7 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter contains the theories which are used in this study. These theories are used as the basic theory and the supporting theories aim to support the idea, prevent ambiguity, and limit the discussion of the study to solve the problem during analysis. Here are some theories which the researcher used for the research: A. Critical Discourse Analysis and Power Critical approaches differ from non-critical approaches in not just describing discursive practices, but also showing how discourse is shaped by relations of power and ideologies, and the constructive effects discourse has upon social identities, social relations and systems of knowledge and belief, neither of which is normally apparent to discourse participants (Fairclough, 1993).Then, discourse is the whole process of social interaction (including the process of production and the process of interpretation) of which a text is just a part (Fairclough, 1989). In addition, discourse analysis, a text may be either written or spoken discourse (Fairclough, 1995). There are three stages of analysis in Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1989), they are Descriptive Analysis,Interpretation, andExplanation. Fairclough states in his book that there are two kinds of power, power in discourse and power behind discourse (Fairclough, 1989). Power in discourse sees the
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter contains the theories which are used in this study. These theories
are used as the basic theory and the supporting theories aim to support the idea, prevent
ambiguity, and limit the discussion of the study to solve the problem during analysis.
Here are some theories which the researcher used for the research:
A. Critical Discourse Analysis and Power
Critical approaches differ from non-critical approaches in not just describing
discursive practices, but also showing how discourse is shaped by relations of power and
ideologies, and the constructive effects discourse has upon social identities, social relations
and systems of knowledge and belief, neither of which is normally apparent to discourse
participants (Fairclough, 1993).Then, discourse is the whole process of social interaction
(including the process of production and the process of interpretation) of which a text is
just a part (Fairclough, 1989). In addition, discourse analysis, a text may be either
written or spoken discourse (Fairclough, 1995). There are three stages of analysis in
Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1989), they are Descriptive
Analysis,Interpretation, andExplanation.
Fairclough states in his book that there are two kinds of power, power in
discourse and power behind discourse (Fairclough, 1989). Power in discourse sees the
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discourse as a site of the powerful participant controlling the non-powerful participant.
It means that in a discourse there is a process of power struggling between the
participants. Thus, there is a power distribution in a discourse. The power behind the
discourse sees the discourse as the stake in power struggles. It means that the social
orders of the societies are influenced, shaped and constituted by the power struggling. In
the other words, the whole social orders in discourse is put together and held together as
a hidden effect of power (Fairclough in Puspitasari, 2014).
In his book, Fairclough uses several language studies to analyze a discourse, as
known as Critical Discourse Analysis is a study that has more than one approaches to
analyze a discourse. They are Linguistics - as known as Critical Discourse Analysis is
one of the branch of Linguistic. Sociolinguistics - it means that Social and Linguistic are
always related each other and it will make the sociologist sensitive to analyze how the
social structures and relations are instantiated the fine detail of daily social practices,
including discourse, and it will make linguists sensitive how the discourse is shaped by
and helps to shape social structures and relations (Fairclough, 1995). So, Pragmatic is
one of Linguistic branches and it contains power struggle which is discussed here.
The researcher used the Fairclough‟s version because it is appropriate to the
purpose of this research which is to analyze the power struggle of Obama in power
relation between the participants. The term power relation means that the participants of
the research have unequal position which is appropriate to Fairclough‟s theory.It is
because of Halliday on Farclough‟s book states that the interaction of the participants is
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influenced by interpersonal function (Fairclough, 1995: 6). Multimodality itself is
involved in the interpersonal function. Furthermore, Fairclough (1995: 188) says that
contents are always necessarily realized in the forms, because different contents entail
different forms and vice versa. The forms of the discourse can be seen from the orders
of discourse (Fairclough, 1995: 188-189). In addition, Fairclough (1989: 28) says that
the actual discourse is determined by underlying conventions of discourse. It is
influenced by social conditions of discourse and the determination of discourse by social
structure. He states that discourse and practice are constrained by interdependent
networks which are called as „orders‟ (orders of discourse and social orders). Each
situation has each own type of practice. Each social order has each types of practice and
each structure. It influences the types of discourse, each types of discourse has each
order of discourse and each structure. Those are represented in the following figure.
