three sides, and triple walls fortified the side open to attack by land. Eventually a hugechain was strung across the narrow mouth of thedeep harbor on Constantinople’s north side for stillgreater protection.

> Terms to Defineclergy, laity, icon, iconoclast, schism

> People to MeetConstantine, Justinian, Theodora, Leo III

> Places to LocateByzantine Empire, Constantinople

Byzantium [Constantinople] was in flames.A mob was screaming insults at EmperorJustinian and Empress Theodora. The emperorswiftly ordered the imperial treasury loaded ontoships to prepare for escape. Half crazed and with-out hope, Justinian held a final council of a fewloyal friends; Theodora was present. After the mil-itary generals expressed their fears, Theodora sud-denly rose and broke the silence. “I do not chooseto flee,” she said. “Never shall I see the day when

I am not saluted as theempress.… You have themoney, the ships areready, the sea is open. Asfor me, I shall stay.”Hearing her, the otherstook heart. That day,Theodora savedJustinian’s throne.

—adapted from Theodora,Empress of Byzantium,Charles Diehl, 1972

S e c t i o n 1

The New Rome

SThetoryteller

Theodora, detail of mosaic

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Byzantine Empirebecame rich and powerful.

Theodora’s SupportJustinian’s wife, Theodora, was beautiful, intel-

ligent, and ambitious. Justinian had married her in spite of court objections to her occupation as an actress—a profession held in low esteem in the empire. A capable empress, Theodora partici-pated actively in government, rewarding friendswith positions and using dismissals to punish enemies.

Theodora was especially concerned withimproving the social standing of women. She per-suaded Justinian to issue a decree giving a wife theright to own land equal in value to the wealth shebrought with her at marriage. This land gave awidow the income she needed to support her chil-dren without the assistance of the government.

In A.D. 532 Theodora’s political talents helpedsave Justinian’s throne. When a revolt of taxpayersin Constantinople threatened the government,Justinian’s advisers urged him to leave the city. Asflames roared through Constantinople and therebels battered at the palace gates, Justinian pre-pared to flee. Theodora, however, persuaded him toremain in control.

Inspired by his wife’s determination, Justinianreasserted his power. His army crushed the rebels,killing 30,000 people. From that time until his deathin A.D. 565, Justinian ruled without challenge.


The straits also madethe peninsula a naturalcrossroads for trade. ByA.D. 400 the Byzantine cap-ital had become the wealth-iest part of the RomanEmpire, handling rich car-goes from Asia, Europe,and Africa.

Cultural BlendAfter Rome’s fall, the

Byzantine Empire wasregarded as heir to Romanpower and traditions.Constantinople was knownas the New Rome becauseits emperors were Romanswho spoke Latin and manyof its wealthy familiescame from Rome. Despitethese ties, the ByzantineEmpire was more than acontinuation of the oldRoman Empire.

Lands once part of theGreek world formed theheart of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine peo-ple not only spoke Greek but also stressed theirGreek heritage. Eventually Byzantine emperorsand officials also used Greek rather than Latin.Religious scholars expressed their ideas in Greekand developed a distinct form of Christianityknown today as Eastern Orthodoxy. In addition tothe Byzantine Empire’s classical Greek heritage andChristian religion came cultural influences fromeastern civilizations such as Persia. This mixture ofcultures created a distinct Byzantine civilization.Between A.D. 500 and A.D. 1200, this civilizationwas one of the most advanced in the world and hada higher standard of living than western Europe.

Justinian’s RuleAt its height the Byzantine Empire was ruled

by Justinian, the son of prosperous peasants fromMacedonia in the western part of the empire. Whilea young man in the court of his uncle, EmperorJustin I, he worked late into the night at his studies.Justinian’s enthusiasm for knowledge and hardwork continued after he became emperor in A.D.527, at age 44.

Before Justinian, A.D. 527After Justinian’s conquests, A.D. 565

Rome

Constantinople

EUROPE

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ASIA MINOR

BALKANPENINSULAITALY

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Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

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MapStudy

Early Byzantine Empire

Emperor Justinian’s conquests extended Byzantine rule in theWest, including Italy and parts of northern Africa and Spain.Region What effect did Justinian’s conquests have on the Byzantine Empire?

Military CampaignsDuring Justinian’s reign, the Byzantines faced a

serious military threat from the East. The SassanianEmpire of Persia, under Chosroes (kaz•ROH•eez) I,grew in strength and threatened to conquer the easternprovinces of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzan-tines rallied their forces and threw back the Persians.Justinian gained a brief period of security for the east-ern borders by agreeing to pay tribute in return for peace.

Justinian dreamed of restoring the RomanEmpire. In A.D. 533 he began the reconquest of Italy,North Africa, and Spain—Roman lands that hadfallen to Germanic invaders. Under the generalBelisarius, the Byzantine armies were strengthenedand reorganized. Between A.D. 533 and A.D. 555,they fought a series of wars against the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy, and theVisigoths in southern Spain. The Byzantines conquered these Germanic groups and extendedByzantine rule in the west.

The successful reconquest, however, provedcostly for the empire. The wars exhausted most of theByzantine resources. Funds were low for defendingthe eastern borders, which faced attack by an

expanding Persian Empire. Justinian’s conquestsdid not last. Within a generation of his death, theempire lost many of its outlying territories.

Code of LawsJustinian’s legal reforms did last, affecting

Western law even today. Shortly after becomingemperor, Justinian appointed a commission to codify, or classify, the empire’s Roman laws. Forcenturies, these laws had accumulated withoutorganization or classification.

The commission was made up of 10 scholarsheaded by a legal expert named Tribonian. For more than 6 years, the commission collected and organized vast numbers of laws. It threw out theones that were outdated, simplified many, and putthe remainder into categories. The commission’swork was recorded in a collection of books known asthe Corpus of Civil Law, or the Justinian Code. This mas-sive work preserved Rome’s legal heritage and laterbecame the basis for most European legal systems.

The ArtsUnder Justinian, Byzantine art and architecture

248 Chapter 10 Byzantines and Slavs

The Emperor Justinian, a mosaic from the A.D. 500s from Ravenna, Italy.What architectural landmark did Justinian build?Art&

History

CON

NECTIONS

CO

NNECTIONS

Examine a church or other build-ing in your community that is built inthe Byzantine style. What elements ofits architecture do you think reflect the basic Byzantine model? What elements do you think are modern orcome from other cultural traditions?

Hagia Sophia, completed in A.D. 537,was built to symbolize both Christianity’simportance in the Byzantine Empire and theByzantine emperor’s authority. It also repre-sented the beginning of what becameknown as the Byzantine style of architecture.

Early Byzantine churches featured a cen-tral dome on a flat roof supported by four

arches springing from columns orpiers. Often the dome was piercedby windows and covered with glit-tering mosaics. Light streamedinto the church from all directionsand reflected off the decoratedsurfaces.

