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Acorpus-basedanalysisofcode-switchingintheoraldiscourseofShona-Englishbilinguals
by
FaithChiedzaChapwanya
Adissertationsubmittedinfulfilmentoftherequirementsforthedegree
MAinLinguistics
intheDepartmentofAfrikaansatthe
UNIVERSITYOFPRETORIA
FACULTYOFHUMANITIES
Supervisor:Prof.H.J.Bosman
August2016
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Declarationbycandidate
‘IherebydeclarethatthedissertationsubmittedforthedegreeMALinguistics,atthe
UniversityofPretoria,ismyownworkandhasnotpreviouslybeensubmittedtoany
otherinstitutionofhighereducation.Ifurtherdeclarethatallsourcescitedorquoted
areindicatedandacknowledgedbymeansofacomprehensivelistofbibliography’.
FaithC.ChapwanyaAugust2016
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Acknowledgements
Myutmostgratitudegoestothefollowing:
• MyhusbandMikeforhislove,supportandencouragement.Thankyoufor
believingthatIcanconquermyfearsanddomorethanIeverimagined.
• MychildrenNyashaandNokufortheirloveandunderstanding.Youkeepme
goingboys.
• MyparentsEdmonandElizabethMufanebadzaforimpartinginmethevalueof
education.
• Specialthankstomysupervisor,ProfessorNerinaBosmanforherguidance.
Thankyouforallthecommentsandfeedbackthroughoutthisstudy.Youhave
helpedmebroadenmyhorizons.
• ThefinancialassistanceoftheNationalResearchFoundation(NRF)towardsthis
researchisherebyacknowledged.Opinionsexpressedandconclusionsarrivedat
arethoseoftheauthorandarenotnecessarilytobeattributedtotheNRF.
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Abstract
Bilingualism is one of the by-products of globalization andmigration. As people from
differentethnicitiescomeintocontact,theirlanguageswillinfluenceeachother.People
learn a second or third language in different environments leading to their linguistic
proficiency levelsbeingdifferent. Inconversations involvingbilinguals, code-switching
maybeprevalent.Thispractiseofalternatingbetweentwoormorelanguagesduringa
speechacthasbeenofgreatinteresttoresearcherswithvariousmodelsandhypotheses
beingproposedtoexplainit.
Although code-switching has been studied extensively in literature, indigenous
languages such as Shona have received less attention. This study aims to determine
whetherthemarkednessmodelofcode-switchingcanbeappliedtoShonaoraldiscourse
(speech).Ananalysis isdonetoascertainthenature,occurrenceandcharacteristicsof
code-switching in the speech of Shona-English bilinguals. Participants who attended
formaleducationforatleasttenyearswereselectedforthestudy.
Inordertoinformonthetheoreticalbackgroundandonpreviousstudiesthatdealtwith
code-switching, a literature review was conducted. The study used semi-structured
interviews,aclozetestandrecordingsasdatacollectionmethods.Datawasanalysedto
determine the applicability of the markedness model to the compiled corpus. Data
analysiswasalsoaidedbyWordSmith,(corpusanalysissoftware).
Results of the analysis seem to suggest that themarkednessmodel can be applied to
Shona-English code-switching. In addition, an analysis of the corpus usingWordSmith
showedfrequentlyusedEnglishwordsandcollocationsandconcordancesof thecode-
switched words. An examination of the collocations and concordances shows the
contextsinwhichthecode-switchedwordsappear.
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Keywords
Code-switching
Markednessmodel
Corpus
Bilingualism
Code-mixing
Borrowing
Nonceborrowing
Translanguaging
Multilingualdiscourse
Maxim
Collocation
WordSmith
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Listofabbreviations
A:Advanced
O:Ordinary
P:Participant
R:Researcher
Exam:Examination
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Listofacronyms
ALLEX:AfricanLanguagesLexicalproject
ALRI:AfricanLanguagesResearchInstitute
CS:Code-switching
CM:Code-mixing
M-S:Myers-Scotton
LRMA:LanguageResourceManagementAgency
PanSALB:PanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard
OCP:OxfordConcordanceProgram
TACT:TextAnalysisComputingTools
BNC:BritishNationalCorpus
ESFSLDB:EuropeanScienceFoundationSecondLanguageDatabank
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Transcriptionconventions
Intranscribingrecordedconversations,thefollowingsymbolswereusedbasedon
Jefferson’stranscriptionconventions(2004).
{LG}:Laughter
{NS}:Backgroundnoise(e.g.bangingofspoons,chairsmoving)
{BC}:Backgroundconversation
{BR}:Audiblebreathingsounds,sighs
(.):Briefpause
(...):Longerpauselastingmorethan3seconds
--:Person’snameornameofaplace
(()):Inaudible
{CG}:Coughingorgrunting
-:Incompleteword
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TableofContents
Declarationbycandidate..............................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................iiiAbstract.............................................................................................................................................iv
Keywords............................................................................................................................................v
Listofabbreviations......................................................................................................................viListofacronyms.............................................................................................................................vii
Transcriptionconventions........................................................................................................viiiC h a p t e r 1 Overview..............................................................................................................11.1 Introductionandbackground.....................................................................................................11.2 LanguagesofZimbabwe................................................................................................................11.3 Shonalanguage................................................................................................................................21.4 EnglishuseinZimbabweanschools..........................................................................................31.5 AbriefdiscussionabouttheMarkednessModel..................................................................41.6 Problemstatement.........................................................................................................................51.7 Motivation..........................................................................................................................................51.8 Assumptions......................................................................................................................................61.9 Researchquestions.........................................................................................................................61.10 Objectivesofthestudy................................................................................................................71.11 Arrangementoftopicsinthisstudy.......................................................................................7
C h a p t e r 2 Code-Switching:Atheoreticaloverview...................................................92.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................92.2 Ahistoricaloverviewofcode-switching...............................................................................102.2.1 Twomainfocalareas.............................................................................................................................102.2.2 Threemainfocalareas..........................................................................................................................112.2.3 Coiningofthetermcode-switching................................................................................................11
2.3 Earlytrendsincode-switchingresearch..............................................................................112.3.1 BlomandGumperz’scontributiontocode-switching.............................................................132.3.2 CriticismofGumperz’sapproachtocode-switching...............................................................15
2.4 Definitionofkeyconcepts.........................................................................................................152.4.1 Code-switchingandCode-mixing.....................................................................................................162.4.2 Whycode-switchingisdifficulttocharacterize.........................................................................162.4.3 Intrasententialcode-switching.........................................................................................................182.4.4 Intersententialcode-switching.........................................................................................................202.4.5 Othertermsproposedforcode-switching...................................................................................212.4.6 Multilingualdiscourse...........................................................................................................................212.4.7 Translanguaging......................................................................................................................................222.4.8 Borrowing/Lexicalborrowing.........................................................................................................242.4.9 Nonceborrowing.....................................................................................................................................27
2.5 Bilingualismasaconditionforcode-switching.................................................................282.5.1 Bilingualism...............................................................................................................................................292.5.2 Classificationofbilingualsinthisstudy........................................................................................32
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2.6 Sometheoriesandhypothesesproposedtoexplaincode-switching.........................322.6.1 TheMatrixlanguageprinciple...........................................................................................................322.6.2 Freemorphemeconstraint.................................................................................................................332.6.3 Equivalenceconstraint.........................................................................................................................342.6.4 TheMatrixLanguageFramework(MLF)......................................................................................352.6.5 ExampleofastudyofShona-Englishcode-switchingusingtheMLF...............................36
2.7 TheMarkednessModel..............................................................................................................372.7.1 Thenegotiationprinciple....................................................................................................................392.7.2 Communicativecompetence..............................................................................................................402.7.3 Predictionsaboutcode-switchingfromthemodel..................................................................41
2.8 Maximsproposedbythemarkednessmodel.....................................................................422.8.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim............................................................................................................422.8.2 Marked-choicemaxim..........................................................................................................................452.8.3 Exploratorychoicemaxim...................................................................................................................482.8.4 Thedeferencemaxim............................................................................................................................492.8.5 Thevirtuositymaxim............................................................................................................................50
2.9 HowtheMarkednessModelhasbeenappliedtoCSdata...............................................502.10 CriticismoftheMarkednessModel.....................................................................................512.11 Code-switchinginSouthernAfrica......................................................................................512.11.1 Code-switchingtoaccommodateothers....................................................................................522.11.2 Finlayson,Calteaux&Myers-Scotton..........................................................................................53
2.12 Code-switchingasacommunicationstrategyinsomeschools..................................532.13 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................55
C h a p t e r 3 Corpususeinlanguagestudies..................................................................573.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................573.2 Corpuslinguistics.........................................................................................................................573.3 Corpus..............................................................................................................................................583.4 Corpus:Abriefhistory................................................................................................................603.4.1 Argumentsagainsttheuseofcorpora...........................................................................................62
3.5 Considerationswhendesigningacorpus.............................................................................623.5.1 Representativeness................................................................................................................................623.5.2 Diversity......................................................................................................................................................633.5.3 Size.................................................................................................................................................................63
3.6 Corpustypes...................................................................................................................................633.6.1 Generalcorpus..........................................................................................................................................633.6.2 Specialisedcorpus...................................................................................................................................643.6.3 Spokencorpora........................................................................................................................................643.6.4 WrittenCorpora.......................................................................................................................................65
3.7 Someofthetoolsusedincorpussearchandretrieval....................................................653.8 Examplesofcorpuscompilationprojects............................................................................663.8.1 TheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC).................................................................................................673.8.2 EuropeanScienceFoundationSecondLanguageDatabank(ESFSLDB).........................673.8.3 LanguageResourceManagementAgency(LRMA)ofSouthAfrica...................................683.8.4 ThePanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard........................................................................................68
3.9 TheShonacorpus.........................................................................................................................693.9.1 TheALLEXprojectandTheAfricanLanguageResearchInstitute(ALRI).....................69
3.10 Closingremarksaboutcorpuscompilation......................................................................713.11 Characteristicsofcorpus-basedanalysis..........................................................................713.12 Corpus-basedanalysisandcode-switching......................................................................71
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3.13 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................73C h a p t e r 4 Methodology.....................................................................................................744.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................744.2 Researchdesign............................................................................................................................754.2.1 Qualitativeresearch...............................................................................................................................754.2.2 CharacteristicsofqualitativeresearchaccordingtoDornyei(2007)..............................754.2.3 Triangulation.............................................................................................................................................784.2.4 Limitationsofaqualitativeresearchdesign...............................................................................78
4.3 Corpus-basedanalysis................................................................................................................804.3.1 Strengthsofcorpus-basedanalysis.................................................................................................814.3.2 Disadvantagesofcorpus-basedanalysis.......................................................................................82
4.4 Researchplan................................................................................................................................824.4.1 Stage1:Theoreticalresearch-Aliteraturereview...................................................................824.4.2 Stage2:Empiricalresearch:Researchgroup(participants)...............................................834.4.3 Sampling......................................................................................................................................................834.4.4 Researchsiteandparticipants..........................................................................................................83
4.5 Methodology(datacollectioninstruments)........................................................................844.5.1 Semi-structuredinterviews................................................................................................................844.5.2 ClozeTest....................................................................................................................................................864.5.3 Participantrecordingsofinformalconversations....................................................................864.5.4 Researcherrecordings..........................................................................................................................874.5.5 Challengesduringtheselectionofparticipantsandhowtheyweredealtwith..........884.5.6 Transcription............................................................................................................................................894.5.7 Corpuscompilation................................................................................................................................90
4.6 DataAnalysis..................................................................................................................................904.7 Ethicalconsiderations................................................................................................................904.8 Limitationsofthestudy.............................................................................................................914.9 Assumptions...................................................................................................................................924.10 Summaryofchapterfour........................................................................................................92
C h a p t e r 5 Dataanalysis,resultspresentationandinterpretation....................935.1 Introductiontodataanalysis...................................................................................................935.2 Resultspresentationandinterpretation.............................................................................94Thefollowingabbreviationswereused:..............................................................................................945.2.1 Thecompiledcorpus.............................................................................................................................945.2.2 EnglishLanguageproficiency............................................................................................................945.2.3 Theparticipants.......................................................................................................................................975.2.4 Clozetest..................................................................................................................................................106
5.3 ApplyingthemarkednessmodeltothecompiledShonacorpus..............................1065.3.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim.........................................................................................................1075.3.2 SequentialunmarkedCS...................................................................................................................1075.3.3 Unmarkedcode-switching...............................................................................................................1105.3.4 Marked-choicemaxim........................................................................................................................1155.3.5 MarkedCSanditsfunctions............................................................................................................1155.3.6 Exploratorycode-switching............................................................................................................121
5.4 BorrowedwordsinShona.......................................................................................................1215.5 Thenatureofcode-switchinginspokenShona...............................................................1235.5.1 Code-switchingoccurswithinsentenceboundaries............................................................1235.5.2 Shona-Englishcode-switchingoccursoutsidesentenceboundaries............................1255.5.3 Code-switchingappearstobeorderly........................................................................................125
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5.5.4 Concordances.........................................................................................................................................1265.5.5 FrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpus.........................................................................128
5.6 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................131C h a p t e r 6 Conclusionsandrecommendations......................................................1336.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................1336.2 Conclusionsdrawn.....................................................................................................................1336.2.1 Subproblemone....................................................................................................................................1336.2.2 Subproblemtwo...................................................................................................................................135
6.3 Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus..................................................................................1366.4 Recommendations.....................................................................................................................1366.5 Limitationsofthestudyandimplicationsforfurtherresearch.................................1376.6 Contributionsofthestudy.......................................................................................................1376.6.1 Corpus.......................................................................................................................................................1376.6.2 Addingtoempiricaldata...................................................................................................................1386.6.3 AbetterunderstandingofShona-Englishcode-switching.................................................138
6.7 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................138Bibliography................................................................................................................................139
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Listoftables
Table2-1Borrowedwords(Source:Ngara,1982:74-76)............................................................27Table4-1Cities/areaswhereparticipantscamefrom...................................................................84Table5-1Summaryofparticipants’responsestointerviewquestions...................................96Table5-2Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus..............................................................................122Table5-3FrequentlyusedEnglishwords..........................................................................................129Table5-4FrequentlyusedShonawords.............................................................................................129Table5-5Collocations..................................................................................................................................131
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ListoffiguresFigure5-1Participants’agegroups.......................................................................................................103Figure5-2Genderofparticipants...........................................................................................................103Figure5-3AgeoflearningEnglish.........................................................................................................104Figure5-4Levelofeducation...................................................................................................................104Figure5-5Englishuse..................................................................................................................................105Figure5-6ConfidenceinusingEnglish................................................................................................105Figure5-7Employmentstatus.................................................................................................................106Figure5-8Concordancesoftheword“this”......................................................................................127Figure5-9Concordancesof“but”...........................................................................................................128
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Chap te r 1 Overview
1.1 Introductionandbackground
Globalisation andmigration have resulted in the mixing of people from different
cultures.Itisinevitablethataspeoplefromvaryinglinguisticbackgroundsinteract,
theirlanguageswillinfluenceeachother(Myers-Scotton,1993a;Clyne,2003).This
is especially true for the global south including Zimbabwewheremore than one
languageisspoken(Myers-Scotton,1993a;Mumpande,2006;Garcia,2009;Ndlovu,
2009).Myers Scotton estimates the number of Bantu languages inAfrica to be at
least300.Code-switching(CS)isoneoftheby-productsoflanguagecontactwhich
includeborrowinganddiglossiaamongothers.
1.2 LanguagesofZimbabwe
Severallanguagepolicydocumentswhichareusedasguideshavebeenformulated
inZimbabwe(Ndlovu,2009).Oneofthemisthe1987EducationActofZimbabwe.
Although the policy has been revised, it continues to mirror the 1987 Act
(Mumpande, 2006). Shona andNdebele being indigenous languages are accorded
thestatusofnational languages.Shona is spokenbyaboutseventy-fivepercentof
thepopulationwhilstNdebeleisamothertongueforaroundsixteenpercentofthe
population(Ndhlovu,2009;Mberi,2009).
Theexactnumberof languages spoken inZimbabwe isdebatable.This isbecause
there isno clearcutdistinctionbetweenwhat canbe considereda languageand a
dialect(Wardhaugh&Fuller,2015).Forexample,Ndhlovu(2009)putsthenumber
atcloseto twenty.Thondhlana(2002)puts thenumberatseventeenwith3being
main languagesand fourteenminority languages.Ndhlovualso concurs that there
areatleastfourteenminoritylanguagesinZimbabwenamelyKalanga,Tonga,Sotho,
Barwe, Chewa, Venda, Xhosa, Setswana, Nambya, Shangani, Chikunda, Nyanja,
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HwesaandSena. Of these,Kalanga, Shangani, Chewa,Venda,Tonga, andNambya
are officially acknowledged as minority languages (Thondlana, 2002; Mumpande,
2006).
1.3 Shonalanguage
ShonalanguageisheavilyindebtedtoClementDoke(1931).Heplayedanimportant
roleinitsunification,standardisationanddevelopment.Hecarriedout:
A thorough study of the language position throughout the country, with a
viewtoadvisingthegovernmentuponauniformorthographyandapossible
unificationofdialects for the standardizationof anofficial language for . . .
theShonaspeakingpeoples(Doke,1931:1).
One of Doke’s recommendationswas that the term “Shona” be used to refer to a
groupofdialectsspokeninZimbabwewhichhebelievedtobemutuallyintelligible
(i.e.speakersofdifferentShonadialectscanunderstandeachother).Wardhaugh&
Fuller (2015) note that mutual intelligibility is the mostly used benchmark to
distinguishbetweendialectsandlanguages.
Doke observed that people who spoke Karanga, Zezuru, Korekore, Manyika and
Ndauwereabletounderstandeachother.Hence,heconsideredthemtobedialects
of the one language which he unified under the name Shona. This could be the
reason why Myers-Scotton (1993a) refers to Shona as a “constructed language”
becauseitcameaboutowingtoithavingbeenunifiedbyDoke.Chimhundu(2005)
suggeststhatalthough theetymologyoftheterm“Shona” isspeculative, it isnow
widelyaccepted.
“Shonaistheofficiallyrecognizedlanguagewithastandardizedorthographywhich
hasbeenrevisedacoupleoftimes”(Ngara,1982:17).NgaraalsonotesthatShona
doesnothavethecapacitytobeusedasalanguageoflearningandteachingandin
many other domains due to its lack of development in terms of terminology.
However, there have been attempts to develop Shona terminology. One notable
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attemptistheworkdonebytheAfricanLanguagesLexical(ALLEX)project,which
nowformspartoftheAfricanLanguagesResearchInstituteALRI)attheUniversity
of Zimbabwe. Some of the products of the ALLEX project include monolingual
dictionaries, corpora and medical dictionaries. The work of the ALLEX project is
discussed in detail in Section 3.9. Currently, Shona has grammar books, spelling
books,dictionariesandabundantliterature.
1.4 EnglishuseinZimbabweanschools
English has gained prominence in Zimbabwe because it was imposed during
colonialismattheexpenseofindigenouslanguages.Becauseofthewidespreaduse
of English especially in business and in schools as a language of learning and
teaching, thishasresulted in indigenous languagesbeingusedmarginally (Mutasa
2006).
As inmost countries inSouthernAfrica,English is the lingua franca inZimbabwe.
African languages are mostly confined to pre-school and early primary school
(Mutasa,2006).Dueto lackof infrastructure the languagesarenotpromotedpast
thefourthgrade.Kamwangamalu(2012),sharesthesameviewpointnotingthatin
mostcountriesinSouthernAfrica,theformercoloniallanguageisusedineducation.
The few countries in Africa which have adopted indigenous languages for use in
educationandbusinessareTanzania,Somalia,Sudan,EthiopiaandGuinea(Magwa,
2006).
InZimbabweEnglish is considered tobe thevehicle forupwardmobility socially,
economically,andpolitically.ManyschoolsopttouseEnglishfromgradeonewith
thehopethatlearners’linguisticperformanceimprovesastheymovefromgradeto
grade. This has resulted in different levels of bilingualism.Ogutu (2006) suggests
thattheuseofEnglishasalanguageofteachingandlearningresultsinithavingan
advantage over other languages in terms of use and acquisition. “Zimbabwe, like
many African countries, tends to follow the policy of using the former colonial
language (English) as the official language of much of parliament, trade and
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industry, the mass media and education” (Thondlana, 202: 32). Magwa (2006)
shares the same sentiments when he notes that the failure of Zimbabwe to use
indigenous languages in education and business is impeding on the country’s
development.Ogutu(2006)citesstudieslikeUNESCO(1953)andBamgbose,(1984)
whichshowthebenefitsofmothertongueeducation.
Infurthereducationandtraininginstitutions,thedominanceofEnglishisevidenced
bytherequirementthatstudentsareexpectedtohavepassedEnglishwithgradeC
orbetterforthemtobeconsideredforentranceintotheseinstitutions.Incontrast,
learnerscanoptnot tostudy indigenous languagesatOrdinary level,which is the
equivalent to grade 10 and grade 11 in South Africa. This has not helped in
promotingandimprovingtheuseofindigenouslanguages.Mutasa(2006)isofthe
notionthatthelimiteduseofAfricanlanguagesisduetothedifficultyfacedintrying
toharmonizethelanguages.
After independence, learners in primary schools did not pay school fees and the
government launched the 1983 literacy campaign. This resulted inmore learners
includingadultlearnersattendingschool,leadingtoincreasedliteracyrates.Thisis
attestedbyareportfromtheMinistryofEducation,SportsandCulture(1997-2007)
whichshowedan increase in the literacyrate from63percentat independence in
1980to97percentin2002.However,recentchallengesinthecountryseemtohave
reversed the gains made during the first two decades of independence (Shiza &
Kariwo,2011).
WithEnglishbeingdominantinZimbabweansociety,onewondershowthespeech
ofaShona-Englishbilingualisimpacted.
1.5 AbriefdiscussionabouttheMarkednessModel
SincethisstudywillbebasedontheMarkednessModel(MM),abriefreviewofthe
modelherewillsuffice.AcomprehensivediscussionoftheMMisdoneinsection2.
7. Myers-Scotton (1993a) developed the MM to explain the socio-psychological
motivations for code-switching. She suggests that “speakers have a sense of
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markednessregardingavailablelinguisticcodesbutchoosetheircodesbasedonthe
personaorrelationswithotherswhichtheywishtohaveinplace”(Myers-Scotton,
1993a:75).Themodelisdevelopedonthepremisethatspeakerschooselinguistic
codesnotbecauseofthesocietalconventionsbutbecausetheythinkcarefullyabout
theoutcome.SequentialunmarkedCS,unmarkedCS,markedCS,andexploratoryCS
occuraccordingtotheMM.
1.6 Problemstatement
AlthoughCShasbeenwelldocumentedgloballyandparticularlyinSouthernAfrica,
little attention has been paid to Shona-English CS from a socio-functional
perspective.AlthoughMashiri(2002)studiedCSinthespokenlanguageofShona-
Englishbilingualstudentsat theUniversityofZimbabwe, the focusofhisresearch
was the morpho-syntactic structure of Shona and English. He looked at four
grammatical categoriesnamely,descriptiveadjectives,nouns, locatives, andverbs.
As a theoretical framework, he used the Matrix Language Framework (MLF) to
analysecorpusdata.