Social order Order of discourse
Types of practice Types of discourse
Actual practices Actual discourses
Table 1.1 Social orders and orders of discourse (Fairclough, 1989: 29)
Fairclough (1989: 23) says that language is a form of social practice. So, there is
a relationship between language and society. According to Fairclough (1989: 25), a
discourse which is analyzed in CDA is influenced by the social conditions (social
conditions of production and social condition of interpretation). There are three levels of
social organizations in these social conditions. They are the level of social situation or
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the immediate social environment in which the discourse occurs, the level of social
institution, and the level of society as whole.
Here, some points that need to understand in order to work on a discourse by
using Fairclough‟s version of CDA: Power Struggle in power relation, Power in and
behind Discourse, The three stages of Critical Discourse Analysis, and some Linguistic
Evidences.
1. Power Struggle
Political news interview are usually related to power struggle of the
politician as interviewee over the people. According to Fairclough (1992: 56), the
political nature of discourse-power struggle occurs both in and over discourse. It is
a little bit similar with power in discourse and power behind discourse.
Furthermore, Fairclough states in his book (1992: 67) that political practice is the
subordinate category, furthermore, discourse as a political practice is not only a site
of power struggle, but also a stake ill power struggle; discursive practice naturalize
particular power relations and ideologies and these conventions themselves, and the
ways in which they are articulated, are a focus of struggle. In addition, Fairclough
(1995: 244), it is often difficult to assess the full social and therefore its effect upon
power relations and power struggle in the institution concerned. It is because power
relations are always related to struggle. Meanwhile, Fairclough states in his book
(1992: 36) that discourse analysis is concerned not only with power relation in
discourse (compare conversation analysis), but also with how power relations and
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power struggle shape and transform the discourse practices of a society or
institution. According to Fairclough (1989: 34) the different power relation is
classified into two types, first is social groupings in institutions (for example
between interviewer and interviewee, teacher and students, etc), it will affect the
power because of the social status. Second is social groupings in non-institutions
(for example between men and women, young and old, ethnic grouping, etc). Based
on the different social groupings and power relation there will be a social struggle
relation to see the unequal power between the social classes in the society. In this
research, the researcher analyzed the power struggle in power relation by the social
status between social groupings in a broadcast institution which consists of the
power relation between the interviewers and interviewees.
2. Power in Discourse
Power in Discourse is the relation of power based on the interaction in the
discourse. Fairclough (1989: 46) says that the first is face to face or spoken
discourse which shows the domination of powerful participants in controlling the
interaction toward the non-powerful participants. There are three aspects related to
the power struggle in power relation. They are contents (what is said/done),
relations (the social relation of people in discourse), and subjects (the subject
position that people can occupy). Second is power in cross-cultural encounters
which shows the different power relation related to the cultural aspect such as;
country, race, etc (Fairclough, 1989: 49). Third is hidden power. On
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Fairclough‟s(1989: 49) book, this part explains the power relation, producers design
their contributions for the particular people they are interacting with-they adapt the
language they use, and keep adapting throughout an encounter in the light of
various sort of „feedback‟ they got from co-participants. It explains about how the
product of face-to-face discourse or two-way communication for example political
interview. The interview is influenced by the roles of the society as the audience,
the important figure, even the institution who are involved. It can be analyzed from
the use of words.
3. Power behind Discourse
In thePower behind Discourse, it is stated that the more powerful
participants usually control the non-powerful participants. It can be influenced by
Power behind Discourse. This correlation is shown in the Figure 2.2.