The Byzantine style eventuallyspread to other lands, such asUkraine and Russia, that acceptedEastern Christianity. Architects inthese lands modified the originalByzantine model to suit their ownneeds. For example, the Russians,who lived in a cold climate with a

lot of snow, replaced the flat roof and largecentral dome with sloping roofs and onion-shaped domes.

Today, Eastern Christians throughoutthe world still use some form of the Byzantinestyle. In cities and towns of North America,the descendants of Eastern Christian immi-grants who came during the late 1800s andearly 1900s have sometimes combined tradi-tional Byzantine architectural principles withmodern ones in their churches.

Byzantine Architecture

thrived and achieved their distinct character. Theemperor ordered the construction of new roads,fortresses, aqueducts, monasteries, and other build-ings. His most famous project was the church ofHagia Sophia, “Holy Wisdom,” in Constantinople.The largest and most beautiful church in theempire, Hagia Sophia still stands today as one ofthe world’s great architectural landmarks.

Byzantine Religion Strong ties linked Byzantine emperors and the

Church. The emperors were regarded as God’s rep-resentatives on earth. Starting in the A.D. 400s,Byzantine emperors and empresses were crownedby the patriarch of Constantinople and took an oathto defend the Christian faith.

Church and StateByzantine emperors frequently played a major

role in church affairs. They appointed church offi-cials, defined the style of worship, and used thewealth of the Church for government purposes.

Justinian strengthened this control over the

Church by intervening in disputes over churchbeliefs. He also tried to unify the empire under oneChristian faith, a practice that sometimes led to per-secution of Jews and non-Greek Christians.

Religious ControversyBoth Byzantine clergy—church officials such as

priests and bishops—and laity—church memberswho were not clergy—were intensely interested inreligious matters. In their homes, markets, andshops, Byzantines often engaged in heated religiousdiscussions. Visitors to Constantinople saw shop-pers in the marketplaces having lively discussionsabout such topics as the exact relationship of Jesusthe Son to God the Father. Such arguments oftenbecame political issues and led to fights and riots.

In the A.D. 700s, a dispute broke out over theuse of icons (EYE•KAHNZ), or religious images, inworship. Although Christians had disagreed aboutthis practice since the A.D. 400s, the use of icons inchurches became a political issue by the A.D. 700s.

Those who objected to the use of icons inChristian worship argued that the Bible, in the Ten Commandments, prohibited such images.Defenders stressed that icons were symbols of


Hagia Sophia

God’s presence in human affairs. The Byzantine the-ologian John of Damascus wrote many religiousarticles defending the use of icons.

Believing that icons encouraged superstitionand idol-worship, in A.D. 726 Emperor Leo IIIordered all icons removed from the churches. Theemperor’s supporters—military leaders, govern-ment officials, and many people in Asia Minor—became known as iconoclasts, or image breakers.

Church leaders and other Byzantines resistedthe order, and were supported by the Church inRome, which was as important a center ofChristianity as Constantinople. The Roman pope’sinvolvement in the controversy strained relationsbetween the Eastern and Western Churches.

Feeling his authority was being challenged, Leoasserted his power and suppressed demonstrationsin favor of icons. Although several later emperorsdid the same, they were not supported by the peo-ple. In A.D. 787 a church council at Nicaea approved

the use of icons. Soon after, the Empress Irene—thefirst woman to hold the Byzantine throne—allowedthe use of icons as long as they were not given theworship due to God. The Eastern Church furthersettled the issue in A.D. 843, allowing the use of pic-tures, but not statues, in worship.

Conflict With RomeSince the A.D. 300s, the Eastern and Western

Churches had disagreed on a number of religiousand political issues. As centuries passed, the dis-agreements intensified.

The iconoclastic controversy was but one ofmany reasons that divided the two churches. Themost serious issue concerned the source of religiousauthority. The pope in Rome and the patriarch ofConstantinople did not agree on their roles in theChristian Church. The pope stated that he wassupreme leader of the Church; the patriarch ofConstantinople opposed this claim. The two churchleaders also disagreed over points of doctrine. Theychallenged each other for control of new churchesin the Balkan Peninsula.

Relations between Eastern and WesternChurches worsened in the A.D. 700s when theGermanic Lombards invaded central Italy. Whenthe Byzantine emperor refused to give the pope inRome military protection, the pope turned to theFranks, a Germanic Catholic people in westernEurope. After the Franks defeated the Lombards,the pope gave the Frankish leader, Charlemagne,the title of emperor—a title which only theByzantine ruler could legally grant. This actionmade the Byzantines even more bitter toward thepope and the Western Church.

By A.D. 1054 doctrinal, political, and geograph-ical differences finally led to a schism (SIH•zuhm), or separation, of the Church into the RomanCatholic Church in the West and the EasternOrthodox Church in the East. The split further weak-ened the Byzantine Empire, which had faced attacksfrom numerous peoples since its founding.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify ways in whichthe Byzantine Empire rose topower.

Recall2. Define clergy, laity, icon,

iconoclast, schism.3. Identify Constantine,

Justinian, Theodora, Leo III.Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

How were Byzantine emperors

and the Christian Churchlinked?

Understanding Themes5. Conflict How did religious

disputes, such as the icono-clastic controversy, affect thepolitical affairs of the ByzantineEmpire?Powerful Byzantine Empire

Causes

Effect

➔ ➔ ➔

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT


From A.D. 500 to A.D. 800, when westernEurope was in decline, the ByzantineEmpire was a brilliant center of civi-

lization. Its scholars preserved Greek philosophyand literature, Roman political and legal ideas, andChristian theology, or religious teachings. TheByzantines also created new art forms and spreadthe religion of the Eastern Orthodox Church intoeastern Europe.

Byzantine Life Byzantine society was divided into a hierarchy

of social groups. Yet, there were few barriers to pre-vent a person from moving from one group toanother. This flexibility brought variety and changeto Byzantine life.

Family LifeThe family was the center of social life for most

Byzantines. Both the Church and the governmentsupported marriage as a sacred institution. Divorcewas difficult to obtain, and the Church generallyforbade more than one remarriage.

Byzantine women were expected to live partlyin seclusion, and so rooms in homes and churcheswere set aside for their sole use. Nevertheless,women had gained some rights throughTheodora’s efforts. Like the empress herself, somewomen became well educated and influential in thegovernment. Several governed as regents, or tem-porary rulers, and a few ruled in their own right asempresses.

The EconomyMost Byzantines made a living through farm-

ing, herding, or working as laborers. Farmers paidheavy taxes that supported the government.

> Terms to Definetheology, regent, mosaic, illuminated manuscript, monastery, missionary

> People to MeetCyril, Methodius, the Seljuk Turks, theOttoman Turks, Tiridates III, Tamara

> Places to LocateVenice, Armenia, Georgia, Bulgaria, Serbia

A bishop from Italy wrote home describingthe Byzantine court: “In the audience-hall sat theEmperor on a throne before which stood an artificialtree, all gilded, on whose branches mechanical birdsperched, singing. To either side of the throne stooda mighty lion, which, as the visitor approached,lashed the ground with its tail and from whose openjaws … there came a terrifying roar.” The visitorthrew himself to the ground three times, and look-ing up beheld the Emperor raised by an invisible

mechanism to theroof of the hall, wherehe sat glitteringamong his jewels.