AlthoughMyers-Scotton’sMarkednessModelhasbeenveryinfluentialinCSstudies,
themodel(inotherwords,thestudyofCSfromasocial-functionalperspective)still
needstobeappliedtoShona-EnglishCS.
Inordertounpacktheproblemstatement,twosub-problemshavebeenidentified:
Subproblemone:Myers-ScottonproposedtheMMtoexplainsocialmotivationsfor
CSandnotedthatthemodelawaitsfurthertesting.
Subproblem two: There ismore thanoneperspectiveonCSavailable to scholars
andallofthemshouldbeexplored(inparticular,inrelationtoShona-EnglishCS).
1.7 Motivation
Research inCS fromShona toEnglishhas focusedonCS inschoolsandCS froma
grammaticalperspective.Notenoughattentionhasbeenpaid toShona-EnglishCS
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from a socio-functional viewpoint. That is why this study seeks to describe the
nature,occurenceandcharacteristicsofCSintheoraldiscourse(speech)ofShona-
English bilinguals. Furthermore, when Myers-Scotton proposed the MM, she
highlighted that “the model and its predictions await further testing” (Myers-
Scotton, 1993a: 154). This study is novel and interesting because it seeks to test
furthertheapplicabilityofthemodeltoShonaCS.
AlthoughthereisaShonacorpusofalmost2,5millionwordsthatwascompiledby
the ALLEX project starting in 1992, access to the full corpus is difficult. There is
limited online access and one can only search for specific words and results are
generatedforamaximumof1000words.IwrotetotheALLEXprojectcoordinators
requestingaccess to thewholecorpusbut Ididnotgetpermission toaccess it. In
addition, the corpus compiled by theALLEX project comprises of speech samples
from Shona speakers of different ages and from people of diverse linguistic
backgrounds.. Anyone who could speak Shona as a first language was free to
participate intheproject. Incontrast, thisstudyfocusedontheoccurenceofCS in
the speech of Shona-English bilinguals who has attended formal education for at
least 10 years. Therefore, the ALLEX corpus is not ideal to use for answering
research questions in this project. That iswhy I compiled a spoken corpus using
speech samples of Shona-English bilinguals in order to determine the nature and
characteristicsofCS.
SincethereislimitedcorporainspokenShona(alessresourcedlanguage),theoral
corpuswasusedasalinguisticresource.
1.8 Assumptions
Regardingthesocial functionsofCS, IassumethatthemarkednessmodelofCSas
explainedbyMyers-ScottonwillapplytoallinstancesofCSinmydataset.
1.9 Researchquestions
Thefollowingresearchquestionswillbeusedasaguideinthisstudy;
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1. WhatisthenatureofCSinspokenShona?
2. DoestheMMofCSapplytothecompiledShonacorpus?
3. What functions do the code-switches serve in the contexts in which they
appear?
1.10 Objectivesofthestudy
Flowing frommyassumption insection1.8,andresearchquestions insection1.9,
thisstudyaimstodothefollowing:
• TodemonstratetheuseoftheMMasaheuristicinstrumentinanalysingand
interpretingmydataset.
• Toanalysethenature,occurenceandcharacteristicsofCSbymakinguseof
corpusanalysissoftware.
• Inordertodotheabove,tocompileacorpusofspokenShona.
1.11 Arrangementoftopicsinthisstudy
Chapter1isanintroductorychapterdealingwiththebackgroundofthestudy.Two
subproblems are identified in order to unpack the problem statement. The
motivationforundertakingthisstudyisexplained.Theaimsofthestudyaswellas
theresearchquestionsarediscussedinthischapter.
Chapter2providesa literaturereviewofCSand the theoriesandhypotheses that
havebeenproposedbyresearcherstoexplainCS.Particularattentionispaidtothe
markedness model of CS. Key concepts are defined in this chapter. Some of the
studiesthathavebeenconductedusingtheMMarehighlighted.ThefunctionsofCS
arealsopresented.
Chapter 3 reviews literature on corpus linguistics in general and corpus-based
studiesinparticular.Keyconceptsaredefined.Thereisadiscussionaboutwhatto
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considerwhendesigningacorpus.Typesofcorporaareexplainedandexamplesof
corpuscompilationprojectsaregiven.TheexistingShonacorpusisdiscussed.
Chapter4presentstheresearchdesignusedinthisstudyincludingitsstrengthsand
weaknesses. The methodology used to collect data is discussed. There is also a
discussion about the challenges encountered during data collection and how they
weredealtwith.
Chapter5focusesondataanalysis,presentationandinterpretation.Dataisanalysed
todeterminewhethertheMMofcode-switchingappliestothecompiledcorpus.The
corpus, interview transcripts, and the cloze test are analysed. In addition, the
compiled corpus is queried using WordSmith tools. Data analysis assisted in
answeringresearchquestionsthatwereposedinthestudy.
Conclusionsdrawnfromthisstudyarediscussedinchapter6.Theconclusionsare
basedontheresearchquestionsthatwereposedinordertodealwithsub-problems
identified in the study. In addition, recommendations are made and attention is
drawntolimitationsofthestudy.
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Chap te r 2 Code-Switching:Atheoreticaloverview
2.1 Introduction
CShascomealongwaysinceresearchersstartedgaininginterestinthesubject.Itis
difficult to pinpoint the scope of what CS encompasses hence one can encounter
contradictions in literature (Bullock & Toribio, 2009). Even the way the term is
written in literature is different. Some researchers write the term as one word
(codeswitching)andothersputahyphen inbetween (code-switching).This study
willusethelatterversionofthewordbutwillspelltheterminthesamewayasitis
usedinliterature.
CShasbeenexploredusingdifferentapproacheswhichwillbediscussedinSection
2.2.ResearchershavebeenadoptingdifferenttermswhendiscussingCS.Thistrend
hascontinuedwiththerecentintroductionoftermssuchas“multilingualdiscourse”
and “translanguaging”. These terms are explained in Section 2.4. This study
investigatesCSthroughasociolinguisticperspective.Acorpusisexaminedtostudy
thenatureandoccurrenceofCS.
A variety of theories and hypotheses have also been proposed to account for CS.
They include, Myers-Scotton’s Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model and the MM
(1993a,1993b),andPoplack’s(1980)freemorphemeconstraintascitedbyMyers-
Scotton (1993b). These theories and hypotheses have contributed to a better
understandingofthesubjectalthoughresearcherstendtodisagreeonsomeissues.
ThetheoriesandhypothesesarediscussedfurtherinSection2.6.
Inordertoinformontheresearchthathasbeendonepreviously,thischapterwill
coverthetheoreticalframeworkofthestudy.AliteraturereviewfocusingonCSwas
conducted and this process continued throughout the duration of the research. It
wasusedtoinformthetheoreticalframework,togainabetterunderstandingofthe
trends inCS researchover the years and to identify any gaps in literature. It also
assistedwithinformationabouthowsimilarstudieswereconducted.
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The history of CS research is discussed noting early studies that have been
conducted.Keyconceptsincludingcode-switching,borrowing,bilingualism,theMM
and corpus are defined providing examples where necessary. There is a brief
discussionofnewtrendsinCSresearch.Adescriptionofcorpuscompilationworkin
ZimbabweandSouthAfricawillbedone.
Inaddition, someof the theoriesandhypothesesadvancedby researcherswillbe
discussed.Inparticular,sincetheMMwillbethebasisforanalysingShona-English
oral discourse in order to determine whether the model is applicable, a
comprehensivediscussionabout theMMwill bedone.CS is alsodiscussed in and
outsidetheschoolcontext.Furthermore,thestudywillpayattentiontosomeofthe
studiesdoneusingacorpus-basedanalysisofCS.
2.2 Ahistoricaloverviewofcode-switching
Overtheyears,CShasbeenwidelyresearchedfromdifferentanglesthroughoutthe
world. Bullock and Toribio (2009) assert that research into CS has been at the
forefront of all the language contact phenomena. The approaches employed by
researchers are varied as evidenced by the different focus areas. There are some
researcherswhobelievethatCSresearchfocusesontwomainareasandotherswho
considerCSresearchtobecentredonthreemainapproaches.Theseapproachesare
explainedbelow.
2.2.1 Twomainfocalareas
According to Auer (1998), CS research has mainly focused on two perspectives
namely the sociolinguistic and the grammatical perspectives. Auckle & Barnes
(2011),summarisedthesetheoreticalframeworksasthegrammatical(eg.Poplack,
1981, Belazi et al. 1994) and the socio-functional framework (Bentahila 1983,
Myers-Scotton1993a,Mukenge&Chimbarange2012,Wardhaugh&Fuller2015).
Boztepe(2005)highlightedthattheapproachescomplementeachother.Thus, the
approaches are not in conflict with each other. He notes that, whereas the
grammatical studies attempt to determine the structure and morphology of CS
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utterances, thesocio-functionalstudies“attempttoexplainwhybilingualspeakers
talkthewaytheydo”(Boztepe,2005:3)
2.2.2 Threemainfocalareas
Researchers like Kamwangamalu, (1989) and Bullock & Toribio (2009) note that
therearethreemainfocalpointsinCSresearchnamelystructural,psycholinguistic
and sociolinguistic. They suggest that the structural approach dealswithwhat CS
can uncover about the makeup of a language and that CS occurs in an orderly
mannerandthecode-switchedutterancesconformtothegrammaticalrulesofthe
main language. Bullock and Toribio (2009) explain that the psycholinguistic
approach to CS deals with the mental processes that are involved with bilingual
speech. The psycholinguistic approach also deals with how switched speech is
processed (Kamwangamalu, 1989). Concerning the sociolinguistic approach, they
note that the approach is mainly focused on the social factors that support or
impedetheoccurrenceofCS.
2.2.3 Coiningofthetermcode-switching
Alvarez-Cáccamo(1998) isof theopinionthat the initialcoiningof thetermcode-
switchingwasdonebyJacobsonin1952.Jacobson,Fant&Halle(1952)ascitedby
Alvarez-Cáccamo(1998)usedtheterm“switchingcode”toexplaintheuseofmore
than one language in a conversation. Thereafter, the term “code-switching” was
used.
2.3 Earlytrendsincode-switchingresearch
BeforethetermCSwascoined,studieswerealreadybeingcarriedout.AlthoughCS
wasmentionedinsomeearlyresearcharticles,itlargelywentunnoticedbecauseit
was explained in passing as a miniscule topic (Myers-Scotton, 1993a). One such
example is Stewart (1968 as cited by Myers-Scotton 1993a). Although Stewart
focused on diglossia, he discussed Haitian Creole-French CS. Even though John
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GumperzwentontobecomeoneofthemostinfluentialresearchersinCS,hisearly
researchwaslargelyunrecognizedbecauseitwasdoneaspartoflargerdiscussions.
CSwasonceconsideredalinguisticimpairement.Thisisevidencedbysomeofthe
early studies inCS (e.g.Weinreich,1953).Weinreich rejectedCSas speech that is
producedbyanincompetentinterlocutor.Heconsideredusingtwolanguagesinone
sentence to be taboo and to signify imperfection. Weinreich believed that if an
individual used more than one language in a sentence, this was an indication of
failuretomasteragivenlanguage.
TheattitudespilledovertoclassroomsasBoztepenotes:
In the caseof bilingual classrooms, thenotionof semilingualismembodies
itself in the formofnegative teacherattitudes towards studentswhocode-
switchinclassroominteraction.CS,aswithanystigmatizedlanguagevariety,
isseenasadeviationfromsomenorm(Boztepe,2005:3).
But this perspective has changed over the decades as CS has become one of the
major research field in linguistics. A quick check on the Internet produces many
articles focusing on CS from a wide range of perspectives. This interest from
researchershashelpedshedmorelightonthesubject.Bullock&Toribio(2009)are
of the view that CS does not show that one is unable to distinguish between
languagesbut shows the creativityenabledbybeingable to speakmore thanone
language.
According to Kamwangamalu (1999),most of the early studies on CS focused on
Spanish-English CS in theUnited States. He refers to studies done by Espinosa in
1911onSpanish-EnglishCSasoneoftheinitialstudiestotakeparticularinterestin
CS.Espinosa(1911)investigatedSpanish-speakingcommunitiesinNewMexicoand
Colorado.Fromthedatacollected,Espinosanotedthatspeakers’useofbothSpanish
andEnglishduringconversationswasacommonoccurrence.Healsoindicatesthat
thelanguagemixtureswerenotonlyconfinedtothespeechoftheuneducatedbutit
happenedacrossthesocialstrata.AccordingtoBenson(2001),atatimewhenthe
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majority of researchers did not view CS as a subject worth studying, “Espinosa
identified CS as cutting across levels of education and socioeconomic classes”
(Benson,2001:30).Someof theexamplesofCSspeechgivenbyEspinosa include
utterancessuchas“Youbetsi”,“Hellocompadre”(Espinosa,1911:17).
Research into Spanish-English CS has carried on from the days of Espinosa as
demonstratedbyrecentjournalarticlesonthesubject(e.g.Moro,2015).Moronotes
thatCSisprevalent intheHispanicsociety intheUnitedStatesandthat it isoften
referred toas “Spanglish” (referring to themixtureof SpanishandEnglish).Moro
observesthatSpanish-EnglishCSisrifeinmediumslikemovies,music,ontelevision
andinliterature,tomentionafew.
AlthoughearlyresearchonCSfocusedonSpanishandEnglish,CSresearchhasgone
global.Studiescontinuetofocusonawiderangeoflanguagesindifferentcountries
throughouttheworld(Kamwangamalu,1999).AccordingtoMyers-Scotton(1997),
initial research in CS during the 1980s and 1990s concentrated on the reasons
behind CS (e.g. Gumperz, 1982; Auer, 1984). Attention shifted to the syntactic
structureofCSinthe1980s(e.g.Poplack,1980,1981,Sridhar&Sridhar1980).
InAfrica,andparticularlyinSouthernAfrica,alotoflanguagescomeintocontacton
adailybasis.ThishasledtoscholarsstudyingCSasalanguagecontactphenomenon
in different settings. An immense number of published books and journal articles
that focus on CS attest to the amount of attention that has been given to CS as a
subject (e.g. Finlayson & Slabbert, 1997; Myers-Scotton, 1993; Kamwangamalu,
2000;Mashiri,2002).
2.3.1 BlomandGumperz’scontributiontocode-switching
Myers-Scotton(1993a)considersBlomandGumperz’sarticlepublishedin1972to
beamajor turningpoint inCS research.Their study investigatedCSbetween two
Norwegiandialects.TheirresearchtriggeredalotofinterestinCSbetweendifferent
languages.ThisinteresthelpedestablishCSasoneofthemostresearchedlanguage
contactphenomena.
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Owing to his pioneering work, John Gumperz is considered to have been an
influentialscholarinthestudyofCSfromasocio-culturalperspective.Thatiswhy
Myers-ScottonbelievesthatGumperziscitedalotinCSresearch.AccordingtoNilep
(2006)Gumperz’sresearchonCSandcontextualizationhasinfluencedresearchin
sociolinguistics,linguisticanthropologyandthesociologyoflanguage.Forinstance,
Myers-Scotton(1993a) isofthenotionthatGumperz’sproposalthathelpedshape
MM is that, speakers use language in a variety of ways in order to convey their
intended message. They engage in conversation by using different strategies to
achievetheirgoal.Gumperz(1982)introducedtheconcept“discoursestrategies”to
refer to the way speakers choose to use language. He notes that when speakers
engageinaconversation,theyconsiderthesituationathandinordertodetermine
therightcommunicationstrategy.
In this sense, Gumperz was one of the first of a now growing group of
sociolinguists who view linguistic choices as dynamic events. That is,
speakers are no longer seen as influenced by situational factors inmaking
theirspeechchoices(Myers-Scotton,1993a:57).
Because of this view, Myers-Scotton believes that Gumperz motivated other
researchers into considering CS as a skilled performance culminating in the
publication of articles on CS (e.g. Jacobson, 1978, 1986; Lance, 1970 as cited by
Myers-Scotton, 1993a). Gumperzwasmotivated by Dell Hymes in developing his
hypothesis whereby linguistic choices can be explainedwithin their sociocultural
framework.
Blom&Gumperz’s1972articleresultedinthefollowing:
• Therewasafloodofcoursesinlinguisticsdepartmentsleadingtoextensive
useof the textbook(TheGumperzandHymesreaderof1972).Thishelped
increaseresearchintoCS.
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• Blom & Gumperz advanced CS as skilled performance unlike other
researchers like Weinreich (1953) who had dismissed it as incompetent
speech.TheduoexaminedCSasasubjectworthytoberesearched.
• Their use of situational andmetaphorical switching to describeCSmarked
theintroductionofanall-encompassingapproachtothestudyofCS.Myers-
Scotton (1993a) notes that in spite of the contradictions in the way these
termswereused,theyhelpedotherresearcherstobetterunderstandCS.
2.3.2 CriticismofGumperz’sapproachtocode-switching
Myers-Scotton,(1993a).Myers-ScottonnotesthatsomescholarscriticisedGumperz
forsuggestingthatcodescanbeinterpretedsimilarlyinallconversationswhenhe
usedthe“wecodes”against“theycodes”.Criticsarguethatcodechoicescannotbe
uniformly interpreted. Pride (1979), as cited byMyers-Scotton (1993a) criticised
Gumperzforgivingconflictingdefinitionsofmetaphoricalandsituationalswitching
and for not examining similarities between the two types of CS. Another bone of
contentionisGumperz’slackofclarityonCSasacreativestrategy.Hedidnotmake
it clear whether individual behaviour depends on social norms (Myers-Scotton,
1993a).DespitethecriticismlevelledagainstGumperz,hehelpedtomotivateother
researchers to investigate CS. It does not therefore come as a surprise that some
researchers believe that Blom and Gumperz’s article in 1972 helped to positively
shapetheCSresearchlandscape.
2.4 Definitionofkeyconcepts
By looking at definitions given in literature, one can note that the key concepts
described below have varying definitions given by researchers. This is not
surprisingbecause,
aswithanyaspectoflanguagecontactphenomena,researchonCSisplagued
by thorny issues of terminological confusion. Not all researchers use the
sametermsinthesameway,nordotheyagreeontheterritorycoveredby
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terms such as CS, code-mixing, borrowing or code- alternation (Boztepe,
2005:4).
Garcia &Wei (2014) share the same views and state that linguistics is a subject
which has a lot of debates and disagreements about the conceptualization of
language. But regardless of the different interpretations, research is contributing
towardsabetterunderstandingoftheseconcepts.
2.4.1 Code-switchingandCode-mixing
AccordingtoWardhaugh,(1992)duetotheneutralityoftheterm“code”,itcanbe
used todenotea languageora languagevariety. “The term “code” canbeused to
refer to any kind of system that two ormore people employ for communication”
(Wardhaugh,1992:89).Whenthetermiscombinedwithswitching,itindicatesthat
thereisalternationbetweenthetwosystemsusedbypeopletocommunicate.
Despite the amount of research into CS, a universal definition of the term has
remained elusive leading tomuch debate and argument (Moro, 2015). Bullock &
Toribio (2009) note that the term CS constitutes a number of language contact
phenomenasothatmakesgivingastraightforwarddefinitionofCSdifficult.Bullock
& Toribio further state that coming up with a unified definition of CS has been
difficult due to the fact that researchers explore the subject from a variety of
perspectives. Even thoughwemay encounter different terms in literature, “these
terms, different from each other yet in many ways similar, represent a view of
languageasasocialresourcewithoutclearboundaries,whichplacesthespeakerat
theheartoftheinteraction”(Creese&Blackledge,2015:21).
2.4.2 Whycode-switchingisdifficulttocharacterize
Differences in opinion arise from defining the term “code-switching” and what
constitutes CS. Researchers adopt a definition that suits their research. Thus, in
literature,oneislikelytoencounteradefinitionforCSasitisusedinthecontextof
theresearch.Inthisstudy,CSisimpliedtoencompasscode-mixing.Thatiswhythe
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termsCSandcode-mixing(CM)aredefinedtogetherinthissection.Despitethelack
of consensus, one will also find that some researchers do agree on the same
definition or definitions. According to Bullock & Toribio (2009), defining CS is
problematicbecauseofthefollowingreasons:
(a) ThereareanumberoflinguisticitemsthatcanbegroupedunderCSmaking
an absolute definition elusive. Linguistic items such asmorphemes, single
words,phrasesandwholesentencescanbereferredtoasCS.
(b) The people who produce code-switched utterances may have achieved
varying levels of linguistic proficiency making their CS patterns to be
different. The differences in setting during conversations may lead to
contrastingoutcomes.
(c) CShappensbecauseofavarietyofreasonsincludingtofilllinguisticgaps,to
signifyone’sethnicity,toachieveacommunicativegoalandtoshowangeror
authority. Due to the varied nature of these reasons, giving a clear
characterizationofCSbecomesproblematic.
Myers-Scotton(1993a:4)definesCSas“theselectionbybilingualormultilingualsof
forms from an embedded language in utterances of amatrix language during the
same conversation”. She further notes that conversations that includeCS arewell
organisedandshowdiscourseharmonythesamewayassentencescontainingone
language.Althoughdifferent languages, vernacularsor stylesof a language canbe
involvedduringCS,thisstudyisfocusedonCSthathappensbetweenlanguages.
Some scholars distinguish between language alternations that occur within the
samesentence(intrasententialCS)andoutsidesentenceboundaries(intersentential
CS)(e.g.Myers-Scotton,1993a;Muysken,2000).Inthisstudy,intersententialCSand
intrasentential CS are discussed when determining the nature of CS in spoken
Shona.
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The term “CM” is also used by some researchers to refer to language alternation
withinsentences(e.g.Kamwangamalu,1989)Heassertsthattheswitchedelements
canrangefromsinglewordstowholesentences.Therefore,Kamwangamalu(2000:
92)distinguishesbetweenCSandCMnotingthat,“CSreferstolanguagealternation
acrosssentenceboundariesandCMrefersto languagealternationwithinsentence
boundaries”.Anotherdefinitiongivenisthat“CM”referstotheuseofmorethanone
language in smaller units of speech, while “CS” refers to the alternation of codes
usinglargerunitsofspeechsuchaswholeclauses(Heugh,2013).Sridhar&Sridhar
(1980)andAuer(1999)similarlydistinguishbetweenCSandCM.InthisstudyCS
willbeusedtorefertosituationswherebyspeakerschangebackandforthbetween
twoormorelinguisticvarietieswhileengagedinadialogue.Theterm“CS”willbe
usedtorefertobothCSandcode-mixing.Thus,thestudywillrefertoCSthatoccurs
within sentence boundaries as intrasentential CS and that which occurs outside
sentenceboundariesasintersententialCS.
2.4.3 Intrasententialcode-switching
“Intrasentential CS occurs within the same sentence, from single morpheme to
clauselevel”Myers-Scotton,1993a:4).Theswitcheditemcanbeonewordormore.
ThefollowingexamplesillustrateintrasententialCS.
Example1
Intheconversationbetweentwoboys,thereisCSbetweenSwahiliandEnglish.
Kalenjin:Kwetusisimtuhawezikuletajokeskamahizo.Fathersiomtuwakuchezea.
Kablayakw-endajob,a—na-makesureeverybodyisoutofbed.
“Atourhomenoonecandothesekindsof jokes.Fatherisnotamantoplaywith.
Beforehegoestowork,hemakessurethateverybodyisoutofbed.”