Constraint Structural effects
Contents
Relations
Subjects
Knowledge and beliefs
Social relationship
Social identities
Table 1.2 Constraints on discourse and structural effects (Fairclough, 1989: 74)
The figure above shows that the three aspects in Power behind Discourse
(contents, relations, and subjects) are influenced by the three aspects in Power
behind Discourse. Power behind discourse is power relation related to the power to
do something, to say something, and to access someplace, and to use formal
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languagebased on the status, knowledge, and origin of the participants.For
examples, the doctors who cannot say something directly because of the ethical
code oh their profession (they have to say something by using a certain scientific
term), a priest who has full access in the church because of their knowledge about
religion, an employer who has special right related to the family relation or
something else, a person who has high social practice must use formal language,
etc. The correlation of the power in discourse and power behind discourse is seen
from the relation aspect. The relations in the discourse are seen from the social
relationship between the participants which will influence the contents of the
discourse. The contents of the discourse itself are influenced by the knowledge of
the participants and the belief in the society. The relationship of the participants and
the contents of the discourse will represent the subjects of the discourse and the
social identities of the participants. The formality aspect in Power behind
Discoursehas a correlation with the data of the research. The political interview is
constrained on the language form. The participants should use formal language
during the interaction. Fairclough (1989: 68) says that discourse and practice
generally in formal situations depend on special knowledge and skill which have to
be learnt.
Fairclough (1989: 75) states that there are three mechanism in achieving
coordination and commonality of practice in the respect of knowledge and belief,
social relationships, and social identities. First, the practice and discourse are
universally followed and necessarily accepted because there is no conceivable
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alternative related to the knowledge and belief, social relationships, and social
identities which have been built. Second, the mechanism inculcation related to
„power behind discourse‟ itself which is maintained by the society. Third, the
mechanism communication is achieved through rational communication and debate.
4. Three Stages of Critical Discourse Analysis
As the researcher has explained in the previous chapter, there is correlation
between language and society. Fairclough (1989: 22-23) states that language is a
part of society he says that linguistic phenomena are social and social phenomena
are linguistics. It means that language and society are influenced each and another.
Fairclough (1989: 24) also classifies language as social practice the language of a
text is a product of social interaction process. The process consists of process of
production and process of interpretation. That processes are seen by analyzing the
properties of texts and considering the member resources (MR) that produce the
texts. The process of producing and interpreting are influenced by knowledge of
language, representations of the natural and social worlds, values, beliefs,
assumption, etc. However, the process of production and interpretation has to be
completed by considering the influence of social aspect (society). Fairclough (1989:
25) says that discourse is influenced by social conditions which consists of three
different levels of social organization (the level of the social situation or immediate
social environment in which the discourse occurs; the level of the social institution
which constitutes wider matrix for the discourse; and the level of society as whole.
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As this research used CDA approach proposed by Fairclough, there are
several terms used in analyzing the discourse. Those are the Description Analysis,
that concerns on formal properties of the text, Interpretation Analysis that concerns
on the relationship between the text and the interaction, and Explanation analysis
that concerns on the relation between the interaction and the social context.
(Fairclough, 1989).
a. Description
In this research, the researcher does not only show and describe the
interview and the power of the President Barack Obama, but also attempts to get a
theory of how the President Barack Obama gets and struggles his power
lingustically. In the Description analysis, the Obama‟s interview was observed
through 10 questions arranged by Fairclough in his book “Language and Power”,
1989. Those questions are categorized into 3 categories; Vocabulary, Grammar, and
Textual structures.
Those 10 questions are:
A. Vocabulary
1. What experiential values do words have?
a. What classification schemes are drawn upon?
b. Are there words which are ideologically contested?
c. Is there rewording or overwording?
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d. What ideologically significant meaning relations (synonymy, hyponymy,
antonymy) are there between words?
2. What relational values do words have?
a. Are there euphemistic expressions?
b. Are there markedly formal or informal words?
3. What expressive values do words have?
4. What metaphors are used?
B. Grammar
5. What experiential values do grammatical features have?
a. What types of process and participant predominate?
b. Is agency unclear?
c. Are processes what they seem?
d. Are nominalizations used?
e. Are sentences active or passive?
f. Are sentences positive or negative?
6. What relational values do grammatical features have?
a. What modes (declarative, grammatical question, imperative) are used?
b. Are there important features of relational modality?
c. Are the pronouns we and you used, and if so, how?
7. What expressive values do grammatical features have?
a. Are there important features of expressive modality?
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8. How are (simple) sentences linked together?
a. What logical connectors are used?
b. Are complex sentences characterized by coordination or/ subordination?
c. What means are used for referring inside and outside the text?
C. Textual Structure
9. What interactional conventions are used?
a. Are there ways in which one participant controls the turns of others?
10. What larger-scale structures does the text have?