—adapted fromIstanbul, MartinHeurlimann, 1958

S e c t i o n 2

Byzantine Civilization

SThetoryteller

Emperor Constantine IX

Read to Find Out Main Idea Christianity played a signifi-cant role in Byzantine and neighboringsocieties.

Although the base of the Byzantine economywas agricultural, commerce thrived in cities such asConstantinople, which was the site of a naturalcrossroads for trade. Byzantine ships loaded withcargo sailed between the Mediterranean and BlackSeas by way of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. At the eastern shore of the Black Sea, goods couldbe shipped overland through Asia. Rivers such as the Dnieper, which flows from the Baltic regionsouth to the Black Sea, provided access to northernEurope.

Merchants traded Byzantine agricultural goodsand furs and enslaved people from northernEurope for luxury goods from the East. ToConstantinople’s busy harbor, called the GoldenHorn, ships brought cloves and sandalwood fromthe East Indies; pepper, copper, and gems fromIndia and Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka); and silkfrom China.

The major Byzantine industry was weavingsilk. It developed after A.D. 550, when Justinian senttwo monks to China, the center of the silk industry.

On a visit to a silk factory the monks stole somesilkworm eggs, hid them in hollow bamboo canes,and smuggled their precious cargo out of China.Brought to Constantinople, the silkworms fed onmulberry leaves and spun the silk that made theempire wealthy.

Byzantine Art and Learning Among the products of Byzantine culture were

beautiful icons, jewel-encrusted crosses, and carvedivory boxes for sacred items. These art forms wereadopted by eastern Europe and also influencedwestern Europe and the Middle East.

ArtReligious subjects were the sources of most

Byzantine art. Icons, the most popular art form, portrayed saints and other religious figures.Icons were displayed on the walls of churches,homes, and shrines. Magnificent churches were

of theof the

Byzantine ArtByzantine art reflected the strong

influence of Christianity.

The Byzantine church ofSt. Kosmas at Loukas,Greece, displays acolorful mosaic.

252

The crucifix was afamiliar Byzantine iconboth in churches and inhomes.

embellished with gold and silver, polished andcarved marble, ivory, and jewels, as well as iconsand other religious images.

The Byzantines also excelled in the art of mosaic, or pictures made of many tiny pieces of col-ored glass or flat stone set in plaster. The most mas-terly mosaics captured the finest gradations of skintones and textures of clothing—a skill even paintersfound difficult to master. Byzantine emperorConstantine VII, historian, painter, and author,described one mosaic:

As you move, the figures seem to move,too. You could swear that their eyes areturning and shining and that their gar-ments are rustling … the Byzantinemosaicist has succeeded in creating theillusion that his jig-saw puzzle has cometo life.

Religious scholars of the Byzantine Empire cre-ated another art form, the illuminated manuscript.

These were books decorated with elaboratedesigns, beautiful lettering, and miniature paint-ings. The brilliantly colored paintings portrayedreligious themes as well as scenes of Byzantinedaily life. Adopted in western Europe, the art ofilluminating manuscripts provided a vivid recordof daily life between A.D. 300 and A.D. 1200.

EducationSchools and learning also played an important

role in Byzantine culture. The government-support-ed University of Constantinople, established in A.D.850, trained scholars and lawyers for governmentjobs; the Eastern Orthodox Church provided reli-gious schools to train priests and theological schol-ars. Beyond the religious subjects that reflected theprimary role of the Church, areas of study includedmedicine, law, philosophy, arithmetic, geometry,astronomy, grammar, and music. Wealthy peoplesometimes hired tutors to instruct their children,particularly their daughters, who were usually notadmitted to schools and universities.

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. How do these images reveal the prosperity ofthe Byzantine Empire?

2. Who paid to have much of the religious art atchurches and monasteries created?

253

Beautiful illuminated manuscripts,such as this from St. Catherine’sMonastery at Sinai, were the work of reli-gious scholars. Monasteries were financedby the emperor and by wealthy citizens.

Byzantine literature focused on salvation of the soul and obedience to God’s will. Writers com-posed hymns and poems in praise of Christ and hismother, Mary. Instead of popular fiction, Byzantineauthors wrote books about the lives of the saints,which provided readers with moral lessons as wellas accounts of the saints’ miracles and adventures.

The foremost occupation of Byzantine scholars,however, was copying the writings of the ancient

Greeks and Romans. By preserving ancient workson science, medicine, and mathematics, the Byzan-tines helped spread classical knowledge to theWestern world.

Spread of ChristianityNear the end of the A.D. 300s, devout Christians

throughout the Byzantine Empire formed religiouscommunities called monasteries. In the monasteries,men called monks sought to develop a spiritual wayof life apart from the temptations of the world. At thesame time, they could help other people by doinggood deeds and by setting an example of Christianliving. Christian women who did the same werecalled nuns and lived in quarters of their ownknown as convents.

Monasteries and convents soon played animportant role in Byzantine life. They helped thepoor and ran hospitals and schools for needy chil-dren. They also spread Byzantine arts and learning.Monasteries also sent missionaries—people whocarry a religious message—to neighboring peoplesto convert them to the Christian faith.


Greek FireIn fighting their enemies,the Byzantines used a terri-

fying weapon known as Greek fire, one of theearliest uses of chemicals in warfare. This chemi-cal mixture exploded when it came into contactwith fire or water. The formula remains a mystery;it probably included highly flammable oil, pitch,quicklime, sulfur, and resin.

Rome

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MapStudy

Decline of the Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire began to rapidly decline after Justinian’s death in A.D. 565, losing control of territory in Spain, Africa, Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor.Region Besides Justinian’s death, what factors contributed to the weakeningof the once great Byzantine Empire?

Among the most successful missionaries werethe brothers Cyril and Methodius. They reasonedthat Christianity would be more acceptable to theSlavic peoples who lived north of the empire if itwere presented in their own language. About A.D.863 Cyril devised an alphabet for the Slavic lan-guages. Known today as the Cyrillic (suh•RIH•lihk)alphabet in honor of its inventor, this script is stillused by Russians, Ukrainians, Bulgarians, and Serbs.When Cyril and Methodius presented the Slavs withCyrillic translations of the Bible and church cere-monies, they won many converts.

Decline and Fall From its founding, the Byzantine Empire suf-

fered frequent attacks by invading armies. Amongthem were Germanic Lombards, Slavs, Avars,Bulgars, Persians, and Arabs.

Unending AttacksAfter Justinian died in A.D. 565, the Germanic

Lombards took over most of Italy, the Avarsattacked the northern frontier, Slavic peoplesmoved into the Balkans, and the Persians resumedtheir attacks in the east. By A.D. 626 the Slavs wereat the walls of Constantinople. Although a brilliantcounterattack stopped their advance, a newenemy—the Arabs from the Middle East—enteredthe scene. Followers of the new religion of Islam,the Arabs sought to spread their faith and acquirewealth. By the A.D. 630s, they occupied Syria andPalestine and had expanded into Persia and acrossNorth Africa. The Byzantines stopped the Arabs atConstantinople, but could not regain the lost terri-tories in the Middle East and North Africa.