Kikuyu:Mimisikuhizini-kousedku-amkaveryearly iliniendeshule intime.Hata
wakatiwaholidaysminihuamkajustthesametime.
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“Thesedays I’musedtowakingupveryearlyso that Iget toschool in time.Even
duringholidaytimeIusuallygetup(at)justthesametime”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:
3)
Intheaboveconversation,thetwoboysengageinCSbetweenSwahiliandEnglish.
Theyarefromdifferentethnicities(KalenjinandKikuyu).
Example2
Wardhaugh&Fuller(2015),giveanexampleofsentencesmainlyfromonelanguage
(Spanish) but containing nouns and verbs from a different language (English) as
examplesofCSoccurringwithinsentences.Thecode-switchesareshowninitalics.
D:Mefaltanmikingymiqueen.
“Iammissingmykingandmyqueen.”
S:Esquekickó,maestra.
“Whathappenedisthathekickedmeteacher.”
(Wardhaugh&Fuller,2015:97)
Example3
Ngara(1982:97)usesthefollowingsentencestoillustrateShona-EnglishCS.
Iyendiyetroublecauser.
“Sheisthetroublecauser.”
Hwahwahunopindarightthrough.
“Thebeergetsrightthrough.”
Vanhuvachovaridevoidofsenseambuya.
“Thosepeoplearedevoidofsensegranny.”
In the above examples, CS occurswithin the same sentence. The English phrases
“troublecauser”,“rightthrough”and“devoidofsense”occurinsentencescontaining
Shona.
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Example4
Kamwangamalu(1989)usesthetermCMtodescribeincidentswherespeakersuse
morethanonelanguagewithinthesamesentenceduringaconversation.Frenchis
showninitalics.TheconversationisbetweentwoZaireanwomenfriends.
Ekomayoawaoyebisingaimobalinayoa-téléphon-akayodeuxfoisparjour,nasix
heures du matin, na minuit, après-minuit. Soka a-téléphoner yo, dzamati kisi ya
bangungiopomperndakomobindampobanabalalatiintangookozanga.
“Youtoldmeyourselfthatyourhusbandcallsyoutwiceperday,atsixa.m.andat
midnight.Butjustafterhismidnightcall,yousprayinsecticideinthehousesothat
thekidssleepdeeplyuntilthemomentyou’llbeback”(Kamwangamalu,1989:149).
2.4.4 Intersententialcode-switching
Intersentential CS occurs when switching occurs outside sentence boundaries
(Myers-Scotton, 1993a). Kamwangamalu (1989) prefers to use the term
“intersententialCS”torefertotheprocessofalternatinglanguagesoutsidesentence
boundaries only.He uses the termCM to refer to alternations that happen inside
sentencesasexplainedinthesectionabove.
Example1
Kamwangamalu(2000)givesanexampleofEnglish-SiswatiCSasfollows:
“Heistalkingabouttwoschoolsoutofhowmany?Kudlalelwanikojwavelengabatali
labangasebenti?”
“He is talking about two schools out of howmany?Why are unemployedparents
madefoolsof?”
The example given by Kamwangamalu shows CS occurring outside sentence
boundaries.Althoughhecalls thisCS, itwillbereferredtoas intersententialCS in
thisstudyinordertodistinguishitfromintrasententialCS.
Example2
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If we consider that “code-switching is the use of overt material (from single
morphemestoentiresentences)fromlanguageBinlanguageAdiscourse”(Backus
&Dorleijn,2009:76),thefollowingexamplefitsthisdefinition.CSbetweenSwahili
andEnglishisillustratedbelow.
Kikuyu:Hayamamboyamvuatuwachetu.Sisihatunauwezo.Wecandonothing.
“Let’s just leave these matters of the rain. We dont have any power. We can do
nothing”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:4-5).
In the above case, language B (English) is used in the discourse of language A
(Swahili).Sothesentence;wecandonothingisanexampleofintersententialCS.
2.4.5 Othertermsproposedforcode-switching
According toMoro(2015), since there isnoagreedupondefinitionofCS, thishas
resultedinscholarsproposingvaryingtermsthattheyusetoexplainthislinguistic
behaviour.SomeofthetermsusedtorefertoCSinclude;“code-mixing”,“language
switching”,“codeshifting”,“languagealternation”,“languagemixture”amongothers
(Benson, 2001). Other terms that some researchers have adopted recently are
multilingual discourse and translanguaging. The terms will be discussed in the
followingsubsections.
2.4.6 Multilingualdiscourse
According to Wardhaugh & Fuller (2015) researchers have recently adopted the
termmultilingualdiscourseinsteadofCS.ThishasledtoCSbeingusedlessoftenin
research studies. “Multilingual discourse” is employed to encompass various
linguisticpatterns.
In most multilingual settings, there are no strict or explicit guidelines for
whatlanguagetospeak.Peoplemustselectaparticularcodewheneverthey
choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from that code to
another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances
(Wardhaugh&Fuller2015:96).
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Wardhaugh&Fullergivean illustrationofEnglish-Germanmultilingualdiscourse.
TwogirlschoosetousebothEnglishandGermanduringtheconversation.
I:Iii,youknabberonyourfinger.
“Ick,youchewyourfinger(nail).
K:No,Idon’t,thisoneisbrokeoff.
I:Ekelig.
“Gross”(Wardhaugh&Fuller,2015:96).
2.4.7 Translanguaging
With the dawn of a new century, linguists started looking at how speakers use
language. Some scholars haveproposed the term “translanguaging” to explain the
act of using more than one language. The term “translanguaging” was coined by
Garcia(2009).
Translanguaging is the act performed by bilinguals of accessing different
linguistic features or variousmodes ofwhat are described as autonomous
languages in order to maximise communicative potential (Garcia, 2009:
140).
According to Garcia, although translanguaging includes CS, it encompasses other
thingsaswell.Shenotesthatitisawayoflookingatbilingualismnotbycentering
on the languages but by observing bilinguals as they communicate so as to get a
betterunderstandingof them.Researchersbelieve that languagesare intertwined.
Thereforeanindividualdoesnothaveindependentsystemsforeverylanguagethat
heorsheacquires(Heugh,2013). Thesimilarview issharedCanagarajah(2013)
whoadvocatesagainsttreatinglanguagesasseparateentitiesandnotesthatwhen
languagescomeintocontact,theyinfluenceeachother.
According to Heugh, translanguaging encompasses CM and CS and targets the
techniques employed by people when they alternate between languages during
conversations. “The significant difference is that the new concept, in this case,
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focusesmainlyon theprocess and activity and situation (the “how” and “where”)
rather than on the “what” and “how” of CS and code-mixing language practices”
(Heugh,2013:360).
Creese & Blackledge (2015: 30) give the following example of a conversation
betweenstudentsandateacherinvolvingPunjabiandEnglish.
Shaan:SaumvaarmairTVdekhiya.
“OnMondayIseeTV”.
Kirpal:[toShaan:]dekhiyasi?
“DidyoueatonMonday?”
Simran:Yeah,youhadtohaveroti(chapatti).
Kirpal:[laughs:]Mairrotidaalnaalkhaadisi.
“Iatechapattiwithlentils”.
Creese&BlackledgeexplainthattheuseofPunjabiandEnglishintheconversation
assistsstudentstoderivemeaningfrombothlanguages.Thisshowsthatlanguages
have integrated systems. Translanguaging seeks to explain how speakers use
differentlanguagestomakesenseofwhattheyhearandtoconveymeaning.Thus,
translanguaging seeks to explain multilingual conversations starting from the
speaker.
Translanguaging does not view the languages of bilinguals as separate
linguistic systems. The term stresses the flexible and meaningful actions
throughwhichbilingualsselectfeaturesintheirlinguisticrepertoireinorder
tocommunicateappropriately(Velasco&Garcia,2014:7).
In translanguaging, languagesare interdependentoneachotherand they forman
integratedsystem.
Translanguagingisviewedasameansofdiscussingwaysinwhichpeoplewhouse
morethanonelanguagecommunicate.Thisviewdeviatesfromearliersuggestions
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by researchers such as Bloomfield (1927) and Weinreich (1963) who regarded
bilingualstohaveseparatesystemsforeverylanguagethattheyacquire.
Song (2015) explains that, lately, the term “translanguaging” has been used to
account for thedeliberate and strategicuseof two languages inorder to enhance
understandingofbothlanguages.
2.4.8 Borrowing/Lexicalborrowing
Borrowingorlexicalborrowingis,
theintroductionofsinglewordsorshort,frozen,idiomaticphrasesfromone
variety into another. The items in question are incorporated into the
grammatical systemof theborrowing language.Theyare treatedaspartof
the lexicon, take on its morphological characteristics and enter into its
syntacticstructures(Gumperz,1982:66).
ThisviewissupportedbyBullock&Toribio(2009)whoclaimthatthemorphology
and phonology of the borrowed word is altered to suit that of the borrowing
language. They illustrate their viewpoint using the Japanese word basubaru that
wasborrowedfromEnglish“baseball”.
Backus & Dorleijn (2009: 77) define lexical borrowing as “the process whereby
words from a lending language become entrenched as conventionalwords in the
receivinglexicon.”TheygiveexamplesofDutchTurkishwordsuitgaan“togoout”,
opleiding “school”, afstuderen “to graduate”, and Hemelvaart “Ascension Day as
words that were originally Dutch but have been frequently used and are now
establishedinDutchTurkishlanguage.
Kamwangamalu (1989) believes that borrowing occurs when words, clauses or
sentencesare loaned fromone language toanother for several reasons, like to fill
lexicalgaps.
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Although there is no clearcut distinction between borrowing and CS, some
researchers seem to agree that the borrowed item’s morphology, phonology and
syntactical structure sometimes changes to that of the borrowing language
(Gumperz,1982;Kamwangamalu2000).
Taking the preceding definition into consideration, the list below provided by
Kamwangamalu(1999:260)showsexamplesofborrowingfromEnglishtosiSwati.
SiswatiEnglish
ibholaball
lisakasack
lisethishirt
sikilwaschool
irabharubber
ThereisnoconsensusregardingwhatconstitutesasthedifferencebetweenCSand
borrowing.Asmentionedpreviously, the study of language contact phenomena is
fraught with controversy (Myers-Scotton, 1997). The two language contact
phenomenaareintroducedintoalanguagesoastohelpspeakersarticulateduring
communication.AccordingtoMoro(2015),oneoftheareaswherethereisnoclear
cut distinction is between lexical borrowing and CS. There are researchers like
Poplack (1980) and Myers-Scotton (1993a, 1997) whose opinion is that CS and
borrowingaredistinct.Kamwangamalu(1989)notesthatincontrasttoCMandCS,
borrowedwordsareusedtofilllexicalgaps,forexampleCilubalanguage’smbekeci
“bucket”, mbulanketa “blanket”, and the kiSwahili dereva “driver”. It seems as
thoughresearcherssharethesamesentimentsthatCSandborrowingaremotivated
bytheneedforlinguisticexpressionandthatinbothinstances,thereisinsertionof
itemsfromonelanguageintoanother.Problemsarisewhenitcomestoclassifying
linguisticitemsaseitherCSorborrowing.
CS occurs when a speaker has competence in at least two languages while
borrowingcanhappenintheoraldiscourseofbilingualsandmonolinguals(Myers-
Scotton, 1997; Kamwangamalu, 1999). “Code-switching, by contrast, relies on the
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meaningful juxtaposition of what speakers must consciously or subconsciously
processasstringsformedaccordingtotheinternalrulesoftwodistinctgrammatical
systems” (Gumperz, 1982: 66). Sridhar & Sridhar (1980) distinguished code-
switchingandborrowingasfollows:
(a) Theswitcheditemsarenotusedtocoverthegapsinthelexiconofthematrix
languageincode-switching.
(b) The phonology andmorphology of the switched items does not change in
code-switchingunlikeinborrowing.
Myers-Scottondisagreeswiththedistinctionmadeabove.Herviewisthatthereis
noclearcutdifferencebetweenthetwoterms.Furthermore,shenotesthat,
Trying to resolve this problemon a structural basis, considering degree of
assimilation, yields no useful results. First, assimilation is a gradient, not a
categoricalconceptandcanprovideusonlywithacontinuumasametricfor
evaluation(Myers-Scotton,1998,159).
In some instances, the borrowed items become part of the vocabulary of the
borrowing language and speakers do not realise that the linguistic item is not an
original part of their language’s lexicon. Heugh (2013) states that “butter” and
“physics”areEnglishwords thatwereborrowed fromLatinwords “butyrum”and
“physica”respectively.TheyhavebecomepartofEnglishlexiconoverthecenturies.
Ngara (1982: 74-76) uses the term “adoptives” to describe borrowed words. He
givesthefollowingexamplesofadoptivewordswhosemorphology,phonologyand
syntaxchangedtosuittheborrowinglanguage.
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Shona English
chikoro school
dhokotera doctor
bhangi bank
sendi cent
keke cake
chichi church
shuga sugar
ticha teacherTable2-1Borrowedwords(Source:Ngara,1982:74-76)This view is supported by Boztepe (2005) when he claims that there are more
similarities than differences between CS and borrowing. Therefore, he sees no
reasonforcontrastingthetwo.Shonahasitsownfairshareofborrowedwordsas
statedearlier.Inthisstudy,carewillbetakentoidentifytheborrowedwordsinthe
corpusinordernottoconfusethemwithcode-switchedwords.Thiswillbedoneby
listeningcarefullytotherecordedconversations.
2.4.9 Nonceborrowing
Innonceborrowing,theborroweditems’morphology,phonologyandsyntaxdonot
change (Kamwangamalu, 1999). Nonce borrowings are defined as “single lexical
itemsorboundmorphemeswhicharesyntacticallyandmorphologicallyintegrated
into thebase language.Butwhichmayormaynotshowphonological integration”
(Boztepe, 2005: 6). English time expressions and numbers are good examples of
nonceborrowinginShonalanguage.
According to Poplack et al (1988) as cited by Bullock & Toribio (2009), nonce
borrowings can be found in bilingual utterancesmaking it difficult to distinguish
them fromCS. Kamwangamalu (2000) is of the notion that differentiating CS and
nonceborrowingcanbebasedonthelevelofassimilation.Hefurthersuggeststhat
ifalinguisticitemisusedalotinthediscourseofanotherlanguage,itmaybecome
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integratedintothatlanguageresultinginitbeingusedevenbynon-bilinguals.This
resultsintheitembeingreferredtoasnonceborrowing.Incontrast,ifthelinguistic
itemisnotsociallyintegratedintoalanguage,itisCS.
Thefollowingpassagecontainsnonceborrowingswhichareshowninboldfaceand
CSwhichisshowninitalics.
Teacher: Manje zvakafanana nekuti kana uri kuita grade one manje saka vana
vazhinji vechisikana ku-primaryvanogona sitereki. Vanokasika ku-absorbzvunhu.
Butastimegoeson,vavakuendaku-grade five,six,seven,formonevanononoka
kuitacatch-upmu-ma-lessons.Butoncetheycatchuptheygoahead.
“Nowforexample,itisthesamewhenyouareingradeonenowsothatmanyofthe
girls (understand)muchbetter.Theyhurry toabsorb things.Butas timegoeson,
children go to grade five, six, seven, and form one boys are late to catch upwith
lessons.Butoncetheycatchuptheygoahead”(Myers-Scotton1993a:123-124).
Moreover,Myers-Scotton contends that there are incidenceswhere the borrowed
itemsdonot assimilate into theborrowing language. She gives an example of the
word “town”/“city centre” which has not assimilated into different Kenyan
languagesspokeninNairobi.
2.5 Bilingualismasaconditionforcode-switching
InorderforCStooccur,apersonshouldbeabletospeakmorethanonelanguage.
Themostsignificantfeatureofcode-switchingisthataspeakerneedstobe
fairly proficient in two languages (in otherwords, needs to have bilingual
competence)inordertopracticecode-switching.Aspeakerneedstobeable
to produce a chunk of one language and then switch over and produce
another chunk in the alternative language. CS therefore requires bilingual
competence(Heugh2013:348).
Bilingualism is oneof the conditions forCS to occur.Myers-Scotton (1997), notes
that speakers should be capable of constructing meaningful sentences in the
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languagesinvolvedinCS.Therefore,CSisrestrictedtobilinguals(Bullock&Toribio,
2009).Thespeakers’linguisticproficiencylevelscanvary.AlthoughCSisperceived
by laypersons as an indication of poor linguistic skills, researchers regard it as
evidence of one’s bilingual proficiency. In the following subsection, I will discuss
bilingualismasaconditionforCSindetail.
2.5.1 Bilingualism
Bilingualism “was long regardedas theequalmasteryof two languages” (Mackey,
2000:26).Weinreichprovidesasimilardefinition:
The ideal bilingual switches from one language to the other according to
appropriate changes in the speech situation (interlocuters, topic, etc.), but
not in an unchanged speech situation, and certainly not within a single
sentence(Weinreich,1963:73).
Bloomfield(1933)definesbilingualismasthemasteringoftwolanguagesatnative-
likelevels.Heisofthenotionthatifapersoncanconverseinasecondlanguageto
theextentthattheycannotbesetapartfromthenativespeakers,thentheyaretobe
called bilinguals. Bloomfield (1927) summed up his viewpoints by providing
linguisticprofilesofsomeoftheNativeAmericanspeakersthathestudied.Among
them was White-Thunder, aged 40, whom he described as not having achieved
favourable linguistic proficiency in both Menomini (his native language) and
English. On the other hand, Little-Jerome is one of the speakers that Bloomfield
regardedasaproperbilingualbecauseheconversedfluentlyinbothMenominiand
English. IfoneconsiderstheexplanationsgivenbyBloomfield, itseemsasthough
most of the speakers he studied had not completely mastered even their native
language. Bloomfield seems to be prescribing the acceptable standard for his
speakersinsteadofdescribinghowspeechwasused.
Haugen(1953)ascitedbyButler(2013)doesnotconsiderabilingualtobeequally
proficient in two languages. Instead, he regards a bilingual as being able to utter
fully formedandcoherent sentences ina second language.ButButler finds issues
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withHaugen’sdefinitionnotingthatindividuallevelsofsecondlanguageacquisition
vary significantlymaking it difficult tomeasure proficiency levels. Butler advised
againstclassifyingabilingualassomeonewhohasachievednative-likecommandof
a second language since thiswill excludemostpeople.Another reasonhegives is
thatithardtooperationalizenative-likecommand.
Bullock & Toribio (2009) are of the opinion that bilinguals who would have
masteredasecondlanguagetothesamelevelasfirstlanguagespeakersarescarce.
The majority of bilinguals have varying linguistic proficiencies in the second
language.AccordingtoNgara(1982),unlikethefirstlanguagewhichislearnedata
young age, learning a second language can be affected by a number of factors
includingage,motivationandsetting.Bullock&Toribiomakesimilarcomments.
Sridhar & Sridhar (1980) underscore that Weinreich’s (1963) definition of a
bilingual somehow influenced the approaches taken in linguistic research,
particularly in psychology, two decades later. According to Sridhar & Sridhar,
following on Weinreich’s definition of a bilingual, psychologists concentrated on
how bilinguals could manage to keep languages apart. This resulted in CS being
disregarded as a field of study. Producing mixed speech or switching between
languagesduringthesameconversationbecamelinguisticimpairment.
Therehavebeengreat strides in researchonbilingualism.Someresearchershave
proposed that the definition should include a broad spectrum of individualswho
have achieved different levels of linguistic proficiency inmore than one language
(e.g.Butler,2013).Garcia&Wei (2014)definebilingualismasunderstandingand
speakingtwodifferentlanguages.Theyviewmultilingualismasunderstandingand
speakingmore than two languages. As this study is concernedwith bilingualism,
multilingualismwillnotbediscussedanyfurther.
According to Butler (2013), the complexity of bilingualism is evidenced by the
differentapproachesadoptedbyresearcherswhendescribingabilingual.Hefurther
advocates that bilingualism should be viewed as a multifaceted aspect. Linguists
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offer varying opinions ofwhat constitutes bilingualism. Some researchers believe
thatbilingualismhastobetreatedthesamewayas linguisticproficiencyofwhich
therearevarieddegrees (Butler2013). “Differentbilingualshavedistinctuses, as
wellasvariouslevelsofcompetenceforeachcode”(Hoffman,1991,p.24).
InthecaseofAfricawherethere isatowerofBabel intermsof languagesspoken
throughout the continent, bilingualism is prevalent (Myers-Scotton, 1993a).
Bilingualism is exacerbatedby globalization andmigration.Whenpeoplemove to
otherplaces, theymay learn another language.Ngara (1982) is of thenotion that
therearevariousreasonswhypeopleacquiremorethanonelanguage.Theyinclude
when children speak different languages from their parents, living close to a
differentlinguisticcommunityandschooling.
Lampert(1975)ascitedbyGarcia(2009)suggestedtheuseoftheterms“additive
bilingualism” and “subtractive bilingualism”. According to Lambert, additive
bilingualism results in a speaker being proficient in both his or her first and a
secondlanguage.However,withsubtractivebilingualismanindividualwillloseone
languageandgainanother.Resultantly,theindividualwillonlybeproficientinone
language. Lampert advocated for additive bilingualism noting that it is helpful
sociallyandcognitively.AccordingtoGarcia&Wei(2014:12)“Therearealsomore
extreme positions by some theoretical linguists, who, following Chomsky, believe
thataspeakerhasasetofmini-grammars for lexicaldomains, leadingtodifferent
representationsinthespeaker’smind”.
Butler (2013) notes that the current trend is that researchers utilize a
comprehensive definition of bilinguals to include people with different linguistic
abilities in two languages. In this research, bilinguals were considered to have
masteredEnglish atdifferent levels. Interviewingpotential participants inEnglish
enabled me to identify participants who could to speak English. From the
interviews,IchosethosewhowereabletoconverseinEnglishnotnecessarilywith
native-likeproficiency.Thisstancewasalso takenbyKamwangamalu(1989)who
suggeststhatthefluencylevelsofbilingualsmayvary.
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2.5.2 Classificationofbilingualsinthisstudy
This study used Hoffman’s 1991 classification of a bilingual when choosing
participants for the research. Most learners in Zimbabwe are exposed to English
when theystartgradeone.Theycontinue touse itat schoolandby the time they
finishformsix,theywouldhaveusedEnglishasalanguageoflearningandteaching
foratleast10years.Itisassumedinthisstudythatlearnerswouldhavereacheda
high levelofproficiency inEnglishasa second language in form fourso that they
canbeconsideredasbilinguals.
By conducting interviews in English and asking participants to do a cloze test, I
gainedabetterunderstandingof their levelofEnglishproficiency.Although these
arenotenoughtodeterminetheproficiencylevelsofbilingualspeakers,theyhelped
duringtheselectionprocess.ParticipantswhofailedtoconverseinEnglishandwho
didn’tgetatleast12outof14intheclozetestwerenotconsideredforthestudy.
2.6 Sometheoriesandhypothesesproposedtoexplaincode-switching
SincethisstudywillfocusontheMM,abriefdiscussionaboutsomeofthetheories
andhypothesesthathavebeendevelopedbyscholarsovertheyearsintheirefforts
toexplainCSwillsuffice.