By A.D. 700 the Byzantine Empire was reducedto the territories that were primarily Greek. The lossof the non-Greek lands actually helped strengthenthe empire because it now had one religion, onelanguage, and one culture.

Christian ConquestIn A.D. 1071 northern European people called

Normans seized the Byzantine lands in southernItaly. Venice, an Italian trading city on the AdriaticSea, agreed to help the Byzantines’ effort to regainthe lands in return for trading privileges inConstantinople. The attempt failed, however, andthe Byzantines soon lost control of trade, badlyweakening an economy already strained by war.

In the same year, the Seljuk (SEHL•JOOK)Turks, who had come from central Asia and con-verted to Islam, defeated the Byzantines at the town

of Manzikert. As the invaders advanced, theByzantine emperor asked the pope’s help indefending Christianity. Expeditions sent by thepope against the Islamic forces were more interest-ed in taking over Palestine.

In A.D. 1204 Christian soldiers from westernEurope agreed to help the Venetians attackConstantinople. For three days the attackersburned and looted the city, stealing and destroyingpriceless manuscripts and works of art. Theiractions were so brutal that Pope Innocent III pub-licly condemned them:

These defenders of Christ, who shouldhave turned their swords only against theinfidels [followers of Islam], have bathedin Christian blood. They have respectedneither religion, nor age, nor sex.… It was


St. Jacob holding script in the Cyrillicalphabet, a modified form of the

Greek alphabet. What peoples use the Cyrillic alphabettoday?

HistoryVisualizing

not enough for them to squander the trea-sures of the Empire and to rob privateindividuals, whether great or small.…They have dared to lay their hands on thewealth of the churches. They have beenseen tearing from the altars the silveradornments, breaking them in fragments,over which they quarrelled, violating thesanctuaries, carrying away the icons,crosses, and relics.

The western Christians established “a Latinempire” in Constantinople. The Byzantine peopleresisted this rule successfully and reestablishedtheir own culture in A.D. 1261.

Fall of ConstantinopleThe years of fighting had severely weakened

the Byzantine Empire. Soon Serbs and Bulgars tookover Balkan territory. New invaders from central

Asia, the Ottoman Turks, attacked the easternprovinces. By the late A.D. 1300s, the ByzantineEmpire consisted of only Constantinople and partof Greece.

About 100,000 people still lived in the capital;food was scarce, and wealth was gone. In A.D. 1453the Ottomans laid siege to Constantinople. For sixweeks their huge cannon blasted away at the city’swalls. The Byzantines fought fiercely until their lastemperor was killed.

For a thousand years, the Byzantine Empirehad protected the Christian lands to its north. Withthe fall of Constantinople, central Europe lay opento attack by Islamic forces. Despite the empire’s fall,the Byzantine heritage lived on in the civilizationdeveloped by the Eastern Slavs.

Neighboring KingdomsDuring the time of the Byzantine

Empire, four neighboring kingdoms wentthrough periods of prosperity and decline.Northeast of the empire, and south of theCaucasus Mountains between the Blackand Caspian Seas, lay the kingdoms ofArmenia and Georgia. Northwest ofByzantine territory, in Europe’s BalkanPeninsula, arose two other realms—Bulgaria and Serbia.

ArmeniaLocated at a crossroads between Europe

and Asia, Armenia struggled against for-eign invasions. Settling the area in the 700sB.C., the Armenians within 300 years hadbecome part of the Persian Empire. WhenAlexander the Great conquered Persia inthe 330s B.C., his armies acquired Armeniabut allowed it some freedoms. King TigranII, who came to power about 95 B.C., builtan independent Armenian kingdom stretch-ing from the Caspian Sea to the Mediter-ranean Sea. The Romans, however, defeatedTigran in 69 B.C., and Armenia became partof the Roman Empire.

In the early A.D. 300s, the Armenians,under King Tiridates (TEER•uh•DAH•teez) III, accepted Christianity. This deci-sion made Armenia the first officiallyChristian country in the world. Christianitygave Armenians a sense of national identity.

Mesrob (MEH•zrohb), an Armenian scholar-monk,developed the Armenian alphabet in the early A.D. 400s. In A.D. 451, the Armenians successfully


Portrait of Sultan Mahmet II, whoconquered Constantinople and

renamed it Istanbul. How long did the Byzantine city holdout against the sultan’s siege?

HistoryVisualizing

defended their Christian state against the Persiansin the Battle of Avarair (ah•vah•RAHR).

Arab armies invaded Armenia in the A.D. 600s,but they failed to conquer the entire country. Anindependent Armenian kingdom eventually arosein the northern region. In the A.D. 1000s the SeljukTurks swept into Armenia, followed by theOttoman Turks in the A.D. 1400s. Within 300 years,Armenia had become a battlefield among theOttomans, Persians, and Russians. During the A.D.1800s, it was divided between the Russian andOttoman empires.

GeorgiaLike Armenia, Georgia continually faced waves

of foreign invasions. Ancient Georgia consisted oftwo kingdoms known as Colchis and Iberia. Bothrealms came under Roman rule in 65 B.C. TheRoman conquerors built new roads and introducedtheir laws and customs to the region. The Silk Road,which passed through the Caucasus Mountains,allowed the Georgians to prosper from tradebetween Europe and Asia. Caravans of silk cloth,spices, and other goods reached ports on Georgia’sBlack Sea coast and continued on to the MiddleEast and Europe.

Georgia was converted to Christianity in theA.D. 300s by a Christian woman named Nino.Meanwhile, newly Christianized Georgia wasattacked by rival Persian and Byzantine armies.

During the A.D. 1100s and early A.D. 1200s,Georgia enjoyed a golden age of freedom and cul-ture under Queen Tamara (tah•MAH•rah).However, from the late A.D. 1200s to the A.D. 1700s,the Georgians again faced a series of conquerors,including the Mongols, the Persians, and theOttomans. Turning northward to the Russians formilitary aid, Georgia by the early A.D. 1800s hadbecome part of the Russian Empire.

BulgariaThe Balkan Peninsula also underwent up-

heavals. Conquered by Roman armies, the regionthat is present-day Bulgaria became part of theRoman Empire in the A.D. 40s. When Rome fellabout 400 years later, Slavs from east central Europeand Bulgars from central Asia settled Bulgaria,intermarrying to become the Bulgarians.

Influenced by Byzantine culture and religion,the first Bulgarian state arose in the A.D. 600s. Itreached its peak 300 years later under King SimeonI, and finally fell prey to Byzantine conquest in A.D.1018. Byzantine decline, however, enabled theBulgarians to regain their freedom. This secondBulgarian kingdom survived from the late A.D.1100s to the late A.D. 1300s, when Ottomaninvaders from central Asia conquered it. Ottomanrule of Bulgaria lasted more than 500 years.