Researchers,intheirquesttoexplainCS,applydifferenttheoriestodifferentCSdata
(VanDulm,2009).Resultantly,when these theories andhypotheses are testedon
different data, they may be supported or disputed. Despite all this, “the
identificationofvariousconstraints,thoughsometimescontroversial,hasinspireda
greatdealofworkinsyntax,morphologyandphonology”(Nilep,2006:2).
2.6.1 TheMatrixlanguageprinciple
TheMatrixlanguageapproach,ortheMatrixLanguagePrinciple(MLP)proposesthe
following:
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In CS there necessarily is one language, the matrix language, whose
morphosyntacticstructuredetermineswhatlinguisticelementsoftheother
language, the embedded language, can (and how they should) be
codeswitched(Kamwangamalu,1999:268).
According to Kamwangamalu, there is a matrix language and an embedded
languageinCSspeech.Thelanguagethatcontributesmoremorphemesinaspeech
utterance or in a speech sample is the matrix language. In other words, the
morphemesofthatlanguagewilldominateinthespeechsample.Takingthecurrent
studyintoconsideration,thematrixlanguageisShonaandtheembeddedlanguage
isEnglish.
2.6.2 Freemorphemeconstraint
One of the earliest contributions to linguistic aspects of CSwasmade by Poplack
(1980,1981).Thefreemorphemeconstraintproposesthat“aswitchmayoccurat
anypointofthediscourseatwhichit ispossibletomakeasurfaceconstituentcut
and still retain a freemorpheme” (Poplack 1981: 175).www.grammar.about.com
definesafreemorphemeas“awordorelementthatcanstandaloneasaword”.This
canbecontrastedwithaboundmorphemewhichcannotbeconsideredasaword
on its own. According to the free morpheme constraint “no switch is allowed
betweenaboundmorphemeofonelanguageandalexicalformofanotherlanguage
unlessthelatterhasbeenphonologicallyintegratedintothestructureoftheformer”
(Mashiri,2002:48).MashirigivesasentenceasanexamplemarkingwhereCSwill
bepermittedbythefreemorphemeconstraintwithaforwardslash(/).
Uya/pano/shamwari/yangu.
Comeheremyfriend.
Poplack (1981) suggests that full sentences canbe switchedoncondition that the
sentenceconsistsofatleastasinglemorphemeinEnglishandSpanish.Considering
thispremise, repetitions, conjoined sentences, interjectionsand full sentences can
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be switched. The following example was given by Poplack to show CS between
SpanishandEnglish,
“Ellacantaconcionesinsultandoaloshombres.That’swhyyouneverheardofher.”
[“Shesingssongsinsultingmen.That’swhyyouneverheardofher.”]
(Poplack,1981:176)
Thus,fullsentenceshavebeenswitchedintheaboveexample.
2.6.3 Equivalenceconstraint
Theequivalenceconstraintaugmentsthefreemorphemeconstraint.
Itstatesthatthecodeswilltendtobeswitchedatpointswherejuxtaposition
ofEnglishandSpanishelementsdoesnotviolatethesyntacticruleofeither
language,thatis,atpointswherethesurfacestructureofthelanguagesmap
ontoeachother(Poplack,1981:175).
From theaboveexplanation,CSdoesnotoccurat randompositions ina sentence
buttendstofollowapatternthatwillallowtheembeddedlanguagetomapontothe
matrixlanguage.PoplackgivesthefollowingexampleofSpanish-EnglishCS:
“Itoldhimthatpa’quelatrajeraligero”
[“Itoldhimthatsothathewouldbringitfast.”]
(Poplack,1981:175)
Myers-Scotton(1993b) isof theviewthatconsideringthe freemorphemeandthe
equivalenceconstraints,theequivalenceconstraintreceivedthebulkofattentionin
research so far. She points out that it is because the equivalence constraint was
brieflyandclearlyexplainedmakingiteasiertounderstand.
Despite all the attention, some scholars have questioned the validity of the
equivalenceconstraintinanumberofstudies.Forexample,Kamwangamalu(1989)
argues that the equivalence constraint is not adequate in some contexts like in
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Lingala and where an object pronoun can be used in place of a direct object as
showninthetwosentencesbelow.
Azako-embrasserJeanne/yepubliquement.
“HehugsJeanneinpublic”.
Azako-yambaJeanne/yenamisoyabato.”
“IembrasseJeanneenpublique”(Kamwangamalu,1989:166)
From the examples above, ye, a direct object can be substituted by an object
pronoun(Jeanne)inLingalalanguage.
Kamwangamalu(1999)observesthatacloserlookatthearticlesthatchallengethe
equivalenceconstraintshowsthatresearchersarguethatitisinsufficientandisnot
ascomprehensiveaspreviouslyasserted.Nonetheless,Poplackandhercolleagues
madegreatstridesintheircontributiontowardslayingthefoundationforresearch
intoCS.
2.6.4 TheMatrixLanguageFramework(MLF)
Myers-Scotton(1993b)developedtheMLFtoexplainthestructureofsentencesin
intrasententialCS.Inthemodel,thematrixlanguageisthedominantlanguageand
the embedded language plays a lesser role. Themodel also states that thematrix
languageistheonethatdictatesmorphemeorderandisthedominantlanguage.Let
us consider the following example taken from speech samples recorded for the
currentstudy(P7representsParticipant7).
P7:Thensomewherekunoukukunechiimbachakadai.Ichihachisichiimbaassuch.
“Thensomewherehereisahouselikethis.Thisisnotahouseassuch.”
The above sentences show that Shona is thematrix language because it provides
moremorphemesinthesentencesandalsodictatesthebasicmorphemestructure.
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2.6.5 ExampleofastudyofShona-Englishcode-switchingusingtheMLF
Mashiri(2002)studiedShona-EnglishCSinthespeechofundergraduatestudentsat
the University of Zimbabwe. He “explored how morphosyntactic structure
constrainsandintergratesEnglishlexicalitemsandphrasestoformShona-English
mixedconstructions”(Mashiri:245).Inthestudy,Mashirirecordedandtranscribed
60 conversations and analysed them within the MLF. He bases his study on the
MatrixLanguageFramework(MLF)modelproposedbyMyers-Scotton(1993b),also
called theMatrixLanguagePrinciple(MLP)byKamwangamalu(1989).Themodel
statesthatacode-mixedstructureof theembeddedlanguagemustconformtothe
morphologyandsyntaxofthematrixlanguageforittobeacceptable.Inthestudy,
Mashiri described and explained the characteristics of mixed codes in four
grammatical categoriesnamely,descriptiveadjectives,nouns, locatives, andverbs.
Fromthedataanalysis,hesuggestedthattheMLFdoesapplytoCSinShona.
MashiritranscribedspeechsamplesandusedthedatatodescribeCMandtoshow
thatShona-EnglishCMisgovernedbytheMLF.Healsousedthedatatoexplainthat
English phrases and lexical items are integrated into Shona utterances in a
particularpattern.
Findingsineachgrammaticalcategorystudied
Attributive and predicative adjectives- Mashiri gives examples from the data he
collectedtoshowthat theuseofEnglishattributiveadjectives isquitecommonin
Shona-EnglishCM.Data also showswidespreaduseof the auxiliary verbwith the
predicativeadjective.
Nouns- CM by students mostly involves nouns that take the subject markers of
Shona noun classes 5 and 10which are /-ri/and/i-/ (to be) as illustrated in the
followingexample;
Ndinodabiblerangu.
“Ilikemybible.”
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Locatives- In code-mixed utterances, locatives follow the Shona morphology rule
thatrequiresboundmorphemestobeattachedtonouns.
Verbs- According toMashiri, the study reveals that the inflection of English verb
stemsinShona-EnglishCMfollowsShonamorphologyandsyntax.
Data shows that for a Shona-English code-mixed structure to be acceptable, its
structuremust conform to themorpho-syntactic rules of Shona. One ofMashiri’s
observations is that, theEnglish spokenby students is of considerable lexical and
syntactic complexity and retains its syntax when it appears in mixed utterances.
According to Mashiri, the MLF is an ideal model for Shona-English CM and the
pattern in the data suggests that Shona-English CM is rule governed and code-
mixers,applytherulesthoughunconsciously.
2.7 TheMarkednessModel
SincethisstudywillbebasedontheMM,areviewofthemodelispresentedhere.In
this section, Iwill useMyers-Scotton’s (1993a) book [referred to as (M-S, 1993a)
throughout this section] as reference unlessmentioned otherwise.Myers Scotton
developed the MM to explain the socio-psychological motivations for CS. She
analysed specific transcribedexamplesof conversationsgathered fromKenyaand
Zimbabwe.
The theory behind the markedness model proposes that speakers have a
senseofmarkednessregardingavailablelinguisticcodesforanyinteraction,
but choose their codes based on the persona and/ or relationwith others
whichtheywishtohaveinplace(M-S,1993a:75).
ThemodelwasdevelopedsoastoprovideatheoreticalbaseonwhichCScouldbe
explained.“Usingtheconceptofmarkednessimpliesthatcodechoiceisviewedasa
system of oppositions. This follows from the fact that markedness is used in the
markednessmodelinagradientsense.Thatis,codechoicesfallalongacontinuum
asmoreorlessunmarked”(M-S,1993a:81)Themodelproposesthatspeakershave
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the inherentabilityto identifycodechoicesasmarkedorunmarked. Ifa linguistic
typeisunmarked,thismeansthatitistheanticipatedvarietyduringaconversation
dependingonwhatsocietyexpectsinagivensituation.Incontrast,markedchoices
areadeviationfromthenorm.Speakerschooselinguisticvarietiesbyweighingthe
effectsofusingsuchvarieties.
The main aim of her study was to explain the benefits of using more than one
language during a conversation. Subfields included in the MM to explain certain
phenomena are sociolinguistics, pragmatics, social anthropology and linguistic
anthropology.TakingacuefromJohnGumperz’sworkwhereheconsideredCSasa
discoursestrategy,Myers-ScottonattemptstopresenttheMMasauniversalmodel
ofCSshowingthatCSisacreativediscoursestrategy.
In developing theDataMM,Myers-Scotton gathered datamainly fromKenya and
Zimbabwe.Amajorviewpointof themodel is that there isanunmarkedchoice in
every speech utterance. This means that there is a code which is expected in a
specificsituation.
AccordingtotheMM,duringaconversation,speakersareawareofwhatisrequired
of them.Wardhaugh&Fuller (2015) assert that theMM states that, speakers are
aware of the acceptable linguistic codes during interactions. Myers-Scotton
considers CS to be valuable linguistic performance which enables speakers to
understand eachother. She alsonotes that not all speakers code-switch the same
way.Markednessisusedtorefertothetheoryandtodescribelinguisticstructures.
According to Boztepe (2005), the MM attempted to include a broad spectrum of
issues and viewpoints into research about CS. In her book,Myers-Scotton gave a
vividdescriptionofthewaybilingualspeakersuselanguagesattheirdisposal.
An important argument of themarkednessmodel is that code choices are
understood as indexing rights-and-obligations sets (RO sets) between
participantsinagiveninteractiontype.TheunmarkedROsetisderivedfrom
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whatever situational features are salient for the community for that
interactiontype(M-S,1993a:84).
Themodel is developed on the premise that speakers choose linguistic codes not
because of the societal conventions but because they think carefully about the
outcome. TheMM proposes that speakers’ communication intent is accomplished
when they use more than one language. Hence, Myers-Scotton treats CS as a
discoursestrategyfollowinginGumperz’s(1982)footsteps.
Two important concepts to the MM namely the negotiation principle and the
cooperativeprinciplewillbediscussedbelow.
2.7.1 Thenegotiationprinciple
The negotiation principle, modelled after Grice’s cooperative principle of 1975
which explains how people can interact effectively by being cooperative and
understandingtowardsoneanother,viewstheprocessofchoosingcodesduringa
conversationasidentitynegotiations.Thenegotiationprinciplestatesthat,“choose
theformofyourconversationcontributionsuchthatitindexesthesetofrightsand
obligationswhichyouwish tobe in forcebetween speaker andaddressee for the
currentexchange”(M-S,1993a:113).
Thecentralclaimofthenegotiatingprincipleisthatallutterancesmadebyspeakers
showhowcreativespeakersareduringaconversation.Inaddition,whenspeakers
engageinconversation,theyweightheimplicationsofusingeitheramarkedoran
unmarkedcode.Thedecisiontouseanyofthecodesisusuallydoneunknowingly.
ThefollowingexamplecontainsCS.SwahiliisthemainlanguageusedwithEnglish
giveninitalicsinthetranscription.Kikuyuisindicatedwhenused.
Policeman 1: And do you suppose policemen are gods? How else can we restrain
people from stealing except with punishment? Wewe si mtu wa kutuambia vile
tutafanyakazi-tunasheriayetu.
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“Anddo you suppose policemen are gods?Howelse canwe restrain people from
stealing except with punishment? You are not a person to tell us how to do our
work-wehavegotthelaw.”
Bystander2:Lakiniusiimbemaliyawananchiinthenameofthelaw.
“Butdon’tstealpeople’spropertyinthenameofthelaw.”
Young man: (handing his identity card to the policeman) Hiki ndicho kipande
changu.Sisiapanawatuwabaya.(TohissisterinKikuyu)Njeri!Ndumuiguithie.
“Thisismyidentitycard.Wearenotbadpeople.Njeri!Pleaseconvincehim.”
Policaman 2: Hatuwezi kujaa kama ninyi ni watu wabaya au wazuri ikiwa
hamtatuonyeshalicenceyahiyoplayer.
“We can’t knowwhether you are good or bad people if youwill not showus the
licenceofthisplayer.”
Policeman1:(somewhatwithsympathy)Nowwhydidyoucarrythatrecordplayer
in this way without a licence- and you know very well that it’s dangerous? Sisi
waaskarihatuwezikujaakamaninyiniwezi...
“Nowwhydidyoucarrythatrecordplayer inthiswaywithouta licence-andyou
know very well that it’s dangerous? We policemen cant know whether you are
thievesornot”(M-S,1993a:77).
Myers-ScottonnotesthatSwahiliistheexpectedlanguage(unmarkedchoice)inthe
above interaction, but there is a switch to Kikuyu and English during the
conversation. The alternations in language use shown in the example above are
accountedforintheMM.
2.7.2 Communicativecompetence
TheideaofcommunicativecompetencewasproposedbyHymesin1972.
Underlying this concept is the recognition that competent speakers of a
languagehavetacitknowledgeofmorethanjustgrammaticality,i.e.whatisa
well-formedsentenceintheirlanguageandwhatisnot.Inaddition,theyare
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able to judge the acceptability of a given well-formed sentence in a given
socialcontext(M-S-1993a:79).
Therefore, during a conversation, speakers will be able to distinguish acceptable
utterancesfromlessacceptableones.
AccordingtotheMM,theunmarkedchoiceistheanticipatedlinguisticchoiceduring
aconversationwhilstthemarkedchoiceistheonethatisleastexpected.Themodel
uses the terms “marked” and “unmarked” to assign to code choices. There is no
strictprotocoltodeterminewhichcodesaremarkedorunmarked.Theuniversality
comes in when speakers are able to recognise linguistic choices as marked or
unmarkedinrelationtorights-of-obligationsets.“Rightofobligationset(ROset)is
a theoretical construct for referring towhat participants can expect in any given
interactiontypeintheircommunity”(Myers-Scotton,1998:23).
Gumperz (1982) used the terms “we-code” and “they-code” to describe the two
differenttypesofswitching.Gumperznotesthatthedistinctionbetweenthetwois
thatoneisusedespeciallybymembersofagroupwhosharesomethingincommon
whilsttheotherisassociatedwithcommunicationbetweenthemajorityofspeakers
whodon’tbelong toagroup.Thisdescription influencedtheMMwhendescribing
thetypesofCS.
2.7.3 Predictionsaboutcode-switchingfromthemodel
• UnmarkedCSwillbethepopularchoiceamongspeakersbecauseithelpsto
maintainthestatusquo.
• If a linguistic community is conservative, it will make unmarked choices
duringconversations.
• Statuscontributestothemakingofmarkedchoices.Membersofagroupthat
ismost likely tomove upwards socially and economicallywill likelymake
markedchoices.
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• Predicting the choice for rich and educated members of a community is
difficult.
• Thewelltodomembersofacommunitywillmostlikelyusemarkedchoices.
• Finally, a sixth prediction regarding interaction type is that more CS will
occur in the least conventionalizedexchanges.That is,uncertain situations,
whereconflictingnormsseemtoapplyandtheirrelativehierachyisunclear,
areprimesitesforCS”(M-S,1993a:154)
Myers-Scottonproposedthefollowingmaximsforthemodelandtheresultingtypes
ofCS.
2.8 Maximsproposedbythemarkednessmodel
Inthissection,IwilldiscusseachmaximproposedbytheMMandthetypeofCSthat
results fromthemaxim.“Markedness istheconceptwhichunifiesall fourtypesof
switching. It figures in speakers’ choices to switch and in the implicatures these
choicesprovidefortheaddressee”(M-S,1993a:149).
2.8.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim
The unmarked-choice reads: “Make your code choice the unmarked index of the
unmarkedROset in talkexchangeswhen theywish toestablishoraffirm thatRO
set” (M-S, 1993a: 114). In other words, the maxim directs speakers to use the
unmarkedchoicetoassertwhat isexpectedinthattypeofexchange.Anumberof
conditionshavetobefulfilledliketheneedforspeakerstobebilingualandthatthe
conversationshouldreflectthatthe interlocuters’knowledgeof linguisticvarieties
issufficientenough.TwotypesofCScanoccur.Theseare,sequentialunmarkedCS
unmarked CS. Myers-Scotton mentions that these two CS types take place under
differentsituationsbuttheirmotivationsaresimilar.
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2.8.1.1 Sequentialunmarkedcode-switching
SequentialunmarkedCSisinitiatedbyachangeinexternalfactors. “Whenoneor
more of the situational factors change within the course of a conversation, the
unmarkedROsetmaychange(M-S,1993a:114).Myers-Scottonstressesthateven
though the RO set changes, the speaker is the one who can elect to react to the
change.ThemodelpredictsthatspeakerswillwelcomethenewunmarkedROset.
AnexampleisgivenbelowtoillustratesequentialunmarkedCS.Swahiliisgivenin
italics.
[1]Subordinate:(enteringJohnM’sofficeandspeakingtoEdwardMjustafterJohn
Mhassteppedoutforaminute)Wherehasthisguygoneto?
[2]Edward:He’sjustgoneout.Hewillsoonbeback.
[3] John: (to subordinate when he returns)Why did you change the plan of our
standattheshowground?Whorecommendedthechange?...
[4]Subordinate:(lookingguilty)Nobodytoldme.
[5]John:(toEdwardwhensubordinatehasleft:I’vetoldthismanhowtobuildour
stand,buthewentanddidadifferentthing.Ni mtumjeurisana.(Heisastubborn
person.)
[6]John:(callingtoreceptionist)Leteamgenisodaanywe.
“Bringtheguestsodasothathemaydrink”(M-S,1993a:116).
In the conversation above, Swahili andEnglish are used. There is a shift between
Swahili and English as the addressee changes. John uses different languages to
address different people in the conversation.Whenhewants to speak to a junior
employee and to a salesman, he uses English. However, when conversing with a
receptionist, he uses Swahili. Therefore, there is sequential unmarked CS as the
addressee changes. Myers-Scotton states that the structure of sequential CS is
usuallyinter-sententialalternationasin5and6.
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2.8.1.2 Unmarkedcode-switchingandwhereitislikelytooccur
According to the MM, unmarked CS is the popular type of CS for bilinguals or
multilinguals. “Speaking two languages in the same conversation is also away of
following the unmarked choice maxim for speakers in many bi/ multilingual
communities in certain types of interactions” (M-S, 1993a: 117). This is true in
urbanAfricansettingswherespeakersusuallyswitchbetweenanindigenousanda
foreign language. According to the MM, in unmarked CS, the alternation may be
intrasentential,withinawordorwithinthesamesentence.
UnmarkedCSdiffersfromtheotherthreetypesinthathereitistheoverall
pattern of CSwhich provides the socialmessage, not any single individual
switch. With other CS types, it is the point of the switch itself (and what
follows)whichhassocialimpact(M-S,1993a:149).
TheexamplegivenbelowshowsunmarkedCS:
Shona 1: Unoziva chiri kunetsa. Time iya long back, zvakange zvisinganetsi
waingoendawonotaurakunabursarwaonakutindatoravanhuvakaitasovakaitaso
waona kana uchida vanhu ve-temporary unotangawa-apply ku-Ministryof labour
wopihwavanhuvachowaona.
“Youknowtheproblem.A long timeback, itwaseasybecauseyou justgot to the
bursarandtoldhimthat“Itakeemployedpeoplesoandso”,yousawifyouwanted
people for temporary, first of all you had to apply to theMinistry of Labour, you
weregivenyourpeople.(M-S,1993a:118)
2.8.1.3 Situationswhereunmarkedcode-switchingoccurs
Myers-ScottonhighlightsthefollowingconditionsthatenableunmarkedCStooccur.
1. Thespeakersmustbeofthesamestatusandspeaksimilarlanguages.Thisis
because this kind of switching does not occur where there are socio-
economicdifferencesbetweenspeakersorwhenspeakersdon’tknoweach
other. In this type of CS, the conversation should symbolize that speakers
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belongtothesamesocio-economicclass.Normally,theconversationswillbe
informalones.
2. LinguisticcompetenceisnottheonlyconditionthatenablesunmarkedCSto
takeplace.Whatismoreimportantisthatspeakershaveanoptiontochoose
thelanguagethattheyconsidertobesuitablefortheinteraction.
3. Althoughspeakersshouldbeabletocommunicateintwoormorelanguages,
their proficiency levels may not be similar. Speakers may have varying
degrees of linguistic proficiency. Myers-Scotton notes that measuring
linguistic proficiency is subject to debate and literature does not provide
clear distinctions on what constitutes proficiency in a language. Different
researchers use varying degrees of linguistic proficiency in their
descriptions.
4. ThedevelopingcountriesareidealforCSduetothemanylanguagesspoken
in thesecountries.Therearedifferentethnicities foundespecially inAfrica.
Usually, the former colonial language is the lingua franca and is used in
business and education. Myers-Scotton notes that the foreign language is
seenasavehicleofupwardmobility.Thiscreatesasituationwhereboththe
indigenous language and the foreign language are used. Unmarked CS is
likely to occur in this situation. According toM-S (1993a), unmarkedCS is
popularamongSpanishspeakersresidinginUSA.
2.8.2 Marked-choicemaxim
Accordingtothemarked-choicemaxim,speakerscan“makeamarkedcodechoice
whichisnottheunmarkedindexoftheunmarkedROsetinaninteractionwhenyou
wishtoestablishanewROsetasunmarkedforthecurrentexchange”(M-S,1993a:
131).Therefore,itallowsspeakerstodisregardthestandardsocietalexpectations.
ThemodelclaimsthatmarkedCScanoccur formore thanonereason.MarkedCS
resultsfromthemarked-choicemaxim.
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MarkedCSemanatesfromspeakerssettingasidetheexpectedcodeandchoosingto
negotiateanewROset.Themodelstatesthatspeakersknowinglyorunknowingly
assessthebenefitsofusingthemarkedchoiceinsteadoftheunmarkedchoice.