SerbiaNorthwest of Bulgaria was the Slavic kingdom

of Serbia. During the A.D. 500s and 600s, groups ofSlavs settled in the Balkan Peninsula. By the 1100s,the Serbs, one of the most powerful of these groups,had accepted Eastern Orthodox Christianity andthe Cyrillic alphabet. They also formed a state. TheSerbian kingdom enjoyed its greatest period ofprosperity in the A.D. 1300s under Stefan Dusán(STEH•fahn•doo•SHAHN), who assumed the titleof emperor of the Serbs. Dusán’s armies successful-ly fought the Byzantines, expanding Serbian rulethroughout much of the Balkans.

After Dusán’s death in 1355, his heirs lackedthe skills to keep the Serbian kingdom united. TheSerbs valiantly fought the Ottomans but were even-tually defeated in 1389 in the Battle of Kosovo.Almost 500 years of Ottoman rule followed, but thedesire to reverse the shame of Kosovo helped keepalive Serbian national pride.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify Christianity’srole in Byzantine and neighbor-ing societies.

Recall2. Define theology, regent,

mosaic, illuminated manuscript, monastery, missionary.

3. Identify Cyril, Methodius, theSeljuk Turks, the OttomanTurks, Tiridates III, Tamara.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information How

did the split between easternand western Christians influ-ence Byzantine decline?

Understanding Themes5. Innovation What was the role

of art and religion in the Byzan-tine and neighboring kingdoms?How did Christianity affect it?

Byzantine Empire

Armenia SerbiaRoleof

Christianity


After the fall of Constantinople in A.D.1453, the leadership of the EasternOrthodox world passed from the

Byzantines to the Slavs. The Slavs were among thelargest groups living in eastern Europe. Because oftheir location, the Slavs had been in close contactwith the Byzantines since the A.D. 900s.

This relationship made a lasting mark on thedevelopment of Slavic history. The Slavs, especiallythose living in the areas that are today the BalkanPeninsula, Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia, borrowedmuch from the Byzantines. On the basis ofByzantine religion, law, and culture, the Slavs builta new civilization. They also borrowed heavily fromwestern European and Asian cultures. As a result ofthese different influences, Russia—the farthestnorth and east of the Slavic lands—never became acompletely European or completely Asian country.

The SettingOne of the Byzantine trade routes ran north

across the Black Sea and up the Dnieper River, thenoverland to the Baltic Sea. From trading posts alongthe river grew the roots of early Slavic civilization.

The SteppeNorth of the Black Sea are vast plains, thick forests,

and mighty rivers. Much of the land is an immenseplain called the steppe. Ukrainian author NikolayGogol vividly captures its spirit in his Cossack Tales:

The farther the steppe went the grander itbecame … one green uninhabited waste.No plow ever furrowed its immense wavyplains of wild plants; the wild horses,which herded there, alone trampled themdown. The whole extent of the steppe wasnothing but a green-gold ocean, whosesurface seemed besprinkled with millionsof different colored flowers.

> Terms to Definesteppe, principality, boyar, czar

> People to Meetthe Slavs, Rurik, Olga, Vladimir, Yaroslav, the Mongols, Alexander Nevsky, Ivan III

> Places to LocateDnieper River, Kiev, Novgorod, Moscow

As a pagan prince, Vladimir behaved kindly;once he became a Christian, his generosity becameunlimited. Beggars assembled in his courtyard every

day for food, drink, cloth-ing, and money. For thesick and weak, supply wag-ons were loaded up and dri-ven around the city of Kiev.Once, when his friendsshowed disgust at having toeat with plain woodenspoons, Vladimir laughedand had silver ones cast forthem. He was also the firstKiev prince to mint goldand silver coins. The firstof these, made by inexperi-enced Russian crafts work-

ers, were slightly lumpy and uneven, but boreVladimir’s picture and the inscription, “Here isVladimir on his throne. And this is his gold.”

—from Vladimir the Russian Viking,Vladimir Volkoff, 1985

S e c t i o n 3

The Eastern Slavs

SThetoryteller

Eastern Orthodoxchurch


Read to Find Out Main Idea The Eastern Slavs developedseparate cultures from those of western Europe.

Although the steppe has rich black soil, theharsh climate makes farming difficult and crop fail-ures common. Too far inland to be reached by moistocean breezes, the steppe often has scanty rainfall.In addition, most of the land lies in the same lati-tudes as Canada and has the same short growingseason. During the long, hard winter, blasts of Arcticair roar across the land and bury it deep in snow.

Forests and RiversNorth of the steppe stretch seemingly endless

forests of evergreens, birch, oak, and other hardwoods.North–south flowing rivers such as the Dnieper,Dniester, and Volga cross the steppe and penetrate theforests, providing the easiest means of transportation.Yet travel is difficult for much of the year. In winter,deep drifts of snow cover the ground, and in thespring thaw the land turns to knee-deep mud.

The PeopleHistorians know little about the origin of the

first Slavic peoples. Some believe the Slavs camefrom present-day eastern Poland. Others think theymay have been farmers in the Black Sea region. It isknown that by about A.D. 500 the Slavs had formedinto three distinct groups and had settled in differ-ent parts of eastern Europe.

Slavic GroupsOne group, known as the West Slavs, lived in

the marshlands, plains, and mountains of east-cen-tral Europe. They successfully fought the Germansto the west and the Scandinavians to the north forcontrol of territory. Today the descendants of theWest Slavs are the peoples of Poland, the CzechRepublic, and Slovakia. Their religious ties came tobe with the Roman Catholic Church, and their cul-tural ties were with western Europe.

Another group, known as the South Slavs, set-tled in the Balkan Peninsula, and had frequent con-tacts with the Byzantines. Today, their descendantsare the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, whose lan-guages and cultures were shaped by both theRoman Catholic West and the Orthodox East. Onegroup of South Slavs—the Bosnians—were influ-enced by the religion of Islam from the Middle East.

The third and largest Slavic group, the EasternSlavs, includes those now known as Ukrainians,Russians, and Belarussians. They lived north of theBlack Sea between the Dnieper and Dniester Riversand traded with the Byzantine Empire and north-ern Europe. From A.D. 500 to A.D. 800, some EasternSlavs moved eastward toward the Volga River.

Early Ways of Life The early Eastern Slavs lived in villages made

up of related families. They were farmers who hunt-ed wild game and birds to supplement the wheat,rye, and oats they grew. In the forests they clearedland by cutting and burning trees and scattering theash to enrich the soil. On the steppes they ignited a“sea of flame” to burn off the grass for planting.

Most farm homes were sturdy log houses. Withknife, chisel, and ax the peasants skillfully shapedthe logs, notching them so that they would fittogether without nails. Many log houses had wood-en gables and window frames decorated withpainted carvings of flowers and animals. Skilledartisans also used wood to make furniture, cookingutensils, musical instruments, boats, and images offavorite deities.

The Eastern Slavs used the many rivers in theirregion for transportation and trade. They set uptrading towns along the riverbanks. By the A.D.800s, a trade route ran from the Baltic Sea in thenorth to the Black Sea in the south.


Novgorod

Suzdal

Moscow

Kiev

Vladimir

Constantinople

SWEDEN

POLAND

LITHUANIA

HUNGARY

N

E

S

W

Conic Projection

0 150

150

300 mi.

0 300 km

East Slavic lands

Trade routes

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

25°E

40°E

50°N

45°N

55°N

Dniester River

Dnieper River

Danube River

DonRi

ver

Volga River

BalticSea

NevaRiver

Black Sea

LakePeipus

MapStudy

East Slavic Lands A.D. 1100s

Trade with the Byzantine Empire helped build Kiev into a major city.Movement In what direction

would traders have traveled from Kiev to Sweden?

Kievan RusThe early Eastern Slavs were not warlike.

During the late A.D. 800s, they relied on Vikings, agroup of warriors and traders from Scandinavia, toprotect their trade routes. The Vikings also helpedto lay the foundations of Slavic government.

The Vikings’ arrival is recorded in the PrimaryChronicle, a collection of Eastern Slavic history andtales written around A.D. 1100. According to theChronicle, in about A.D. 860 the Slavic people fromthe northern village of Novgorod asked Vikingsfrom Scandinavia for aid. The Viking leader Rurikaccepted the request. The Slavs called the Vikingsand the area they controlled Rus; the word Russia isprobably derived from this name.

Rise of KievIn about A.D. 880, Rurik’s successor, Prince

Oleg, conquered the fortress-village of Kiev (Kyivin Ukrainian) to the south. Built high on a bluffwhere the forest meets the steppe, Kiev prosperedbecause it lay on the Dnieper River trade route.Some still call it the mother of Eastern Slavic cities.

Control of Kiev enabled Oleg to dominate thewater trade route. Towns along the route werebrought together under his leadership. Kiev soon

became the major city of a region of Slavic territoriesknown as Kievan Rus. The rulers of Kiev, known asGrand Princes, conducted raids against Constant-inople. They were attracted by the wealth and civilization of the Byzantine capital. In A.D. 911 atreaty ended these raids and established tradebetween the Byzantines and the Eastern Slavs.During the summer months, Slavic merchants car-ried furs, honey, and other forest products by boat toConstantinople. There they traded their goods forcloth, wine, weapons, and jewelry.

Kievan GovernmentBy A.D. 900, Kievan Rus had organized into a

collection of city-states and principalities, or terri-tories ruled by princes. Each region enjoyed localself-government; however, they all paid tribute tothe Grand Prince of Kiev to support his court andarmy. The major duties of these princes were toadminister justice and to defend the frontiers. Theywere assisted by councils of wealthy merchants andlanded nobles, who were known as boyars.Assemblies represented all free adult male citizens.They handled daily affairs and had the power toaccept or remove princes.

These three institutions—the princely office, thecouncil, and the assembly—varied in power fromregion to region. In the northeastern territories, theprince wielded a great deal of political power. Inthe southeastern areas, the boyars had the greatestpolitical influence. In Novgorod and a few northerntrading towns and cities, the assemblies overshad-owed both princes and boyars. In these areas, theassemblies came close to establishing a tradition of representative government. However, laterprinces limited the powers of the assemblies.


This loghouse in

Russian Siberia’s Lake Baikalregion evidences the decora-tive style of Eastern Slavhouses. How did these peoplebuild without nails?

HistoryVisualizing

Student Web Activity 10

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 10—Student Web Activities for an activity relating to the Vikings.

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=601&pt=2&bk=18


Rurik the Rus

This 19th-century statue of Kievan Rus’sruler Rurik stands in the center of the Russian city of Novgorod. The bronzeRurik, a mighty Prince, holds symbols of

military might and political power: a shield andsword. His fur cape sweeps proudly over his shoul-ders. Founder of nations, the Viking warrior pro-claims a glorious past.

Rurik and his Viking warriors came fromScandinavia to what is now Russia and Ukraine inthe A.D. 800s, perhaps invited there by native Slavic

tribes constantly warring with each other. TheEastern Slavs during the A.D. 800s had little politicalstability, which made farming and commerce diffi-cult. The Vikings changed that. Trading with thestrong, plundering the weak, they moved south fromNovgorod to Kiev, where they founded a politicalstate, and from there they moved on to Odessa on theshores of the Black Sea. It took them two centuries tocomplete their expansion. By then the Vikings hadlost their Scandinavian ways and had become assim-ilated into the local cultures. �

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PICTURING HISTORY

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Arrival of ChristianityBefore the late A.D. 900s, the Eastern Slavs hon-

ored nature spirits and ancestors, and worshipedmany deities. The most popular gods were Perun,god of thunder and lightning, and the GreatMother, goddess of the land and harvest. Images ofthe deities were built on the highest ground outsidethe villages.

Vladimir’s ConversionBecause of contact with the Byzantine Empire,

many Eastern Slavs were influenced by EasternOrthodoxy. Olga, a princess of Kiev, became thefirst member of the Kievan nobility to accept thefaith. Her grandson, Prince Vladimir of Kiev,decided to abandon the old beliefs and to adopt anew religion that he thought would help theEastern Slavs become a more powerful civilization.An old Slavic legend states that Vladimir sentobservers abroad to examine Judaism, RomanCatholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Islam. Onlythe beautiful ceremony in the splendid Byzantinechurch of Hagia Sophia impressed the observers. InA.D. 988, after his own conversion to EasternOrthodoxy, Vladimir ordered a mass baptism in theDnieper River for his people.

Effects of ConversionThe conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy brought

Byzantine culture to Kievan Rus. Byzantine priestsand bishops introduced the Eastern Slavs to color-ful rituals and taught them the art of painting icons.The Eastern Slavs also learned to write their lan-guage in the Cyrillic alphabet. Schools were estab-lished in the towns for the sons of boyars, priests,and merchants. Byzantine architects arrived in Kievto build stone churches with magnificent domes.Monasteries also were founded in the towns andcountryside, and attracted many new converts.

Acceptance of Eastern Orthodoxy, however,tended to isolate the Eastern Slavs from the outsideworld. Following the split between the Eastern andWestern Churches, Kievan Rus was separated fromwestern Europe. Its people lost contact with devel-opments that took place in that area after A.D. 1200.At the same time, the Byzantine practice of trans-lating the Bible and Orthodox church services intolocal languages had an important impact. BecauseKievan scholars had translations of some classicaland Christian writings in their own language, theydid not learn Greek or Latin. As a result, they didnot deepen their knowledge of the heritage ofwestern European civilization. Instead, theyturned for inspiration to the traditions of their ownlocal culture.

Kiev’s Golden AgeVladimir, who ruled from A.D. 980 to A.D. 1015,

was one of the most important grand princes ofKiev. Known for his skills as a warrior, he success-fully defended Kievan Rus’s eastern frontiersagainst nomadic invaders. He also expanded itswestern borders by capturing lands in Poland andnear the Baltic Sea.