Amarkedchoicederives itsmeaning fromtwosources: first, since it isnot
the unmarked choice, it is a negotiation against the unmarkedRO set, and
second,as“somethingelse”,themarkedchoiceisacallforanotherROsetin
its place, that for which the speaker’s choice is the unmarked index (M-S,
1993a:131).
ThefollowingconversationataruralbarinKenyashowsmarkedCS.Thedialogue
involves Lwidakho dialect, Swahili and English languages. Instances of CS from
LwidakhotoSwahiliandEnglishareshowninitalics.
Farmer:(Lwidakho)Khuinzikhulimenyihanuinzala-.
“AsIlivehere,Ihavehunger-.”
Salariedworker:(Interrupting)(Swahili)Njaagami?
“Whatkindofhunger?”
Farmer:Yenyakhunzirilahanu-.
“Itwantstokillmehere-”
Salariedworker:(interruptingagainbutwithmoreforce)(Swahili)Njaagani?
“Whatkindofhunger?”
Farmer:Inzalayamapesakambuli.
“Hungerformoney.Idonthaveany.”
Salariedworker:(English)Youhavegotaland.
(Scotton,1983:128ascitedbyM-S,1993a:82).
Myers-ScottonexplainsthatduetoSwahiliandEnglishbeingassociatedwithpower,
thesalariedworkerusesthemasasignhisstatus.Thesalariedworkerisregarded
tohaveahigherstatusbythefarmer.HeusesSwahiliandEnglishtoshowhisstatus.
Myers-Scotton further notes that Swahili and English are the marked choices
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because theyallowspeakers tonegotiatenewROsetsduring theconversation. In
theaboveconversation,thenewROsetsareSwahiliandEnglish.
Instanceswheremarkedcode-switchingmayoccur
(a)Asanexclusionstrategy
According to Myers-Scotton, given the multi-ethnic nature of most countries in
Africa, some people may turn to those who speak a similar language to them in
ordertoidentifywiththeirethnicgroupsespeciallyintownsandcitieswherethere
arealotoflanguages.
(b)Toshowangerorauthority
ThemodelproposesthatmarkedCS isusedtodemonstrateone’sauthority,anger
or irritation. Marked CS is illustrated in the following conversation. Swahili and
Englishareused.
Conductor:Umelipinauliyabasi?
“Haveyoupaidthebusfare?
Youngman:(noresponse)
Conductor:Unaendawapi?
“Whereareyougoing?”
Youngman:NafikaJerusalem.
Conductor:Youmustalwayssayclearlyandloudlywhereyouaregoingtoalight.Ok?
(MyersScotton,1990ascitedbyM-S,1993a:134).
In the example above, the conductor asserts his authority by shifting to English
duringtheconversation.
Myers-Scotton(1988)ascitedbyM-S(1993a:135)givesanexampleofadialogue
betweentwostudents.ThestudentsusetheNdaudialectofShonabutwhenoneof
thestudentskeepsaskingformoney,theotherswitchestoEnglishasfollows:
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Student:Isaid,andidi.Idon’twant.
(c)Forcreativepurposes
TheMMstatesthatmarkedCSissometimesusedwhenretellinganevent.Thiswill
allowa speaker tobe creativeasheor shemakesmarked choices.Myers-Scotton
illustrates thiswithaKisiimangivinganaccountofhisconfrontationwithpolice.
ThemanrecountsthestoryinSwahiliandthenwhenhetalksaboutwhatthepolice
said,heswitchestoEnglishasindicatedbelow:
Juzinilikuwanatokahukochini,kufikahapa,sijuikwajunctionwaMatumaboRoad,
kufikahaponikapatammoja yukonyumanamwengineyukombele.Basinikaona
watugani.Miminatembeutunatokakwadukanikasikia.“We,kuja.”
“TheotherdayIwascomingdowntherewhenIreachedthe junctinofMatumabo
Road.ArrivingthereIfoundonepersonbehindmeandanotherinfront.Well,Isaw
agroupofpeople,Ididn’tknowwhatsortofpeople.Ijustwentalong(and)coming
fromtheshopIheard,“Youcome.”
(Thestoryends)Akaambiwa,Hapana.Let’sgo.Twende.”
“Andhewastold,“No.Let’sgo.Let’sgo(M-S,1993a:139-140).
AccordingtoMyers-Scotton,theuseofEnglishcreatesadramaticeffectinthestory.
Theauthorityof thepolice is shownby theiruseofEnglish.TheEnglish sentence
“let’sgo”isrepeatedinSwahilibythepolice.
2.8.3 Exploratorychoicemaxim
Theexploratorychoicemaximreads:“Whenanunmarkedchoiceisnotclear,useCS
tomakealternateexploratorychoicesascandidatesfromanunmarkedchoiceand
therebyasanindexofanROsetwhichyoufavour”(M-S,1993a:142).Thismaxim
producesexploratoryCSinwhichspeakersareinadilemmaonwhichcodechoice
willhelpattaintheirsocialobjectives.Shenotesthatexploratorycode-switchingis
theleastusedtypebecausetheunmarkedchoiceisusuallyapparent.
AnexampleofexploratoryCSisgivenbelow.
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K1:HowareyouMrKaranja?
K2:Fine,niguka.
“Fine,Ihavejustarrived.
K1:Well,pleaselet’stakeonebottle,ga(Swahili)kuondoadustwathought.
“Well,pleaselet’stakeonebottle,alittletoremovethedustfromourthoughts.”
K2:(Swahili)Sawa.
“Fine”.
K1:(tobarwaiter)(Swahili).Letescotchontherockshapa.
“Bringscotchontherockshere.”
Waiter:(Swahili).Nini?
“What?”
K1:Hearhim!Tuskerbeerwarm.
“Listentohim.SomewarmTuskerbeer.”
(M-S,1993a:143)
Inthedialogueabove,theformerclassmates,oneabusinessman(K1)andtheother
a university student (K2) use Kikuyu, Swahili and English. M-S suggests that the
businessman is not sure what language to use when conversing with his former
classmate.ThebusinessmanexploreshischoicesbyusingEnglishwhichisamarked
choiceintheruralsettingandthenSwahiliandKikuyu.Althoughthebusinessman
greets his classmate in English, he responds in Kikuyu and Swahili. The use of
Englishcouldsuggestthatthebusinessmanwantstoimpresshisformerclassmate
sincethereisadifferenceinstatusbetweenthetwo.
2.8.4 Thedeferencemaxim
Ifthesituationrequiresonetoshowrespect,thedeferencemaximguidesspeakers
to shift to a code that shows respect. Speakers change to a code which allows
interlocutorstoshowrespect.Thus,itisusedwhereacodeisdeemedappropriate
undercertaincircumstances.“Whiledeference(meaningrespect) isoftenindicated
byusinghonorifictitlesorindirectrequests,amajorformofshowingdeferenceisto
accommodate oneself to an addressee’s code” (M-S, 1993a: 148). In the following
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conversation, although his father addresses him in English, the 12 year old boy
respondsinLuolanguageasasignofrespect.M-SnotesthatbyusingLuo,theboyis
acceptingthesuperiorityofhisfather.
Father:Wherehaveyoubeen?
Son:Onyangonendeadluaora,baba.
“I’vebeentotheriver,father.”
(Source:M-S,1993a:148)
2.8.5 Thevirtuositymaxim
The virtuositymaxim guides speakers to use any code for the accommodation of
everybodyinvolvedintheconversation.AccordingtotheMM,thevirtuositymaxim
isusedasanaccommodationstrategyintheAfricansettingswhereeducatedpeople
usetheirfirst languagewhentheyconversewithlesseducatedfamilymembersor
colleagues.
Thedeferenceandvirtuositymaximsaredepictedassupplementingtheunmarked-
choicemaximandthetypesofCSresultingfromthemarerare.
2.9 HowtheMarkednessModelhasbeenappliedtoCSdata
Myers-ScottonanalyseddatathatwasgatheredinZimbabweandKenyatoexplain
andtoprovideevidenceofthemodel’sapplicationinthespeechsamplescollected.
OneofherconclusionswasthatalotofeducatedZimbabweansresidentinHarare
switched between Shona and English. Similarly, Finalyson & Slabbert (1997)
investigatedwhethertheMMappliestocode-switchingutterancesinSouthAfrican
townships.Oneof theirobservationswas that speakers change linguistic codes in
ordertoaccommodateothersandasasignofrespect.ThisstudywillusetheMMas
abasis foranalysingthecorpusbecausethemodeluseddata fromZimbabweand
Kenya to explain the motivations for CS. Therefore, the model is suited for data
analysis.
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By proposing the MM, Myers-Scotton envisioned that the model can be used to
explain CS universally. But she cautioned that the examples are in no way
generalizable.TheprinciplesgoverningtheMMaretheonesthatcanbeappliedto
CSdataforanalysis. Inthesamevein,thisstudywillusetheMMtodeterminethe
natureandoccurenceofCSinShona-Englishspeech.
2.10 CriticismoftheMarkednessModel
Some researchers have criticised the MM because they say it is lacking in some
respects (Kamwangamalu, 2010). The MM was criticised for using Fishman’s
approach of 1965 and 1972 and for what they perceive to be its weaknesses
(Boztepe2005).NotableamongthemareMeeuwis&Blommaert(1994:417)who
argue that althoughmarkedness is a valuable concept, “analysis of codeswitching
should start, not from an assumption of commonness or universality but on
assumption of variability”. This view is sharedbyBoztepe (2005)whonotes that
there is a lot of debate on whether human action can be a result of conscious
calculation.
2.11 Code-switchinginSouthernAfrica
PayingparticularattentiontoSouthernAfrica,abriefreviewofstudieswillbedone.
In the case of Zimbabwe, Shona-English CS and borrowing began during
colonisation. The trend further developed as more and more people became
educated(Veit-Wild,2009).Nowadays,CSisusedbothinruralandurbanareas in
Zimbabweowingtoincreasedliteracyrates.
Sincelanguagechangesovertime,sodoesCS.Languagesevolvesince“notasingle
individual speaks the same way all the time, nor does anyone, including
monolinguals, use a single register or style in every speech situation”
(Kamwangamalu,2009:259).AlthoughMyers-ScottonuseddatafromZimbabweas
evidencetosupporttheMM,furtheranalysisofcurrentdatatodeterminewhether
themodelcanstillbeappliedtoShona-EnglishCSwilladdtotheMMdata.
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2.11.1 Code-switchingtoaccommodateothers
TherearesimilaritiesbetweenFinlayson&Slabbert’s(1997)studyandthecurrent
research.Finlayson&SlabbertconsideredwhethertheMMcouldbeappliedtoCS
datafromSoweto,SouthAfrica.TheduoinvestigatedwhethertheMMappliestoCS
utterancesintheSowetotownship.Finlayson&Slabbertanalysed42conversations
andobservedthatspeakerschangelinguisticcodesinordertoaccommodateothers
or as a sign of respect. This view is highlighted by one of the participants in
Finalyson&Slabbert’s studywhoresponded toaquestionaboutwhether there is
anypreferencetothechoiceoflanguagewhenspeaking.Theparticipantreplied;
HakebualeMozulukebuaSezulu,hakebualeMotswanaSetswanaandsohake
bualemothowalanguageengweketryahobualanguageyagagegoreasekeareI
amtryingtobedifficultkebalikeatribalist.
“WhenIspeakwithaZuluIspeakZulu,whenIspeakwithaTswana,Tswanaandso
when I speak with a person with one language I try to speak the language of
him/hersothathe/shecannotsayIamtryingtobedifficultorthatIamatribalist”
(Finlayson&Slabbert,1997:128)
Oneof the conclusions of Finalyson and Slabbert is that CS is used as ameans to
accommodateother speakers inSoweto, SouthAfrica.Anexample given is thatof
threespeakerswhowereengagedinaconversation.TheyswitchedbetweenSotho
andZuluasshownbelow.
Zikhona,maarzonkelezibezikhulunywangabantu.Reamixakaofela.
‘Theyarethere,but,allthesearespokenbypeople.Wemixthemall”(Finlayson&
Slabbert1997:126).
They also noted that English is considered a status symbol among black South
Africans. The more one is educated, the more their chances are of switching
betweentheirmotherlanguageandEnglish.Intheirstudy,adetailedexplanationis
given about the functions of CSwhich include trying to accommodate others and
tolerance.
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2.11.2 Finlayson,Calteaux&Myers-Scotton
Finlayson, Calteaux&Myers-Scotton (1998) studied how speakers code-switch in
order to accommodate others by focusing on the structural and sociolinguistic
aspectsofCS.Participantsinthestudyhaddifferentfirstlanguages.Theresearchers
used audio and video recordings. The number of years spent in formal schooling
determined the group that one was assigned to. There were two groups of 8
participantseachagedbetween16and24andresidinginTembisatownship,South
Africa. In an attempt to understand the psycho-sociological differences of CS,
Finlayson,CalteauxandMyers-Scottonanalyzedspeechsamplesandconcludedthat
one of the reasons people engage in CS is for them to be considered as being
cooperative. Since people have varying linguistic backgrounds. “engaging in CS
allows speakers to project ‘multiple identities’; that is, speakers can associate
themselveswithmorethanonesocialgroup”(Finlayson,Calteaux&Myers-Scotton
(1998:417).
2.12 Code-switchingasacommunicationstrategyinsomeschools
Although the focus of this study is on CS outside the school context, a brief
descriptionofCSresearchinschoolswillbegiven.CShasbeenstudiedextensively
in African classrooms. Most learners in African schools are not mother-tongue
speakers of English. In schools where they are expected to use English as the
languageoflearningandteaching,theyendupswitchingbetweenEnglishandtheir
native language. According to Boztepe (2005) with all the research into CS in
classrooms, this may be helpful towards a better understanding of the motive
behindthebehaviourandhowitaffectsthelearningprocess.Thefollowingstudies
lookedatCSinschools:
1. Van der Walt, Mabule & De Beer’s (2001) studies in some South African
schools showed that teachers and learnersoften switchbetween their first
languageandEnglish.Chimbgamba&Mokgwathi’s(2011)findingsonCSin
English classes in Botswana show that CS is more common especially in
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biologyandHomeEconomics classes.Theynote that teachersand learners
constantlyswitchfromEnglishtoTswanaforclarificationpurposes.
2. CSintheclassroomisinresponsetolearners’ functionalneeds,suchasthe
need to bridge the gap between their limited competence in the target
language and the need to allow them to construct knowledge through the
experienceoftheir languageandculture(Chimbgamba&Mokgwathi,2012:
30).
3. CS as a communication strategy in schools was highlighted by Mokgwathi
(2011).SheobservedlessonsinselectedclassroomsinBotswana.Thestudy
confirmedthatCSbetweenEnglishandSetswanawasprevalentregardlessof
theteachers’andlearners’proficiencylevelsinEnglish,age,mothertongue,
amongother things.Mokgwathi alsonoted thatboth teachers and learners
viewed CS as a useful teaching and learning strategy that assisted them to
comprehendcontent.SheconcludedthatCSwascommonincontentsubjects
likeHistory,BiologyandHomeEconomics.Anotherobservationshemadeis
that teachersdidnot encourageCSespeciallyduringSetswanaandEnglish
lessons. Mokgwathi’s conclusions that CS was used for group identity, to
boost the confidence of learners, to show the teacher’s education levels, to
show authority or irritation and to show that one can speakmore than a
singlelanguage,seemtosupporttheMM.
4. InacasestudyofschoolsintheBuheraSouthdistrictinZimbabwe,Viriri&
Viriri (2013) noted that, despite the fact that teachers and learners are
expected touseEnglish, theyoftenswitchbetweenEnglishandShona.The
study concluded that although English was supposed to be used in
classrooms, teachers and pupils often switched to Shona to clarify certain
pointsduringthelearningprocess.CSwasanorminclassrooms.
WhenIwasasecondaryschoolstudentmyself,wewererequiredtoconverseonly
in English especially during school times. There were instances where learners
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wouldbepunishedforusingtheirmothertongue.Thisresultedinlearnerskeeping
quieteveniftheydidn’tunderstandcertainconceptsbecausetheycouldnotspeak
English.
5. Rose&VanDulm(2006) lookedat themotivations forCSbetweenEnglish
andAfrikaansata secondaryschool.Datawasanalysedusing theMM.The
pairconcludedthatCSisacommunicationstrategyandservesapurposeof
clarifying concepts in classrooms. Their research supported the MM as a
usefulmodelthatcanbeusedtoexplainCS.InthedatacollectedbyRoseand
Van Dulm, they found evidence of unmarked, sequential unmarked and
markedcode-switching.Itiswithinthesameveinthatthisstudyproposesto
analysespeechsamplesfromShona-Englishbilingualsinordertodetermine
whethertheMMcanbeappliedtoShona-EnglishCS
2.13 Conclusion
Thecurrentchapter focusedonreviewing literature inordertobetterunderstand
research that has been done on CS in Africa, especially in relation to the MM. A
historical overview of CS was done noting the early studies that helped lay the
foundation for CS research. Key concepts were defined noting the differences in
opinionsbyresearchersregardingthedefinitions.
SincetheMMisimportantinthecurrentstudy,adetailedexplanationofthemodel
wasgiven. Inaddition, someof the theoriesandhypothesesproposedbyscholars
were discussed. Also included are some of the studies that have been done to
determinewhethertheMMisapplicabletoCSdataindifferentcontexts.
From the literature review, we can see that the study of CS has gone through
differentstages.Linguistshaveproposedtheoriesandhypothesesinanattemptto
account for this interesting phenomenon. The availability of literature and the
differenttheoriesandhypothesesatteststotheeffortsbeingmadebyresearchersto
unpackCS.DespiteallthedisagreementsaboutCS,researchisopeningupplatforms
forfurtherdiscussion.
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IsupportBokamba’s(1988)assertionthatabetterunderstandingofCSwillaidin
thequesttoformulate linguistictheory.BystudyingtheapplicabilityoftheMMto
Shona-English CS, it is hoped that this will assist to better understand CS as a
languagecontactphenomena.
Fromtheliteratureconsulted, itcanbenotedthatcode-switchingisavastsubject
withalotoftheoriesandhypotheses.
Still focusing on literature review, the next chapter discusses issues regarding a
corpus-basedanalysis.
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Chap te r 3 Corpususeinlanguagestudies
3.1 Introduction
Corpora have played a significant role in studies about language. The advent of
computers has promoted research in language use based on corpora and corpus
compilation projects have increased. This chapterwill not seek to give a detailed
explanationaboutcorpuslinguisticsasawholebutabriefoverviewisnecessaryto
providethecontextforthecurrentstudy.Thediscussionwillbefocusedondefining
acorpusandexplainingthestagesthatcorpuslinguisticshasgonethroughasafield
ofstudy.Corpuscompilationprojectswillbediscussedandadetaileddescriptionof
theShonacorpuswillbegiven.Inaddition,studiesthathavebeendoneonCSusing
acorpus-basedanalysiswillreceiveparticularattention.
3.2 Corpuslinguistics
“Corpus linguistics can be described as the study of language on the basis of text
corpora”(Aijmer&Altenberg1991:1).Anotherdefinitionfoundinliteratureisthat
“corpuslinguisticsisperhapsbestdescribedforthemomentinsimpletermsasthe
studyoflanguagebasedonexamplesof‘reallife’languageuse”(McEnery&Wilson,
2001:1).
Researchers study language use using actual texts as they are used in real life
(Baker,2010;McCarthy&O’keeffe,2010).Themainconcernofcorpuslinguisticsis
describingperformance(howlanguageisusedeveryday).
Corpus linguistics is firmly rooted inempirical, inductive formsof analysis,
relying on real-world instances of language use in order to derive rules or
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exploretrendsaboutthewaysinwhichpeopleactuallyproducelanguage(as
opposed to models of language that rely on made-up examples or
introspection(Baker2010:94).
AccordingtoMcCarthy&O’keeffe(2010), theemergenceofcorpus linguisticswas
enabledbytechnologicaladvancesinhardwareandsoftwaretowardstheendofthe
20th century. Research questions in corpus linguistics are centred on how people
really use language (e.g. Kennedy, 1998; McEnery &Wilson, 2001; Baker, 2010).
Kennedy,(1998)statesthatcorpuslinguisticsisnowassociatedwiththecomputer,
whichperformstasksatgreatspeed,isdependableandcanmanagelargeamounts
of data. Corpus linguistics is viewed as amethodology by some researchers. For
example,McEnery&Wilson (2001) are of the opinion that corpus linguistics is a
methodologyandnotabranchoflinguistics.
Computers have enabled researchers to store and process huge amounts of texts.
Pearson, (1998) indicates that the approaches of corpus linguistics are corpus
driven, corpus based and data based. The approaches differ in the way they use
corpora.Baker,(2010)supportsthisnotionandsuggeststhat:
Corpus-driven linguists tend tousea corpus inan inductiveway inorder to
form hypotheses about language, notmaking reference to existing linguistic
frameworks.However,corpus-basedlinguiststendtousecorporainorderto
testorrefineexistinghypothesestakenfromothersources(Baker,2010:95).
3.3 Corpus
Therearedifferentdefinitionsofacorpusinliterature.“Traditionally,linguistshave
used the term “corpus” to designate a body of naturally-occurring (authentic)
languagedatawhichcanbeusedasabasisforlinguisticresearch”(Leech,1991:1).
Kennedy (1998: 1) uses the traditional definition, “a body of written text or
transcribed speech which can serve as a basis for linguistic analysis and
description”. The modern definition describes a corpus as “a finite-sized body of
machine readable text, sampled in order to be maximally representative of the
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language variety under consideration” (McEnery & Wilson, 2001: 32). Kennedy
states that the work of researchers becomes less complicated when a corpus is
storedonacomputerbecausetheycananalysethecorpususingdifferentsoftware.
“The corpus provides contexts for the study of meaning in use and, by making
available techniques for extracting linguistic information from texts on a scale
previouslyundreamedof,itfacilitateslinguisticinvestigationswhereempiricismis
textbased”(Kennedy1998:9).Biber,Conrad&Reppen(1998:12)defineacorpus
as“alargeandprincipledcollectionofnaturaltexts”.
The texts found in a corpus may be written or spoken or a mixture of both. In
addition, the corpus can be unannotated (i.e. in their existing raw states of plain
text) or annotated (ie. enhanced with various types of linguistic information)”
(McEnery&Wilson,2001:32).
Leech(1997)isoftheopinionthatforresearcherstobeabletogatherinformation
fromacorpus,thefirststepwillbetoaddinformationtoitbymeansofannotation.
Hedefinesannotationas,
the practice of adding interpretive, linguistic information to an electronic
corpusofspokenand/orwrittenlanguagedata.Annotationcanalsoreferto
theend-productoftheprocess:thelinguisticsymbolswhichareattachedto,
linkedwith, or interspersedwith the electronic representation of language
materialitself(Leech,1997:2).
But he advises against taking annotations as representing absolute reality and
accuracy.Leechpointsoutthatthetextcanbeusedforvariousresearchpurposes.
I agree with McEnery &Wilson’s view that unannotated corpora can be used to
answersomeresearchquestions.Thecorpuscompiledforthecurrentstudyisnot
annotatedbutwillbesuitabletoanalyseanddescribethenatureofCSutterancesin
Shona-EnglishbilingualstherebycontributingtothestudyofShonawhichisaless
resourcedlanguage.
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Sinclair (2004) notes that texts are arranged randomly in a corpus and a corpus
enablestheobservationofphenomenathataredifficulttoobserve.
Therehavebeenalotofprojectsaimedatcorpuscompilationforarangeofgoals.
The size, type and design of a corpus are determined bywhat the corpuswill be
usedfor(Kennedy,1998).
Although theydiffer in theirdefinitionofacorpus, linguistsagreeon the fact that
languageisanalysedusingreallifesamplesfromabodyoftexts.Biberetal.(1998)
notethatageneralcorpuscanrepresentagivenlanguageandtherearemillionsof
wordsinit.Ontheotherhand,aspecialisedcorpustendstobesmaller,numbering
inthethousandsandisusuallyusedtoanswerpreciseresearchquestions.Forthis
study,aspecialisedcorpuswillbeused.
3.4 Corpus:Abriefhistory
The use of corpora in language studies has gone through various stages. Some
scholarsconsiderthe1950stobecrucial for thegrowthofcorpus linguistics. “We
can pinpoint a discontinuity in the development of corpus linguistics fairly
accurately in the late 1950s. After this period, the corpus as a source of data
underwentaperiodofalmost totalunpopularityandneglect” (McEnery&Wilson,
2001:4).
During the1950s, corpus linguistics sloweddownbecauseof criticism fromsome
linguists. Notable among themwasNoamChomsky. “Chomsky suggested that the
corpus could never be a useful tool for the linguist, as the linguist must seek to
model language competence rather than performance” (McEnery&Wilson, 2001:
6). His main concern was rationalism rather than empiricism. Thus, Chomsky
argued that using language samples as a basis for description would lead to an
incompleteanalysissincethesampleswouldnotcontainallthepossiblesentences
ofalanguage.AccordingtoBonelli(2010),thecriticismapparentlymadeitdifficult
forresearcherstousecorpora.
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McEnery&Wilsoncomment thatalthough thepopularbelief is that corpus-based
researchstoppedaltogetherinthe1950sduetodisapprovalonlytoberesumedin
the early 1980s, some researchers continuedworkingwith corpora in the 1950s,
1960s and 1970s. For example, observing naturally occurring data remained the
principalsourceofinformationinthefieldofphoneticsandlanguageacquisition.
Aijmer & Altenberg (1991) and Johansson (1991) believe that Randolf Quirk’s
SurveyofEnglishUsage(SEU)Project,donearound1960,markedthestartingpoint
of corpus compilation. The corpus was not machine-readable. The SEU aimed to
compile “a large and stylistically varied corpus as the basis for a systematic
description of spoken and written English” (Aijmer & Altenberg 1991: 1). The
BrowncorpuscompiledbyNelsonFrancisandHenryKucerain1964isconsidered
tobethepioneeringworkinelectroniccorpuscompilation.
Any account of corpus-based linguistic analysis must take as a reference
point the pioneering Brown University Standard Corpus of Present-Day
AmericanEnglish, commonlyknownas theBrown corpus (Kennedy, 1998:
23).
FrancisandKuceracontributedimmenselytocorpuslinguisticsbecausetheirwork
was done amid heavy criticism and the process of corpus complilation was a
daunting task with limited technology (Kennedy, 1998). Nevertheless, the duo
produced a corpus of almost one million words consisting of written American
English. “Given the enormity of the task and the available technology, this
pioneering work was completed with remarkable speed in that the corpus was
available on computer tape with an accompanying manual by 1964” (Kennedy,
1998:24).TheBrowncorpuscontinues tobeusedbyresearchers throughout the
worldatnocost.Sincethen,therehavebeenanumberofprojectsaimedatcorpus
compilation in different languages. According to McEnery &Wilson (2001), from
1980 up to now, corpus linguistics has grown rapidly aided by the availability of
computers.Someofthecorpuscompilationprojectsarediscussedinsections3.8.
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3.4.1 Argumentsagainsttheuseofcorpora
By using a corpus, we attempt to model performance instead of linguistic
competence.“Chomskyarguedthatthegoalsoflinguisticsarenottheenumeration
anddescriptionofperformancephenomena,butrather theyare introspectionand
explanation of linguistic competence” (McEnery &Wilson, 2001: 12). Even if we
welcome counting and describing features as aims of linguistics, this cannot be
achievedbecausenaturallanguagesareinfinite.
In the case of a spoken corpus, achieving complete accuracy when transcribing
speechisdifficult.“Thechallengeistocomeupwithdecisionsthatensurethatthe
resultant corpus captures the way the language is structured or used” (Chabata,
2000: 81). Although it is difficult to accurately transcribe speech, with due care
takeninthetranscriptionprocess,describinglanguageusingrealspeechsamplesis
farmoreadvantageousthanresearchersdescribinghowlanguageoughttobeused.
3.5 Considerationswhendesigningacorpus
3.5.1 Representativeness
AccordingtoBiber,Conrad&Reppen(1998),whendrawingupacorpus,ithastobe
representative enough so that the proposed research questions are answered
satisfactorily. Kennedy notes that there is controversy regarding the matter of
representativenessinacorpus.
For a corpus to be “representative” there must be a clearly analysed and
defined population to take the sample from. But because we cannot be
confidentweknowallthepossibletexttypesnortheirproportionsofuseina
population, a “representative” sample is at best a rough approximation to
representativeness,giventhevastuniverseofdiscourse(Kennedy,1998:52).
Kennedy further states that regarding a sample of language that may have been
collectedinasingledayasrepresentingaparticularlanguageshouldbetakenwith
a pinch of salt. One has to choose participants carefully. That is why I intend to
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interviewparticipants in order to identify thosewho can communicate inEnglish
proficiently.Usingonlysuchparticipants’languageusewillaidinmakingmycorpus
morerepresentativeoftheresearchsampleinthecurrentstudy.
3.5.2 Diversity
Itisimportanttolookatdifferentregistersinalanguagetobesampled.Biberand
his colleagues suggest that, if the language under investigation has dialects, these
havetobeincludedinthecorpus.Kennedy,1998concurswiththisviewandstates
thattheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC)isanexampleofawell-representedcorpus.
3.5.3 Size
Acorpusshouldbelargeenoughtoallowdiversity.Biber,Conrad&Reppen(1998:
250)notethat“everycorpuswillhave limitations,butawell-designedcorpuswill
still be useful for investigating a variety of linguistic issues”. One advantage of a
smallcorpusisthatitallowsforaspecialisedinvestigationoflanguageinaspecific
setting(Koester,2010).Whenlookingatthecurrentstudy,CSwasinvestigatedwith
particularfocusonthelanguageuseofselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.
Reppen(2010)isoftheopinionthatcorporacanbeofvariedsizesaslongasthey
are representative enough and can be used to satisfactorily answer research
questions.Baker(2010)concurswiththisviewandsuggeststhatthethreeaspects
namely sampling, balance and representativeness are important in corpus
linguistics. Thecorpususedinthecurrentstudyconsistedofabout29900words
andissuitablefortheresearchprojectbasedontheabovecriteria.
3.6 Corpustypes
3.6.1 Generalcorpus
Ageneralcorpusrepresentsagivenlanguageandusuallycontainstextsdrawnfrom
differentcategories.Itmayconsistofwrittencorporaorspokencorporaorboth.“A
general corpus is typically designed to be balanced, by containing texts from
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different genres and domains of use including spoken and written, private and
public” (Kennedy, 1998: 20). Baker (2010) gives theBritishNational Corpus, The
BankofEnglishor theAmericanNationalCorpus as examplesof general corpora.
Oneofthecharacteristicsofgeneralcorporaisthattheyareverylargeandcanbe
collectedandannotatedoveralongperiodoftime.
3.6.2 Specialisedcorpus
A specialised corpus tends to be smaller and is usually used to answer specific
research questions. “Specialized corpora can be smaller and contains a more
restricted set of texts. For example, there could be restrictions on genre (e.g. just
newspaper reporting) time (e.g. just texts that were published in May 1990) or
place/ language variety (e.g. just texts thatwerepublished in Singapore)” (Baker,
2010: 99). Examples of specialised corpora are those compiled by commercial
publishers and corpora collected to answer specific research questions (Kennedy,
1998,Baker,2010).TheShonacorpusthatIcompiledisanexampleofaspecialised
corpus.
3.6.3 Spokencorpora
According toBaker (2010),due to theexpenses involvedand theamountofwork
required inrecording, transcribingandcompilingdata, spokencorpora tend tobe
smaller thanwritten corpora. Leech (1991) notes that when spoken discourse is
being transcribed, the transcriber will be involved in both interpreting and
representing the speech. Due to the time consuming nature of transcription, the
majority of transcriptions are orthographic ones which use standard spelling for
convenience and reserve phonetic transcription for exceptional pronunciation.
Because of the aforementioned reason, some researchers choose to work with
writtencorporainstead.
Aldophs&Knight(2010)concurwithLeech’sviewpointandaddthatcollectingand
transcribing speech samples is demanding but working with spoken corpora
providesaunique insight intohow language isused.This studywillusea spoken
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corpus, but it should be noted that the above mentioned challenges were also
encounteredduringthecorpuscompilationprocess.
3.6.4 WrittenCorpora
Baker(2010)notesthatawrittencorpusiseasiertocompilethanaspokenone.He
furtherindicatesthatawrittencorpushastobeclearlyencryptedinordertoretain
information about font size, colour andpictures in the corpus. Propelled by how
easy it is to compile written corpora, researchers have been more focused on
analyzing written corpora at the expense of spoken corpora (Adolphs & Knight,
2010).
3.7 Someofthetoolsusedincorpussearchandretrieval
In order to aid corpus analysis, researchers have developed software “The great
majorityofcorpuslinguistshavemadeuseofcommerciallyavailablesoftwareand
freeware available through particular research groups” (Kennedy, 1998: 259).
Kennedyfurthernotesthateachsoftwareproducthasitsownmeritsanddemerits
andresearchershavetochoosesoftwaretousebasedonwhethertheywillgetthe
bestresultsoutofit.Biberetal.notethatalotofsoftwarecanbeusedtoanalysea
corpus thereby allowing research on a variety of topics thatwere previously not
possible to investigate or time consuming.Beloware someof the corpus analysis
toolsasdiscussedbyKennedy(1998).
The Oxford Concordance Program (OCP)- A collection of programs for creating
wordlists,indexesandconcordances.OCPisabatchprogramformakingwordlists,
concordancesandindexes.OCPiscompatiblewithmostmainframesandiscapable
of managing different text patterns. One drawback of OCP is that “it works with
“raw” textandnotwith“indexed” textand thishasconsequences for thespeedof
processing”(Kennedy,1998:260).
Wordcruncher- When it comes to retrieving lexically based features of a large
corpus,Wordcrunchercomesinhandybecauseitisveryfast.
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TextAnalysisComputingTools(TACT)-KennedynotesthatTACTisusedbroadlyin
corpusanalysisresearch.Ithasalsobeenusedindescriptivelinguistics.
WordSmith-MikeScottdevelopedWordSmith in1996.Thissoftware isaccessible
viaOxfordUniversityPress.“Theabilitytoundertakemoredetailedanalysesofthe
frequenciesofconcordanceitemsandtheabilitytoextractcollocationalinformation
easily make WordSmith an attractive package” (Kennedy, 1998: 267). I used
WordSmithtoanalysetheShonacorpusforCSwordsandsentences.
AntConc-Usedtoanalysetext,togenerateconcordances,collocations,wordlistsand
keywordlistshttp://www.laurenceanthony.net/software/antconc/.
Kennedynotesthattheavailabilityofcorpusanalysisresourcesforusebygraduate
studentsand researchers is limited compared to that available to commercial and
industrialestablishments.Thismaybebecauseofthefinanciallimitationsfacedby
graduatestudentsandresearchers.
3.8 Examplesofcorpuscompilationprojects
Koester(2010)indicatesthattherearealotofcorpuscompilationprojectsthatare
beingdonegloballyandtheyvaryinsizeandnumberofresearchersinvolved.Some
of the corpus compilation projects are carried out for commercial reasonswhilst
othersareminisculeandmaygounnoticed.
There exist a large number of computerized corpora varying in size, design and
researchpurpose.“Thegreatresearchpotentialofferedbythesecorporahasgiven
risetoadramaticexpansionofcorpus-basedresearchthatfewcouldhaveforeseen
thirty years ago” (Aijmer & Altenberg 1991: 2). Kennedy points out that corpus
compilationprojectsdonebyundergraduateandgraduatestudentsareexamplesof
corpus compilation done on a small scale. Although there is a lot of corpus
compilation work being carried out globally, a discussion of a few corpus
compilationprojectswillbedonetounderscoretheprojects.
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3.8.1 TheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC)
The BNCwas compiled between 1991 and 1995. In this project, universities and
commercial publishing companies worked together to produce a representative
corpus of spoken and written British English. Currently, there are around 100
millionwordsintheBNC.HalfofthecostsoftheprojectwerecoveredbytheBritish
government. The most recent edition of the BNC was released in 2007
(http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk).
Withtheveryconsiderablecostofsuchacorpuscompilationproject,andthe
involvement of commercial publishers interested in producing better
lexicographicalandgrammaticalreferencebooks,theprojectwasenvisaged
ascontributingtoinformationtechnologyinthe1990sandbeyondthrough
the development of more sophisticated processing of natural language by
computers(Kennedy,1998:52).
It was anticipated that the project would be a benchmark for similar corpus
compilationprojectsinothercountriesandfordifferentlanguages.Thegoalofthe
projectwastodesignarepresentativecorpusofspokenandwrittenBritishEnglish
with a variety of genres and topics. The compilers also wanted the corpus to be
availableasaresourceineducation,academiaandforcommercialpurposes
3.8.2 EuropeanScienceFoundationSecondLanguageDatabank(ESFSLDB)
TheESFSLDBwascompiledtoaidresearchinsecondorforeignlanguages.Acorpus
wascompiledusing“transcribedspeechcollected for the longitudinalstudyof the
learning ofDutch, English, French, German, or Swedish by adult immigrants from
differentlanguagebackgrounds”(Kennedy,1998:42).
In this study, a specialised corpus will be compiled for the analysis of CS in the
speechofselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.
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3.8.3 LanguageResourceManagementAgency(LRMA)ofSouthAfrica
In South Africa, a lot of effort has been put into corpus compilation and
preservation. One example of such effort is the establishment of the Language
ResourceManagementAgency(LRMA)atNorthWestUniversitybytheDepartment
ofArtsandCulture.Oneoftheiraimsis:
Tofunctionasasingledepositorypointforvarioustypesofelectronicdata
oftheofficiallanguagesofSouthAfricaforresearchanddevelopment
purposesinthefieldofhumanlanguagetechnologies
(http://rma.nwu.ac.za/index.php/aims/).
TheLRMA’sdatabasecontainstexts,speechandlanguagerelatedvideosinvarious
languages of South Africa. To date, all eleven official languages of South Africa
namelyAfrikaans,English,Setswana, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu,SesothosaLeboa
(Sepedi), Sesotho, Siswati, Tshivenda and Xitsonga are available in the database.
AlsoincludedareYorubaandDutch.NocorpusoftheShonalanguageisavailableon
theLRMAdatabase.
3.8.4 ThePanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard
ThePanSouthAfricanLanguageBoard(PanSALB)wascreatedbytheSouthAfrican
government to encouragemultilingualism and to develop languages among other
things.PanSALBhaspartneredwithDepartmentsofAfricanlanguagesatanumber
ofuniversitiesinanefforttodeveloptheliterature,lexicographyandterminologyof
African languages. For example, the Department of African languages at the
UniversityofPretoriacompiledacorpusofSouthernNdebeleincollaborationwith
theNational LexicographyUnit (which is part of PanSALB). The corpuswas then
used to compile the Ndebele monolingual dictionary titled “Isihlathululi-Mezwi
seSiNdebele” which was published in 2015. This is an example of a very real
outcome. A tertiary institution (University of Pretoria) assisted PanSALB with
corpuscompilation.
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3.9 TheShonacorpus
The Shona corpus consisting of 2224983 words is the brainchild of the African
Languages Lexical project (ALLEX) project. The corpus is tagged. Itwas compiled
starting from 1992. The Shona corpus is available on
(http://www.edd.uio.no/allex/corpus/africanlang.html). The project is jointly
managed by the University of Oslo and the University of Zimbabwe with the
UniversityofGothenburgbeinganotherparticipantintheprojectsinceitsinception.
Chabata(2000)describestheShonacorpusasageneralpurposecorpusnotingthat
itcanbeusedtoanswerawidevarietyofresearchquestions.TheALLEXprojectat
the University of Zimbabwe was later incorporated into the African Languages
ResearchInstitute(ALRI).ThesubsequentsectionwilloutlinedetailsoftheALLEX
project and the ALRI and discuss the work that has been done by the two in
enhancingresearchintotheindigenouslanguagesofZimbabwe.
3.9.1 TheALLEXprojectandTheAfricanLanguageResearchInstitute
(ALRI)
InZimbabwe,theALLEXprojectstartedcreatingtheShonacorpusin1992.Todate,
thecorpusconsistsofaroundtwoandahalfmillionwords(Chabata,2000).Oneof
theaimsof theprojectwas tocompilecorporaof indigenous languagesspoken in
Zimbabwe that would be used in making dictionaries. The Shona corpus was
compiled from transcribed interviews and conversations.Undergraduate research
assistants from the University of Zimbabwe carried out fieldwork. There are
corpora of Shona and Ndebele languages, the biggest indigenous languages in
Zimbabwe.AcorpusofNambyalanguageisalsoavailable.
Thematerialsforthecorporacomefrombothtranscribedoralinterviewson
variousaspectsoflifeandwrittenliteratureofvariouskinds,whicharelater
encoded or scanned, tagged and parsed before they are stored as text and
soundinelectronicform(Chabata,2007:284-285).
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Recordingsweredone inavarietyof contexts like churches, schools, lecturesand
socialgatherings.
In2000 theALLEXprojectwas incorporated into theAfricanLanguagesResearch
Institute(ALRI),whichisbasedattheUniversityofZimbabwe.Oneoftheinstitute’s
focusareasisthedevelopmentofindigenouslanguagesofZimbabweconcentrating
mainlyoncorpusdevelopmentandmaintenance.
In addition, some of the ALRI’s research areas include language standardisation,
monolingual lexicography, and language harmonisation (Chabata, 2007). Besides
compiling a Shona corpus, the ALRI has started compiling Kalanga and Nambya
corpora.Todate,theALRIhaspublishedfiveShonadictionariesnamelyDuramazwi
reChiShona (1996), Duramazwi Guru reChiShona (2001), Duramazwi reUtapi
neUtano (2004), Duramazwi reMimhanzi (2005), Duramazwi reDedziramutauro
noUvaranomwe (2007). Two Ndebele dictionaries entitled Isichazamazwi
SesiNdebele(2001)andIsichazamazwiSezomculo(2006)havealsobeenpublished
bytheALRI.OtherworksinthepipelineincludetheShonachildren’sdictionaryand
acomprehensiveShonagrammarbook(http://www.uz.ac.zw/index.php/research-
output).Thepublishingoftheaforementioneddictionarieshasbeenenabledbythe
useofcorporathatwascompiledbytheALLEXproject.Thishighlightstheneedto
continuewithcorpuscompilation.
The success ALRI has achieved in cultivating a love for the indigenous
languages has been shown as evidence of the use of its monolingual
dictionaries by people who traditionally tended to look down upon these
languages(Chabata,2007:290).
TheALRIcontinuestocompiletheShonacorpusaimingtoenlargetheexistingone.
Theworkdoneby theALLEXproject is commendablebecause ithas compiledan
annotatedShonacorpus.Butaccessibilityofthecorpusisaproblembecausethere
is a limit of 1000hitsper searchon theirwebsitewhichwas lastmodifiedon29
October 2003. So it is difficult to access the whole corpus. I contacted the
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coordinators of theALLEX project and theALRI institute by email on 22October
2014andon24October2014requestingaccesstothewholecorpus.Theemailsdid
notyieldaresponse.
3.10 Closingremarksaboutcorpuscompilation
TheBritishNationalCorpus,theESFSLDBcorpus,andtheShonacorpusdiscussed
above are examples of corpus compilation at macro-level. Kennedy asserts that
therearealotofprojectsinwhichspecialisedcorporaiscompiledonasmallscale
especially to answer specific research questions. From the examples of corpus
compilationworkdiscussedabove,itcanbenotedthatacorpusisfastbecominga
valuable tool in facilitating linguistics research and publishing. In this study, a
corpuswillbecompiledfortheanalysisofcode-switchinginthespeechofselected
Shona-Englishbilinguals.
3.11 Characteristicsofcorpus-basedanalysis
Biber et al. (1998) note that four important characteristics of corpus-based
investigationare:
1. Itisempirical,analyzingtheactualpatternsofuseinnaturaltext.
2. Itutilizesalargeprincipledcollectionofnaturaltexts,knownasa“corpus”as
thebasisforanalysis.
3. Itmakesextensiveuseofcomputers foranalysis,usingbothautomaticand
interactivetechniques.
4. Itdependsonbothquantitativeandqualitativeanalyticaltechniques.
3.12 Corpus-basedanalysisandcode-switching
A number of studies have used a corpus-based approach to supplement other
research methods when analysing CS data as will be done in this study. The
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followingstudiesusedcorporaasabasisfortheiranalysis.Corpus-basedanalysisis
viewedassupplementingothertraditionalresearchmethods.
(a) Broersma&DeBot(2006)usedacorpus-basedapproachtoempiricallytest
Clyne’s triggering hypothesis for the first time since the hypothesis was
proposedin1967.Thetriggeringhypothesisclaimsthatwordswiththesame
formandmeaningcantriggerCS.Broersma&DeBotusedacorpusofDutch
and Moroccan Arabic bilingual speech. The corpus consisted of speech
samples from three participants who recorded themselves during casual
conversations. Boersma & De Bot’s corpus analysis seems to support the
triggering hypothesis. “The results of a corpus analysis suggest that
triggering takes place at the lemma level, where the selection of a trigger
word enhances the activation of the lemmas of a non-selected language”
(Broersma&DeBot,2006:11).
(b) Turunen(2012)analysedtheEnglishasanAcademicLinguaFranca(EALF)
corpuswhichconsistedofonemillionwords.Heutilisedanalreadyavailable
and tagged corpus. The corpus was compiled using data from transcribed
speechfromTampereandHelsinkiTechnologicaluniversities.Turunenused
discourseanalysisandcorpus-basedanalysistodeterminethefrequencyand
functionsofcode-switchedwordsinthecorpus.AntConcsoftwarewasused
to search and retrieve CS occurrences in the EALF corpus.Microsoft Excel
was used to sort code-switched utterances according to language used,
length of switch and speech event. Turunen notes that of the 165 texts
available in the EALF corpus, 82 texts contained CS utterances. One of the
findings of this study is that CS is used as a communication strategy by
speakers of English as a foreign language. The study also identified word
search, addressee specifications, referential switching and slips as CS
categoriesfoundintheEALFcorpus.
Inthecurrentstudy,acorpus-basedanalysiswasdoneusingthemaximsoftheMM
usingthequalitativeresearchmethodtogetherwithacorpus-basedanalysis.