Yaroslav’s ReignAfter a time of dynastic conflict, Vladimir’s son

Yaroslav became Grand Prince in A.D. 1019. UnderYaroslav’s rule, Kievan culture reached its height.Yaroslav encouraged the spread of learning byestablishing the first library in Kiev. Yaroslav alsoorganized the Kievan legal system, drawing fromJustinian’s Code. Written primarily for the princesand merchants, the code treated crimes againstproperty as well as against persons.

A skilled diplomat, Yaroslav arranged for hisdaughters and sisters to marry kings in Norway,Hungary, France, and Poland. To the Europeans,who were just arising from the isolation and disorder of the early Middle Ages, Kiev was a


This ancient monastery stands as asymbol of the influence of Byzantine

Christianity. How was Eastern Orthodoxy introduced inKievan Rus?

HistoryVisualizing

glittering capital whose culture outshone that ofany in western Europe.

Kiev’s DeclineAfter Yaroslav’s death, Kiev declined in power

and wealth for several reasons. First, Yaroslavbegan the practice of dividing up his lands amongall his sons instead of willing them to one heir.Since no law established a clear line of succession,the heirs battled one another over control of Kiev.Second, the Latin Christian state created inConstantinople disrupted trade with the Byzantinesand weakened Kiev’s economy. Finally, in A.D. 1240Mongol invaders from central Asia captured Kievand completely destroyed it.

Mongol Rule The Mongols, or Tatars, as the Slavs called them,

defeated the armies of the Eastern Slavic princesand conquered most of the country except forNovgorod. They sacked towns and villages andkilled thousands. Mongols sought to tax the peo-ples they conquered, rather than impose their cul-ture. The Slavs were allowed to practice theirChristian faith, but the Mongols required allegianceto the Mongol ruler and service in the Mongol army.

For two centuries, Mongol rule isolated most ofthe Eastern Slavs from European civilization.Although the occupation helped unify the EasternSlavs, it also further distanced them from ideas andtrends of the Western world.

Rise of Moscow As city life in the south declined after the fall of

Kiev, many Eastern Slavs—led by monks, farmers,and artisans—moved into the remote northernforests to escape Mongol rule. By the late A.D.1200s, Vladimir–Suzdal and Novgorod were thestrongest Eastern Slavic principalities.

Alexander NevskyThe Mongols had never advanced as far north

as Novgorod because the spring thaw turned theland into a swamp they could not cross. Instead,the city faced attacks in the Baltic Sea area fromSwedes and Germans who wanted to convert theEastern Slavs to Roman Catholicism. In a ferociousbattle on the Neva River in A.D. 1240, Alexander,

prince of Novgorod, defeated the invading Swedes.This victory earned him the nickname AlexanderNevsky, Alexander “of the Neva,” and his victoryestablished Novgorod as a strong, independentprincipality.

Moscow’s BeginningsDaniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky,

became ruler of Moscow, a small but prosperoustown located near vital land and water routes.Using war and diplomatic marriages, the princes ofMoscow gradually expanded their state’s territory.Moscow’s importance grew in A.D. 1325 when themetropolitan, or leader of the Orthodox Church inthe Eastern Slavic lands, was transferred there. Byabout A.D. 1350, Moscow had become the mostpowerful city. Cooperation with Mongol policieshad kept it free from outside interference. Daniel’sson, Prince Ivan I, became known as Money Bagbecause the Mongols even trusted him to collecttaxes for them.

Muscovite forces defeated the Mongols at theBattle of Kulikovo in A.D. 1380. The tide had turnedin favor of Moscow. Over the next hundred years,the Eastern Slavs steadily drove out the Mongols.In A.D. 1480 during the rule of Ivan III, Moscow


Alexander Nevsky, ruler of Novgorod,fought the German Teutonic Knights

in A.D. 1242. Why did the Germans and Swedes attack theEastern Slavs?

HistoryVisualizing

finally refused to pay taxes to the Mongols. Thelong submission to the Asian rulers was over.Today, Ivan is known as Ivan the Great because hewas able to bring many of the Eastern Slavic princi-palities under his rule. His major gain wasNovgorod, which controlled territory all the wayeast to the Ural Mountains.

The Third RomeOther factors helped to strengthen the power

of Moscow’s rulers. After Constantinople fell to theOttoman Turks in A.D. 1453, Moscow stood alone asthe center of the Eastern Orthodox Church. In A.D.

1472 when Ivan III married Sophia, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, he took the title czar, or“caesar,” the title used by the Roman and Byzantineemperors. Ivan also made the two-headedByzantine eagle the symbol of his rule.

In A.D. 1493 Ivan added the title Sovereign ofAll Russia. The lands he ruled, eventually known asRussia, were a hundred times as large as the origi-nal Muscovite state. The people spoke one lan-guage, and the princes served one czar. The RussianOrthodox Church, which identified its interestswith those of the Muscovite ruler, proclaimed thatMoscow was the Third Rome. The Church regardedIvan as both the successor of the Byzantine emper-or and protector of the Eastern Orthodox Church, aclaim all succeeding Russian czars would also make.

Moscow’s CultureEastern Orthodoxy shaped the development of

Moscow’s culture. Its leaders stressed that obedi-ence to the czar and the government was aChristian duty. Joseph Sanin, an influential churchleader, wrote that “although the [ruler] was likeother men in his physical characteristics, in hispower he was similar to God in heaven.”

Although western European influencesreached Russia, they were transformed by localRussian styles and tastes. Instead of using Greek,Latin, or other classical languages, the Church usedan early Slavic language in its worship and writ-ings. Russia’s religious leaders and political rulersalso encouraged the development of a uniquenational style of icon painting and building construction. Ivan III had western European andRussian architects rebuild the Moscow Kremlin, orfortress. In spite of Western influences on its con-struction, the Kremlin became known for the typical-ly Russian splendor of its beautiful onion-domedchurches and ornately decorated palaces. Today theKremlin in Moscow is still a center of government,religion, and culture for Russia.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below to

show the main reasons why East-ern Slavs developed separatelyfrom western Europe.

Recall2. Define steppe, principality,

boyar, czar.3. Identify the Slavs, Rurik, Olga,

Vladimir, Yaroslav, the Mongols,Alexander Nevsky, Ivan III.

Critical Thinking4. Making Comparisons Com-

pare the role of the Orthodox

Church in Kievan Rus andMoscow.

Understanding Themes5. Cultural Diffusion What

Roman traditions became part of Russia’s culture? How did Russia’s culture differ from theculture of western Europe?Why?

Gold-domed spires of the Church ofthe Annunciation reach toward the

sky behind the Kremlin’s walls. What was the originalpurpose of the Kremlin?

HistoryVisualizing

Causes Effect

CulturalDevelopment ofEastern Slavs



Imagine that you are watching two candidatesfor President debate the merits of the collegeloan program. One says, “In my view, the col-

lege loan program must be reformed. Sixty per-cent of students do not repay their loans ontime.”