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3.13 Conclusion
With the advent of computers and the availability of corpus analysis software,
corpuslinguisticscontinuestoexpand(Kennedy,1998).Alotofresearchquestions
thatwerepreviouslydifficulttoanswerarenowbeingprobed.Corpuscompilation
has resulted in the advancement of language description and a lot of dictionaries
havebeenpublishedusingcorpora.“Theuseofcomputerizedcorporaasabasisfor
developingmodels anddescriptions of language and for various applicationsmay
prove to be among themost far-reaching achievements of the language sciences”
(Kennedy,1998:294).
This chapterwas centred on the description of a corpus and corpus linguistics. A
briefhistoryofcorporawasgiven includingwhat to take intoconsiderationwhen
designing a corpus. Some of the tools used in corpus search and retrieval were
mentioned. Examples of corpus compilation projects were given. Also noted are
somestudiesthathaveutilizedacorpusbasedanalysisinCS.
A review of literature done in the previous and current chapters has helped in
informing thisstudyabout thedirectionof research in the fieldsofCSandcorpus
linguistics.
Thefollowingchapterwillfocusonthemethodologicalframeworkofthisstudy.
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Chap te r 4 Methodology
4.1 Introduction
With thegoal to analyse thenature, occurrenceand characteristicsofCS thenext
stepinmyprojectwastocompileacorpusofspokenShonatobeusedforanalysis.
Theunitofanalysis(whatisbeingstudied)inthisstudyisShona-EnglishCS.
After obtaining approval for my project proposal, I applied for ethical clearance
fromtheEthicsCommittee intheHumanitiesFacultyof theUniversityofPretoria.
Havingbeengrantedethicalclearance,Isetouttogatherdatathatwouldassistme
inansweringthefollowingresearchquestions(cf.Section1.9):
1. WhatisthenatureofCSinspokenShona?
2. DoestheMMofcode-switchingapplytothecompiledShonacorpus?
3. What functions do the code-switches serve in the context in which they
appear?
Thischapterdiscussestheresearchdesignandmethodologyusedtogatherdatafor
analysisinthisstudy.Thestrengthsandweaknessesofusingaqualitativeresearch
designwillbediscussed.Attentionwillalsobepaidtothedescriptionofacorpus-
basedanalysisanditsadvantagesanddisadvantages.Therewillalsobeadiscussion
aboutsamplingproceduresfollowedinthisstudy.IwilldiscussthechallengesthatI
faced during data collection and how I dealtwith them. Specificmethods used to
collectdatawillbediscussed.Also included isabrief explanationabouthowdata
willbeanalysed.Iwillalsoaddressethicalissuespertainingtothisstudy.
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4.2 Researchdesign
The research design for this study is qualitative and can be described as corpus-
based.Iwillfirstdiscussqualitativeresearchandthenelaborateaboutwhatcorpus-
basedanalysisentails.
4.2.1 Qualitativeresearch
Qualitative research encompasses examining features or aspects that are diverse.
That is why Croker notes that, “qualitative research is an umbrella term used to
refertoacomplexandevolvingresearchmethodology”(Croker,2009:5).Leedy&
Ormrodconcurwiththisview:
Qualitative researchers often start with general research questions rather
thanspecifichypotheses, collectanextensiveamountofverbaldata froma
smallnumberofparticipants . . .anduseverbaldescriptionstoportraythe
situationtheyhavestudied.(Leedy&Ormrod,2005:94)
Asaresearchdesign,qualitativeresearchhascertainstrengths,whichmake it the
preferreddesignunder certain circumstances, such as those of the present study.
SincethisstudysetouttoexploretheapplicabilityoftheMMtoShona-EnglishCS,
qualitativeresearchdesignwasdeemedmostsuitable.Ichoseaqualitativeresearch
design because it fitted into what I proposed to do. Dornyei (2007) lists the
characteristics of qualitative research, which I believe make it appealing for my
study. These are discussed below and the relevance for my own study will be
highlighted.
4.2.2 CharacteristicsofqualitativeresearchaccordingtoDornyei(2007)
(a)Emergentresearchdesign
Nofacetofthestudydesignispre-determined.Thisallowsforflexibilityonthepart
oftheresearchertodesignamethodthatheorsheseesfitfortheproposedstudy.
“An important aspect of this emergent nature is the fact that, ideally, qualitative
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researchers enter the researchprocesswith a completely openmind andwithout
setting out to test preconceived hypotheses” (Dornyei 2007: 37). This allows for
flexibilityintheresearch.Inthisstudy,althoughIsetouttotesttheapplicabilityof
theMM, I entered the research fieldwithanopenmindaboutwhether themodel
canbeappliedwithacceptableresults.
Qualitativeresearchershaveavastamountofdatatouselikerecordedinterviews,
texts and images. For the current study, I used interviews, a cloze test and
recordingstoobtaindata.
(b)Insidermeaning
Qualitativeresearch isconcernedwithsubjectiveopinions,experiencesand
feelingsofindividualsandthustheexplicitgoalofthistypeofresearchisto
exploretheparticipants’viewsofthesituationbeingstudied(Dornyei,2007:
38).
The semi-structured interviews gave participants an opportunity to voice their
opinionswhenansweringquestionsabouttheireverydaylanguageuse.
Since qualitative research requires a lot of labour, qualitative researchers utilize
smallersamplesthanthoseusedbytheirquantitativecounterparts.Thisviewisalso
sharedbyMiles&Huberman(2014).13peopletookpartinthisstudy.Althoughthe
numberwassmall,theprocessofdatagatheringwaslabourintensive. Intotal,12
recordings,whichwereabout30minuteslongeach,weretranscribed.Thisresulted
inpagesandpagesoftranscriptions.
Researchers can give their own interpretation of the data in qualitative research.
Thus, there can be a variety of interpretations of data. “Several alternative
interpretationsarepossibleforeachdataset,andbecausequalitativestudiesutilize
relativelylimitedstandardizedinstrumentationoranalyticalprocedures,intheend
it istheresearcherwhowillchoosefromthem”(Dornyei,2007:38).Inthisstudy,
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data was analysed by hand and with the aid of WordSmith (corpus analysis
software).
(c)Exploratorynature
Croker (2009) notes that qualitative research can be used to investigate an
unknown phenomenon. This way, a researcher can work on any project with no
predetermined theories or hypotheses. Additionally, qualitative research does not
seektogeneralizefindingstoothercontexts.Idonotseektomakegeneralisations
aboutCS in every Shona-Englishbilingual becausemy studywasdoneon a small
scalewithina certain context.Theaimwas toanalyse thenature, occurrenceand
characteristicsofCSinthespeechofselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.
(d)Makingsenseofcomplexmatters
When there are intricatematters involved, qualitative research helps researchers
understandthembetter.This isbecausearesearchercango intothefieldwithout
pre-determined theories or hypotheses to prove or disapprove. Hence qualitative
researcherscanlearnaboutaphenomenonwhilststudyingit(Dornyei,2007).
(e)Qualitativeresearchersoftenuseasmallsamplesize.
Smallsamplesizesmaymakedatahandlingandprocessingeasier(Leedy&Ormrod,
2014).Asmentionedabove,thisstudymakesuseofasmallresearchsampleanda
small corpus. 13peopleparticipated in this studywith the aimof analysingCS in
Shona-Englishspeech.
(f)Flexibility
Duetotheflexibilityofqualitativeresearch,researcherscanimmediatelyproceedto
carry out additional research. This allows researchers to reach a better
understanding of the concepts under investigation (Dornyei, 2007). The current
study seeks to provide a better understanding of theMM and its applicability to
Shona-EnglishCS.
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(g)Broadenningofhorizons
Dornyei states that qualitative research seeks to expand our comprehension of
human experience. The data obtained from participants helps to broaden our
horizons. IbasedmyanalysisofCSonthedataobtainedfromparticipantsasthey
wereengagedinnaturalconversation.Dornyeialsoexplainsthat, intheeventthat
thingsgowrong,qualitativeresearchallowsustoadjusttothesituationathandso
that we come up with interesting results. During data collection, two of the
participants withdrew consent when I was about to record their conversations.
Although thiswas frustrating, I regroupedandcontinued to look forotherwilling
participants. The withdrawal of some of my participants did not result in me
recordingfewerparticipants.
4.2.3 Triangulation
Inordertoeliminatebiasinthisstudy,Iusedtriangulation.“Triangulationinvolves
usingdifferentmethodsasacheckononeanother,seeingifmethodswithdifferent
strengths and limitations all support a single conclusion” (Maxwell, 2013: 102).
SomeofthescholarswhosupportusingtriangulationincludeFlick(2009),Rallis&
Rossman(2009)andFriedman(2012).Semi-structuredinterviewsandaclozetest
wereusedinthisstudyinanefforttoeliminatebias.
4.2.4 Limitationsofaqualitativeresearchdesign
Qualitativeresearch in linguisticshas its limitations. In thissection, Iwill refer to
Dornyei’s(2007)listofweaknessesunlessstatedotherwise.
1. Themostcommoncritiqueofqualitativeresearchinlinguisticsisthatsince
the researchwill bebasedona small numberof selectedparticipants, it is
difficult tomake general conclusions aboutwhat is being researched. This
willalsobethecaseinthepresentstudy.
2. Theresearcher’s role inanalysingdata isoftenapointof contention.Some
scholarslikeMiles&Huberman(1994)areoftheopinionthattheabilityof
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the researcher to analyse data will determine the quality of the research
report.Therefore,ifaresearcherdidnotdoagoodjobinanalysingdata,the
qualityoftheresearchwillbeaffectednegatively.Ithereforetookgreatcare
duringtheanalysisstagebystudyingtheconversationandsettings.
3. In instances where a researcher has to observe participants, observer’s
paradox is a drawback. “The aim of linguistic research in the community
mustbetofindouthowpeopletalkwhentheyarenotbeingsystematically
observed; yet we can only obtain these data by systematic observation”
(Labov, 1972: 209). Labov suggested that a researcher has to findways of
overcomingthislimitation.Thus,inthisstudy,Irequestedsomeparticipants
torecordthemselves.Thiswasdoneinordertomakethemascomfortableas
possibleduringrecording.
4. Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research lacks methodological
rigour. It lackswell-definedmethods to be followed by researchers. There
arenostandardizedinstrumentsandstrategiestofollow.ButDornyeiargues
thatqualitativeresearchhasbeenmovinginthedirectionofusingrigorous
methods. In this study, carewas takenwith the instruments used tomake
suretheysuitedtheresearchquestions.
5. Qualitative research theories canbe toonarrowor too complex.There is a
dangerofusingdatathatisnotrepresentativeenoughtoproposeatheoryor
hypothesis. Similarly, the comprehensive use of rich data can produce
complextheories.
6. Overall, qualitative research is demanding in terms of time and labour.
Handling qualitative data can require a lot of time. I spent 2 months
gatheringdata from13participants for thisstudy.Theprocesswas fraught
with challenges but I pressed on. Even after gathering the data needed,
processing it is another challenge. As mentioned earlier when I was
discussing its strengths, qualitative research yields large amounts of data
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whichmaybedifficult toprocess.Transcriptionyieldeda lotofdata inthis
studywhichmadedataanalysischallenging.AccordingtoMiles&Huberman
(2014) frequently, data collected can get so much that it could be
overwhelmingfortheresearcher.
7. One of the major concerns about qualitative research is bias. “When
researchersgointoresearchsettings,theyalsotaketheirownage,ethnicity,
cultural backgrounds, sexual orientation, politics, religious beliefs and life
experiences- their worldview are the lens through which they see their
research” (Croker, 2009: 11). Croker suggests that qualitative researchers
needtobemindfulnottolettheirperceptionsovershadowtheresearchand
to implementmeasures thathelpeliminatebias.Croker recommendsusing
triangulation to minimise the problem of bias. Triangulation involves
“obtainingdifferentperspectivesonaphenomenonbygatheringdata from
different participants, and using data collectionmethods like observations,
interviews,andquestionnaires”(Croker,2009:11). Inasimilarway, Iused
informal semi-structured interviews, a cloze test and recordings to gather
dataforthisstudy.Whenselectingparticipants,Iconsideredthosewhomet
theminimumrequirementofhavingbeenexposedtoEnglishforatleast10
years. No generalisations were made about the way every Shona-English
bilingual code-switches. This study only focused on analysing the speech
samplesprovidedbyselectedparticipants.
4.3 Corpus-basedanalysis
As part of qualitative research design, corpus-based analysis was utilised. “The
corpus-basedapproachprovidesameansofhandlinglargeamountsoflanguageand
keeping trackofmany contextual factors at the same time” (Biber et al. 1998:3).
Bibernotesthatalotofsoftwarecanbeusedtoanalyseacorpustherebyallowing
researchonavarietyoftopicsthatwerepreviouslytimeconsumingornotpossible
toinvestigate.
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4.3.1 Strengthsofcorpus-basedanalysis
Biber et al. (1998) list some of the reasons that make corpus based analysis
favourable.Theyarediscussedbelow.
(a) The corpus-basedapproach canbeused to analyse largequantitiesofdata
andit isnottimeconsuming.Inthisstudy,acorpus-basedanalysiscamein
handyduringdataanalysis.“Withacorpusstoredinacomputer,itiseasyto
find, sort and count items either as a basis for linguistic description or for
addressinglanguagerelatedissuesandproblems”(Kennedy,1998:11).
(b) It is based on observation and language is analysed based on naturally
occuringsamples.Thus,inthisstudy,CSwillbeanalysedbasedonnaturally
occurringspeechcollectedfromselectedShona-Englishbilinguals.
(c) Acorpusthathasbeencollectedusingcertaincriteriaisthestartingpointfor
investigation. Although there is a Shona corpus consisting of almost 2, 5
millionwords,accesstothecorpusislimitedtoonly1000words.Therefore,
IdecidedtocompileacorpusthatIcouldeasilyuseinthisinvestigation.
(d) Thecomputeristhebasicunitforanalysisofthecorpus.AlthoughIanalysed
the corpus by hand, I used a computer to aid in the analysis process,
specificallyWordSmithToolssoftware.
(e) A corpus can be used to answer a range of research questions that are
difficulttoinvestigate.
(f) Quantitativeandqualitativemethodscanbeused in corpus-basedanalysis.
Corpus-basedanalysisisviewedassupplementingothertraditionalresearch
methods like quantitative and qualitative methods. In my case, doing a
corpus-basedanalysisfittedthequalitativeresearchdesignthatIoptedfor.
The qualitative research design together with a corpus-based analysis
enabledme to analyse a Shona corpus of naturally occuring speech and to
determinewhethertheMMappliestoShona-EnglishCS.SinceIworkedwith
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a corpus, using a corpus-based analysis was helpful because a computer
aidedintheanalysisofdata.
4.3.2 Disadvantagesofcorpus-basedanalysis
1. Thecompiledcorpusmaybetoosmalltoansweranyresearchquestion.This
maycreateproblems for theresearcherwhenanalysing it.However, “there
arenohard rules regardinghow largea corpusought tobe, insteadsize is
dictatedbyanumberofcriteria.Oneofthesecriteriaconcernstheaspectsof
language that the corpus is used to investigate” (Baker, 2010: 95-96). The
corpusthatIcompiledwasadequateforansweringmyresearchquestions.
2. According to Biber et al. (1998), a corpus that is not representative and
diverseenoughmakesitdifficulttosatisfactorilyanswerproposedresearch
questions. Therefore, one has to choose participants carefully. For this
reason, I went to different locations to recruit potential participants and I
vettedthembeforethedatacollectionstarted.
4.4 Researchplan
Inordertoanalyseanddescribethenature,occurrenceandcharacteristicsofCSina
Shonacorpus,theresearchwascarriedoutinstages.
4.4.1 Stage1:Theoreticalresearch-Aliteraturereview
A literature review was conducted and this process continued throughout the
duration of the research. Itwas used to inform the theoretical framework and to
gain a better understanding of the trends in CS research over the years and to
identify any gaps in the literature. It also assisted with information about how
similarstudieswereconducted.Therefore,thisstudymadeuseofboththeoretical
and empirical insights.A report on the comprehensive literature reviewabout CS
andcorporathatwascarriedout is found inChapters2and3of thisdissertation.
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Thetheoreticalframeworkofthestudywasexploredandpreviousresearchonthe
subjectwasread.
4.4.2 Stage2:Empiricalresearch:Researchgroup(participants)
“Themaingoalof sampling is to find individualswhocanproviderichandvaried
insights into thephenomenonunder investigationsoas tomaximisewhatwecan
learn” (Dornyei 2007: 26). This view is also shared by Flick (2009) andMiles &
Huberman(2014).
4.4.3 Sampling
Inthisstudy,Iusedpurposivesampling,atypeofnonprobabilitysamplinginwhich
“people...arechosenforaparticularpurpose,forinstance,wemightchoosepeople
whowe have decided are “typical” of a group” (Leedy&Ormrod, 2014: 221). 13
participantswhowereatleast18yearsoldandwhomettheminimumrequirement
ofhavingbeenexposedtoEnglishasasecondlanguageforat least10yearswere
selectedtoparticipateinthestudy.
4.4.4 Researchsiteandparticipants
DataforthisstudywascollectedinseveralpartsofZimbabwebothruralandurban.
In urban areas like Harare and Masvingo, people from different linguistic
backgroundscomeintocontacteverydayleadingtolanguagecontactsituations.
Afterobtainingconsent, I setout todetermine thepotentialparticipants’ levelsof
English language proficiencies. 13 people participated in this study. Among them
were5malesand8 femalesagedbetween18and67years. I travelled toHarare,
GutuandMasvingotosolicit forparticipants. Ichose togo toHararebecauseasa
capital city of Zimbabwe, there are people fromdifferent cities and villages living
andworkingthere.Masvingotownis297kilometresfromHarareandGutuis100
kilometres fromMasvingo. In order to get a diverse sample, I alsowent to some
villages in Gutu. Obtaining consent from participants was one of the major
challengesofmystudy.
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At the University of Zimbabwe, I randomly approached students requesting their
participationinthestudy.Mostofthemwereunwillingandjustignoredme.Despite
this,Imanagedtoget2studentstoparticipate.Aftertalkingtothemfurther,Iasked
themif theyknewanyoneelsewhocouldbewillingtotakepart inthestudy.The
studentsassistedmeingettingmorepotentialparticipantsfromthesuburbswhoI
thenmanagedtointerest.Allinall,5peoplefromHararetookpartinthestudy.In
Masvingo and Gutu, the same method of randomly approaching people was
employed. Iapproachedpeople in theeveningafter theyhad finishedwork. Ialso
went to a church and a school and solicited for participation. Some people had
reservationsaboutbeingrecordedbutIalsomanagedtogetconsentfromothers.In
avillageinGutu,4peopleagreedtotakepartinthestudy.Theother4participants
camefromMasvingo.Table4-1showscities/areaswhereparticipantscamefrom.
City/area Numberofparticipants
Harare 5
Masvingo 4
Gutu 4
Table4-1Cities/areaswhereparticipantscamefrom4.5 Methodology(datacollectioninstruments)
With the explanations done consent form signed, the next stepwas to determine
whether the potential participants met the minimum requirements by doing
interviews in English, administering a cloze test and recording conversations. Up
next,Iwilldiscusstheinstrumentsusedfordatacollection.
4.5.1 Semi-structuredinterviews
Afterobtainingconsentandhavingagreedonthetimeandplacefortheinterview,I
interviewed some participants in pairs. I did informal interviews with potential
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participantstodeterminetheirage,mother-tongue,schoolingbackgroundandtheir
generallevelofEnglishproficiencyamongotherthings.Theinterviewsweresemi-
structured.Thismeansthat,
although there is a setofpre-preparedguidingquestionsandprompts, the
formatisopen-endedandtheintervieweeisencouragedtoelaborateonthe
issues raised in an exploratory manner. In other words, the interviewer
provides guidance and direction but is also keen to follow up interesting
developments and to let the interviewee elaborate on certain issues
(Dornyei,2007:136).
Semi-structured interviewswere appropriate for this study because they allowed
me to get the biographical information that I needed, at the same time allowing
participantssomeflexibilitytoaddmoreinformationtotheirrepliesiftheywished.
ThiswasevidentwhenIwasdoingtheinterviews.Someparticipantswerekeento
elaborateandemphasisecertainpoints.Participantswerealsomadeawarethatthe
interviewswouldbeinEnglish.Iexplainedthatthereasonfortheinterviewwasto
obtain biographical information and to determine their level of English language
proficiency.Theinterviewswererecordedonmyphone’svoicememos.Ialsotook
somefieldnotesaboutthedateandplaceoftheinterview.Inaddition,Inotedthe
gender and age of the interviewees. This information was valuable for the data
analysisprocess.TheinterviewquestionsareavailableinappendixA.
“Themostobviouschallengeoftheinterviewisthatitiseasytodobuthardtodo
well, the process of becoming an effective interviewer demands considerable
sensitivity, self-critical awarenessandopenness to change” (Richards,2009:195).
As I interviewedpotentialparticipants, I realised thatsomeweregivingone-word
answers tomyquestions.Togetmore information, Iasked follow-upquestions to
potential participants if they had not answered the question satisfactorily. Onmy
part,asIinterviewedmoreandmorepeople,IcouldseethatIwasgettingbetterat
interviewing.Henceconductinginterviewsitwasalsoalearningprocessforme.
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4.5.2 ClozeTest
A cloze test (available in appendix B) was given to participants in order to
determinetheirmasteryofEnglishaftertheinterview.Iusedtheclozetestavailable
onwww.englishdaily626.com.Participantswereaskedtofillintheblankswiththe
wordsthatbestcompletetheEnglishpassagegiven.Thiswasdoneforexploratory
purposestodeterminetheparticipants’knowledgeofEnglish.Peoplewhoscoredat
least 12 out of 14 were considered for participation in the study. All potential
participantspassedandnoonewasexcludedafterwritingtheclozetest.
4.5.3 Participantrecordingsofinformalconversations
Once someone had passed the cloze test and had demonstrated somemastery of
Englishintheinterview,thenextstepwastorecordtheirconversations.Recording
ofactualconversationwastheprimarydata.
Using machines for recording renders the documentation of data
independentofperspectives-thoseoftheresearcheraswellasthoseofthe
subjectsunderstudy.Itisarguedthatthisachievesanaturalisticrecordingof
eventsoranaturaldesign(Flick,2009:294).
I provided participants with a phone on which to record their conversations. 6
participantsrecordedtheirownconversations.Ishowedparticipantshowtorecord
themselves. Participant recordings were done in order to limit the effects of
observer’s paradox, which is one of the weaknesses of qualitative research.
Participants were advised to carry on with their day to day activities while
recording.Theconversationswererecordedfor2daysandvariedindurationfrom
20to30minutesperday.Irequestedparticipantstonotifymeimmediatelywhen
therecordingwasdonesothatIwouldgoandcollectthephone.Thedateandtime
ofrecordingwereautomaticallyrecordedonthephone.Foranonymitypurposes,I
usedtheletter“P”andanumbersymboltoidentifyparticipants.Participantswere
numberedfromP1toP13afterarecording.Therecordingstookplaceinavarietyof
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settings like at the participants’ homes, workplaces and at the river. In total, 6
recordingsareavailablefrom7participantswhorecordedthemselves.
4.5.4 Researcherrecordings
Irequestedtorecord6participantsmyselftoenablemetowritefieldnotes.These
werehelpfulduringthedataanalysisprocess.Someoftheinformationinfieldnotes
includes the following;date, physical location, topic, gender, age, education, social
status, the setting, context, body language among other things. On the day of the
recording, I askedparticipants tocarryonwithwhatever theyweredoingwhile I
recorded. I put the phone on a strategic position between participants then
positionedmyselfafewmetresfromtheparticipants.Iwantedparticipantstobeas
comfortableaspossiblesothattheywouldnothesitatetoengageinconversations.