The other replies, “College costs are skyrock-eting, but only 30 percent of students default ontheir loans for more than one year. I believe weshould spend more on this worthy program.”

How can you tell who or what to believe?You must learn to distinguish fact from opinion.

Learning the SkillA fact is a statement that can be proved to be

true or false. In the example above, the statement“Sixty percent of students do not repay their loanson time” is a fact. By reviewing statistics on thenumber of student loan recipients who repay theirloans, we can determine whether it is true or false.To identify facts, look for words and phrases indi-cating specific people, places, events, dates, times.

An opinion, on the other hand, expresses apersonal belief, viewpoint, or emotion. Becauseopinions are subjective, we cannot prove or dis-prove them. In the opening example, most state-ments by the candidates are opinions.

Opinions often include qualifying words andphrases such as I think, I believe, probably, seems tome, may, might, could, ought, in my judgment, or inmy view. Also, look for expressions of approval or disapproval such as good, bad, poor, and satis-factory. Be aware of superlatives such as greatest,worst, finest, and best. Notice words with negative meanings and implications such as squander, contemptible, and disgrace. Also, identify general-izations such as none, every, always, and never.

Practicing the SkillFor each pair of statements below, determine

which is fact and which is opinion. Give a reasonfor each choice.

1. (a) The Byzantine Empire came to a pitifulend at the hands of the savage Turks.(b) The Byzantine Empire ended whenConstantine XI died while defendingConstantinople in A.D. 1453.

2. (a) The alliance with the Byzantine Empiremade Kiev a major trading link betweenEurope and Asia and between Scandinaviaand the Middle East.(b) In the A.D. 900s Kiev was the most isolat-ed, uncivilized place and possessed little in the way of culture.

3. (a) The Byzantine culture wasmore advanced thanany other of its day. (b) Vladimir’s con-version to EasternOrthodoxy broughtByzantineculture to KievanRus.

Applyingthe Skill

In a newspaper,find a news articleand an editorial on thesame topic or issue.Identify five facts andfive opinions fromthese sources.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 267 for more practice in distinguishing between fact and opinion.

Distinguishing Between Fact and Opinion

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.


Reviewing Facts1. History Use a time line like the one below to

identify key events in Byzantine history.

2. Government Explain the significance ofJustinian’s Code to later generations.

3. Culture Describe three major art forms thatdeveloped in the Byzantine Empire. What arethe leading themes in Byzantine arts?

4. Culture Analyze how the Byzantine Empirepromoted Christianity.

5. Culture Discuss the role of women inByzantine society, especially in family life.

6. Culture Explain the contribution that Ninomade to the development of Georgia.

7. Geography State the ways the early EasternSlavs made use of their environment.

8. History Explain why the reign of Yaroslav isconsidered a golden age for Kievan Rus.

9. History Explain the effects of the Mongolinvasions on Kievan Rus.

10. History Describe how Moscow’s rise affectedthe Eastern Slavs.

Critical Thinking1. Analyze Was the title of New Rome suitable

or unsuitable for the city of Constantinople?Explain.

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Thenwrite a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. boyars g. missionaryb. clergy h. regentc. mosaic i. schismd. iconoclasts j. laitye. monasteries k. czarf. illuminated l. steppe

manuscripts

1. Wanting to prevent superstition and idol worship, ______, or image breakers, supportedthe removal of all images from churches.

2. North of the Black Sea are thick forests, mighty rivers, and a vast plain known as the______.

3. In A.D. 1054 doctrinal, political, and geographicdifferences led to a ______ between the RomanCatholic Church in the West and the EasternOrthodox Church in the East.

4. In Kievan Rus, wealthy nobles and landownerswho assisted the princes were called _____.

5. In A.D. 1472 the Muscovite ruler Ivan III tookthe title _____, the title used by the Roman andByzantine emperors.

Write a short story describing a fic-tional case that may have come before anofficial of Justinian’s court. Base the storyon the law you described in Your HistoryJournal at the beginning of this chapter.

Using Your History Journal

CHAPTER 10 ASSESSMENT

A.D. 400A.D. 1500

Using the Internet Locatea Web site dealing withthe history of the Cyrillicwritten language. Focus your search by usingphrases such as Cyrillic language and Slavic languages. Create a bulletin board showingexamples of Cyrillic words with their Englishtranslations. When possible, include illustrations.

Technology Activity

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 10—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=601&pt=3&bk=18

Skill PracticeRead the following statements. Determine which are factsand which are opinions. Give a reason for each choice.

1. The Primary Chronicle states that in A.D. 911Grand Prince Oleg agreed on a peace treaty withthe Byzantine emperors Leo and Alexander.

2. The Volga River is longer than the Danube River.3. The Russian Orthodox Church is the most spiri-

tually uplifting faith in the world.4. Nomads wandered aimlessly throughout the

steppes and lived in flimsy shelters.

Geography in History1. Location Refer to the map below. By what year

had the area around the Volga River been addedto Moscow’s holdings?

2. Place What geographic factors enabled theprinces of Moscow to expand their territory?

3. Region By A.D. 1493 Moscow’s ruler claimedto be ”Sovereign of All Russia.“ About how fardid Moscow’s territory stretch from north tosouth in A.D. 1462?


2. Evaluate Why was the preservation of Greekand Roman learning a significantcontribution of Byzantine civilization?

3. Analyze What do theseByzantine coins revealabout the level ofdevelopment ofByzantine civilization?

4. Analyze Whatwere the causes ofthe schism in theChristian Church? Could the split have beenprevented? Explain.

5. Evaluate Would Justinian have been an effective ruler if he had not married Theodora?Explain.

6. Analyze How did trade affect the ByzantineEmpire?

7. Synthesize What were the three parts of Kievangovernment? Why did representative govern-ment not develop in the East Slavic lands?

8. Synthesize Imagine you are a Russian boyarunder Ivan III. Would you resist calling himCzar? Explain.

Understanding Themes1. Conflict How does conflict—such as the icono-

clastic controversy in the Byzantine Empire—weaken a government?

2. Innovation Using Byzantine civilization as anexample, explain how one civilization’s ideascan be adapted to other societies.

3. Cultural Diffusion How can two societies be en-riched by sharing cultural aspects? Give examplesfrom the cases of Kievan Rus and Moscow.

Moscow, A.D. 1300

Acquisitions to A.D. 1340




Moscow

Tula

Kasimov

Novgorod

Volokolamsk Vladimir

Vologda

Galich

Ustyug

N

E

S

W

LakeLadoga

Lake Onega

Volga River


0 100

100

200 mi.

0 200 km

The Rise of Moscow

1. Investigate the role the Bosporus played inWorld War I and World War II.

2. Explain the historical reasons why Russiahas a continuing interest in the affairs ofeastern European nations.

3. Investigate the historical roots of religiouscontroversies in modern societies, such asBosnia and Northern Ireland.

CHAPTER 10 ASSESSMENT

A D. 400–1500 Regional Civilizations

Documents