Theinfluenceoftheresearcheronthesettingorindividualstudied,generally
known as reactivity is a problem. Eliminating the actual influence of the
researcherisimpossibleandthegoalinqualitativestudyisnottoeliminate
thisinfluencebuttounderstanditandtouseitproductively(Maxwell,2013:
124-125).
This view is also shared by Flick (2009) who further notes that participants are
expected to simply forget that they are being recorded and carry on with
conversations. At first, participants hesitated but later on as their conversations
progressed, I could see that they were more relaxed. I tried not to look at the
participants as theywere talking so that theywould not feel as if Iwas studying
their every actions and conversations. I also concentrated on writing field notes
duringtherecordingprocessinordertodistractattention.Iusedawatchfortime
keeping.Whentheconversationshadreached30minutes,Istoppedrecordingand
thankedparticipants.Iwouldthenrequestparticipantstosuggestaconvenienttime
forasecondrecording.Thetotalnumberofrecordingsdoneis6.
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4.5.5 Challengesduringtheselectionofparticipantsandhowtheywere
dealtwith
Theprocess of choosing participantswas not smooth sailing. I encountered some
difficultiesduringtheprocess.Theseare:
• Finding participants was challenging. When I was writing my project
proposal,Ihadreadfromliteraturethatfindingparticipantswasoneofthe
challenges in qualitative research, for example Flick (2009). But I thought
thatwiththesmallnumberofparticipantsthatIintendedtouse,itmightbe
a bit easy. Nonetheless, it seemed as though I was looking for a bigger
numberofparticipantsbecausetheparticipantswereelusive.
• Another challenge related to the abovementionedwas theunwillingness of
people to participate in the study. Participants were required to read and
signtheletterofinformedconsent.Ininstanceswheresomeparticipantshad
agreed to listen tomy request, it was hard to convince people to sign the
letter. When I approached potential participants and explained my
intentions, some of them expressed unwillingness to be recorded citing
anonymity issues and time constraints. Most people that I approached
requestedtimetoconsidermyrequestandpromisedtogetbacktome.For
some, thatwas the last time I talked to themwhilst others later agreed to
participate. All in all, obtaining consentwas a challenge. But as I talked to
potential participants, I learned that they needed assurances that their
privacywas guaranteed during and after the study. Some feared that their
recorded conversations might end up on the social media. I explained to
them themeasures that Iwill take to safeguard their privacy and that the
purposeoftheresearchwastoobtainaMaster’sdegree.Thus,withalittlebit
ofpersuasion,Imanagedtogetparticipants.
• Withdrawal of consent: Although some participants consented to being
involved in the study, they laterwithdrew their consent.Thiswas the case
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withtwoofthepotentialparticipants.AlthoughImadefollowupstotryand
convince them otherwise, they did not change their minds. This was time
consumingonmypartbecauseIhadtolookforotherpossibleparticipants.
During this researchproject, I havegainedvaluable lessons aboutpatience
andenduranceinordertoachieveone’sgoals.
• Time limitations: Even after setting the time for recording some of the
participants,IhadinstanceswhereIhadtoreschedulethemeetingbecause
theparticipantsweresuddenlynotavailabletoberecorded.Thismeantthat
Ihadtowaitforthemtogetbacktomewithanewappointment.Idecidedto
start transcribingtherecordingsthat Ialreadyhadwhilewaiting foranew
appointment.Thisway,Iwasmakingsomeprogressinmyresearch.
4.5.6 Transcription
Finally, the interviews and recordings were transcribed in order to have an
electroniccorpusavailabletostarttheanaylsis.Abroad,orthographictranscription
(that is, not phonetic) was done. The internationally accepted protocol for
orthographic transcription was followed. I transcribed the recordings onto a
Microsoft word document. Standard Shona spelling was used for transcribing
recordedconversations.AdetailedexplanationaboutstandardShonaspellingwas
provided in chapter one of this study. The transcription process was time
consuming but itwas necessary because it enabledme to get a corpus out of the
recorded conversations. Thus, the recorded speech samples are now available as
transcribed speech and also in electronic form as a corpus. Included on the
transcription is the pseudonym of participants, age, gender, occupation, date and
placewhererecordingtookplaceanddurationoftherecording.Inthetranscripts,I
includedhesitationmarkersandfalsestarts.Transcriptionsoftheconversationsare
included in appendix C. After transcription, I translated the conversations from
Shona into English. Thiswas a time consuming exercise. Transcription “is a time
consumingprocessparticularlyifthetextalsoneedstobetranslated-dependingon
thequalityoftherecording,transcribingaone-hourinterviewcantakeasmuchas
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5-7hours”(Dornyei,2007:246).Leech(1991)alsosharesthesameview.Allinall,
transcribing all the recordings kept me busy for 2 months. Transcription
conventionsusedareavailableonpageviii.
4.5.7 Corpuscompilation
Thecorpuswascompiledusingtranscriptionsofspeechsamples.Datawasdrawn
from13participants.AllparticipantshadusedEnglishasasecondlanguageforat
least 10 years. Some participants recorded themselves and I recorded others. By
recording some participants, I managed to gather some field notes that were
valuableduringthedataanalysisprocesslikesetting.Intotal,thereareabout29900
wordsinthecorpus.
4.6 DataAnalysis
Anarrativeanalysiswasdoneonthecollecteddata.Igaveanarrativeaccountofthe
biographicalinformationofparticipants.DatawasanalysedusingWordSmithtools.
Imadeawordlistofall thewordsfoundintheShonacorpus.Fromthewordlist, I
could see the most frequently used words, concordances and collocations. This
allowedmetostudythewordsinthecontextsinwhichtheyappeared.Thewordlist
alsoprovidedwordsthatIusedtosearchforCSoccuringintheShonacorpus.Data
wasalsoanalysedtocheckwhethertheMMappliestoit.
4.7 Ethicalconsiderations
Participation in this studywasvoluntaryandanonymous.Participantsweremade
aware that they were taking part in a Masters research project and that data
gatheredwill be used in this project only. I provided participantswith a consent
form highlighting the reasons for the study and asking for their permision to
paticipateinthestudy.Participantswereinformedthatthepurposeofthestudyis
toanalysethespeechsamplesforcode-switchingoccurences.Inotifiedparticipants
that I will provide results of the study to them upon completion if they wish. In
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order to preserve the confidentiality and anonymity of participants, the following
stepsweretaken:
• As indicated earlier, no names of participants were used during
transcription.Participantsweregivenpseudonyms“P1”,“P2”,upto“P13”.
• Namesofplacesandanyinformationthatcouldleadtotheidentificationof
participantswereleftout.Thiswillbeexplainedfurtherinthetranscription
conventions.
• Ididnottranscribeincidenceswhererecordingscontainedchildren’sspeech.
Thiswasinlinewithsomeparticipants’requests.
• The recordings, transcripts and cloze tests will be kept in a safe in the
AfrikaansdepartmentattheUniversityofPretoriaforarchivepurposes.
4.8 Limitationsofthestudy
• Althoughsemi-structuredinterviewsandaclozetestwereusedtodetermine
the linguistic proficiency levels of participants, this does not provide a
complete picture of participants’ levels of linguistic proficiency. However,
this was a secondary aim and doing purposive sampling enabled me to
choose participants who met the minimum requirement of having used
Englishforatleast10years.
• ThisstudydidnotseektomakegeneralisationsaboutthewayeveryShona-
English bilingual code-switches. The corpus that I compiled is not big and
diverseenoughtomakegeneralisationsaboutthesubject.Inthisstudy,focus
wason the selectedparticipantswhowerebetween18yearsand70years
whohaveacertainlevelofproficiencyinEnglishasasecondlanguage.
• Due to time limitations and financial constraints, the corpus was not
annotated.
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• Itwasassumed insection1.8 that theMMcanbeapplied toShona-English
CS.Thiscouldleadtobiasonthepartoftheresearcher.Theassumptionmay
leadtotheresearcherfindingexamplesfromthecorpusthatdonotsupport
themodel.
4.9 Assumptions
Regardingthesocial functionsofCS, IassumethatthemarkednessmodelofCSas
explained by Myers-Scotton will apply to all instances of CS in my data set. In
addition,participantswhowereable toconverse inEnglishduring interviewsand
whoscoredatleast12outof14intheclozetestwereconsideredasbilinguals.As
notedearlierintheliteraturereviewchapter,scholarsusedifferentmeasureswhen
considering whether a person is bilingual or not. Scholars like Kamwangamalu
(1989),asserts that the linguistic competenceofbilingualsmayvary.So,a similar
approachwasadoptedinthisstudy.
4.10 Summaryofchapterfour
Adiscussionofqualitativeresearchmethodandacorpus-basedanalysiswasdone
inthischapter.Eachmethodusedtocollectdatawasexplained.Adescriptionofthe
challengesfacedduringdatacollectionwasgiven.Alsonotedwerethestepstaken
totryandsolvetheproblems.Attentionwaspaidtoethicalissues,limitationsofthe
studyandassumptions.
Thenextchapterwillpresenttheresultsofthedataanalysis.
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Chap te r 5 Data analysis, results presentation and
interpretation
5.1 Introductiontodataanalysis
In this chapter, I analyseddata thatwas collected for this study to determine the
nature, occurrence and characteristics of CS in a Shona corpus. Interview
transcripts, theclozetestandtranscriptsofrecordingswereanalysed. Inaddition,
thecompiledcorpuswasqueriedusingWordSmithtools.Dataanalysisassisted in
answeringthefollowingresearchquestionsthatwereposedinthestudy:
1. WhatisthenatureofCSinspokenShona?
2. DoestheMMofCSapplytothecompiledShonacorpus?
3. What functions do the code-switches serve in the contexts in which they
appear?
The corpus was analysed by hand to determine the nature, occurrence and
characteristicsofCS.AnanalysiswasdonetoascertainwhethertheMMappliesto
thecorpusandtoestablishthefunctionsofCSinthecontextsthattheyappear.This
processwasaidedbytheuseofWordSmithToolssoftware,
a set of tools by Mike Scott . . . compatible with PCs running Microsoft
windows.The tools enable theuser toproducewordlists andkey-word-in-
context concordances. Other features include the ability to compare two
wordlistsusingthelog-likelihoodstatistic,theabilitytoidentifyandextract
collocationsandwordclustersandanalignerandbrowserforparalleltexts
(McEnery&Wilson,2001:211)
WordSmith tools was used to get information on word frequencies and once a
wordlisthadbeengenerated,thecorpuswasqueriedbyusingaselectionofEnglish
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search words in order to generate concordances. I used English search words
becauseIwaslookingforinstancesofCSfromShonatoEnglish.Thisallowedmeto
studythewordsandnearbyphrasesinthecontextsinwhichCSoccurred.
5.2 Resultspresentationandinterpretation
Thefollowingabbreviationswereused:
Researcher(R)
Participant1toParticipant13=(P1toP13)
Due toanonymity issues,allparticipantswerenumbered from1 to13.Therefore,
theywill be referred to by their allocated numbers fromP1 to P13. All instances
whereCSoccursareillustratedinitalicsandalltranslationsfromShonatoEnglish
are shown by the use of double quotation marks. Some of the examples which
illustratethetypesofCSarenumberedinboldsquarebrackets[].
5.2.1 Thecompiledcorpus
Asexplained inSection4.5, transcribed speech sampleswereused to compile the
Shona corpus totalling about 29 900 words. The corpus was used as a linguistic
resource.Fromthecorpus,Ilookedforinstanceswhereparticipantsswitchedfrom
Shona toEnglish.Thecorpuswasmostlyanalysedbyhandchecking for instances
wherelanguagealternationoccurred.Inaddition,IusedWordSmithToolssoftware.
ImadeawordlisttoseethefrequentlyusedwordsandtoseewhichEnglishwords
wereusedinthecorpus.IqueriedthecorpusbyusingaselectionofEnglishsearch
words in order to generate concordances. This process allowed me to study the
wordsandnearbyphrasesincontext.
5.2.2 EnglishLanguageproficiency
Semi-structured interviews were conducted in order to determine the English
proficiency levels of selected participants. The interviews assisted in determining
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whether participants were competent in English. M-S (1993a: 119) notes that
“while speakers must be relatively proficient in the two (or more) languages
involved, the degree of proficiency is open to question.” In the same vein, in this
study, participantswho could produce complete English sentenceswere selected.
This section will analyse participants’ responses to interview questions. They
acknowledged that they sometimes code-switched between Shona and English
during conversations. Shona was the first language for all participants and they
learned English as a second language at school. Participants had all undergone
formal education for at least 10 years. All participants used English to answer
questions.Althoughsemi-structured intervieweswere inadequateon theirown to
measurethelanguageproficiencylevelsofparticipants,theirusehelpedbecauseit
enabledme topick themost suitableparticipants.Table5-1 showsa summaryof
participants’responsestointerviewquestions.
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Whatisyourfirstlanguage?
WhendidyoustartlearningEnglish?
Howfardidyougowithyourformaleducation?
DidyouuseEnglishalotatschool?
DoyoustilluseEnglisheveryday?
DoyoufeelconfidentusingEnglish?
Participant
Shona
Other
Grade1
Nurseryschool
Aftergrade1
Form4only
Form4andtertiaryeducation
Form6only
Form6andtertiaryeducation
Yes
No
Yes
No
Sometimes
Yes
No
P1 P P P P P P
P2 P P P P P P
P3 P P P P P P
P4 P P P P P P
P5 P P P P P P
P6 P P P P P P
P7 P P P P P P
P8 P P P P P P
P9 P P P P P P
P10 P P P P P P
P11 P P P P P P
P12 P P P P P P
P13 P P P P P P
Table5-1Summaryofparticipants’responsestointerviewquestions
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5.2.3 Theparticipants
In this section, biographical information collected when participants were
interviewedtoascertaintheleveloftheirEnglishproficiencyispresentedbyusinga
narrative.Thestudyinvolved5malesand8femaleswiththeiragesrangingfrom18
to67years.Amongsttheparticipantswere4studentswhowerestudyingatvarious
tertiary institutions like colleges and universities. 5 people involved in the study
wereformallyemployedwithprofessionssuchasadoctor,ProvincialProgrammes
Coordinator, teacher, builder and retail services. A high school student, a retired
teacherand2housewiveswerealsoinvolvedinthestudy.
5.2.3.1 Participant1and2
Thiswasajointinterview.P1,a40yearoldProvincialProgrammesCoordinatorat
andP2,a35yearoldnursingstudentbothstartedlearningEnglishatgrade1.While
P1did formaleducationup toOrdinary level,P2wentup toAdvanced level.Both
participants said theyusedEnglisha lot at school.On thematterofwhether they
still converse in English everyday, P1 said she used it everyday at herworkplace
whilst P2 answered that she used English sometimes but not everyday. Both
participantssaidthat they feltconfident tocommunicate inEnglish.SinceP1’s job
wasamanagementposition,thiscouldexplainwhyshesaidshefeltmoreconfident
to speak in English than in Shona. This is because she is responsible for chairing
meetingsandseminarsinEnglishatthecompanythatsheworksfor.
5.2.3.2 Participant3
P3 is an 18 year old high school student who started learning English when she
startedgrade1anddidformaleducationuptoAdvancedlevel(equivalenttograde
12inSouthAfrica).ShesaidshestillusesEnglishalotatschoolduringherstudies.
WhenaskedabouthowconfidentshefeltusingEnglish,theparticipantresponded
that she felt very confident. This can be attributed to the fact that P3 is still
attendinghighschoolandsinceEnglishisamediumofinstruction,sheusesitmore
oftenatschool.
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5.2.3.3 Participant4
Participant4didformaleducationuptoformfourandwentontoateachertraining
college.The67yearoldretiredteacherindicatedthathelearnedEnglishatschool
whereitwasthemediumofinstruction.WhenaskedwhetherhestillusedEnglish
everyday,herepliedthatheusedEnglish“casually”.Itookittomeanthatheused
English less often. On the matter of whether the participant felt confident to
converseinEnglish,hesaidhedidfeelconfident.
Fromtheobservationsmadeduring the interview, therewere instanceswhereP4
hesitated to answer in English and then switched to Shona. For example, when I
askedhimwhenhestartedlearningEnglish,heansweredinShona;
P4:Goreharitsvetwi?
“IsitIdon’tputtheyear?”
TheresearcheralsoswitchedtoShonawhenreplying;
R:Uummunokwanisakutsvetakanamuchiziva.
“Uumyoucanputitifyouknow.”
Considering the above conversation, CS seems to be used to seek clarity or
understanding.ThedialoguehasbeengoingoninEnglishbutwhenP4wantssome
clarity on the issueunderdiscussion, he switches to the language that he ismost
comfortableusing.
5.2.3.4 Participant5and6
Unlikehercounterpartwhostarted learningEnglishwhenshestartedgrade1,P6
learnedEnglishatcrecheornurseryschool.P5’sformaleducationgoesuptoform4.
She thendid further education andobtaineda teachingdiplomaandadegree.P6
attendedformaleducationuptoform6.BothparticipantsusedEnglishalotduring
theirschoolingdays.Asateacher,P5saidsheusedEnglishoftenwhenconducting
lessons.ShealsoindicatedthatherEnglishwasimprovingsinceshealwaysspokein
English at school. In contrast, P6, a 30 year old housewife, rarely uses English to
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communicatebutwhenshedoes,shefeelsveryconfidentusingit.Thisisindicated
bythefollowingresponsethatshegave;
P6:Yes,yes.(laughs)Tinoitazvekusvisvinakanatadaisu.(laughs)
“Yes,yes.(laughs)Wedoitproperlyifwewantto.”(laughs)
Intheconversationbelow,thereisCSfromEnglishtoShona.
R:DoyoufeelconfidenttocommunicateinEnglish?
P5:Aa I do, I do.MyEnglishhas improveda lotbecause I amalways speaking in
English when I am at school. Inotoita problem kana ndava kuno kumusha. Vanhu
vanozotiunodada.
“Aa I do, I do. My English has improved a lot because I am always speaking in
EnglishwhenIamatschool.ItbecomesaproblemwhenIamhereathome.People
willsayIamtooproud.”
The above example shows P5 switching from English to Shona. Despite being
notified that the interview would be conducted in English to determine the
proficiencylevelsofpotentialparticipants, incidentsofCSliketheoneabovewere
recorded.
Since this study focused on peoplewho could speak both English and Shona, the
interviewprovided evidenceof the communicative competenceof theparticipant.
P5 and P6 could communicate proficiently in both Shona and English. P5 started
answeringthequestioninEnglishbutswitchedtoShonawhenshewasexplaining
her reservations about speaking in English at home. She was afraid that people
wouldconsiderhertobepompous.Soinordertoshowthesensitivityofthesubject,
P5 used Shona. This seems to suggest that P5 has assigned roles to the two
languagesshespeaks,withEnglishbeing reservedmainly forworkandShona for
homeinteractions.
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5.2.3.5 Participant7
P7, a 40 year old academic, was the participant with the highest tertiary
qualification. He did formal education up to PhD level. He said he used English
regularly at school since all subjects except Shona were taught in English.
ConcerningifhestillusedEnglisheveryday,P7saidthatheusedEnglishhalfofthe
timeinconversationsandthathefeltconfidentusingit.
5.2.3.6 Participant8
The25yearolduniversitystudentstartedlearningEnglishwhenhewas6yearsold.
HeattendedformaleducationuptoAdvancedlevel(equivalenttograde12inSouth
Africa). He used English everyday and still communicated in English on a regular
basis.Heindicatedthathedoesn’tfeelconfidentspeakinginEnglish.Whenprobed
furtheraboutthereasonforthathereplied;
P8: Aam aa I still need to kuti ndirambe ndichi- like kuva, kushandisa chirungu
changuzvakanaka.
“AamaaIstillneedto,tokeep,tobe,touseEnglishproperly.”
The above reply shows P8 switching between Shona and English in the same
sentence (intrasentential CS). He started answering the question in English but
switched to Shona upto the end of the sentence. There is an incomplete word,
“ndichi-”andahesitation,“aa”whichseemstosuggestthatP8wasnotsureabout
thelanguagetousewhenansweringthequestion.Hisreplywasthathestillneeds
topolishuponhisEnglishuse.CSisusedinthiscasetoexplainapoint..Thisseems
tosuggestthatP8feelsmoreconfidentspeakinginShona.
5.2.3.7 Participants9and10
Both participants learned English at school. P9, a 49 year old builder’s formal
education level is formsix.He thenobtainedadiploma inbuildingandcarpentry.
P10,a27yearolduniversitystudentdidformaleducationuptoform6.Bothused
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Englishalotatschool.P10explainedthatstudentsweremadetowearacow’shorn
aspunishmentforspeakingShonaduringschoolhours.
P10:Aayaawedid,wedid. Irememberwewereforcedtospeak inEnglishevery
timeatschool.TheyhadnineaaIthinkthecowhornthatweweremadetowearif
everwewerecaughttichitauraShona.
“Aa,yeswedid,wedid.IrememberwewereforcedtospeakinEnglisheverytime
atschool.Theyhadnine,aaIthinkthecowhornthatweweremadetowearifever
wewerecaughtspeakingShona.”
On thequestionofwhether they stilluseEnglisheveryday,P9andP10’sanswers
differed.P9saidthathepreferredEnglishandthatitalsodependedonwhohewas
talking to. P10 indicated that the university he attended had people fromdiverse
linguistic backgrounds. Therefore, it was difficult to speak in Shona since some
studentsdon’tunderstandit.
Both participants said they felt confident to converse in Englishwith P10 adding
thatsinceheconversesinEnglishallthetimeatuniversity,itnowseemsnaturalto
speakinEnglishallthetime;
P10: Yes yes. Aa because I communicate in English a lot at U Z. Zvatovamuropa
nokutimostofthetimeyouareforcedtocommunicateinEnglish.
“Yesyes.AabecauseIcommunicateinEnglishalotatUZ.Itisnowahabitbecause
mostofthetimeyouareforcedtocommunicateinEnglish.”
ItisinterestingtonotethatalthoughP10claimsthatforhim,usingEnglishduring
conversationsseemsnatural,hisreplycontainsCSfromEnglishtoShona.Although
the sentence has a mixture of both English and Shona words, the words are not
organised randomly but follow a coherent pattern and the sentencemakes sense.
ThisseemstosupportGumperz’s(1982)claimthatCSisadiscoursestrategy.
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5.2.3.8 Participants11and12
P11,a26yearoldretailworkerbeganlearningEnglishingrade1.ForP12,whoisa
highschool student,English learningstartedaftergrade1. I shouldhave followed
upon this answer to find out when exactly after grade 1 did she start learning
English but I didn’t. This can be considered as a weakness on the part of the
researcher because I could have learned more about the participant’s learning
experience.
P11 attended school up to form 6 whilst P12 went up to form 4. Like the other
participantsinterviewedinthisstudy,bothparticipantsusedEnglishalotatschool
during lessons. P11 indicated that she doesn’t use English everyday and that she
doesnot feel confident speaking itbecause it isdifficult.This canbeattributed to
her jobas a shopkeeper. Sheworksat a shop in a rural areaand itmightbe that
mostofhercustomersmostlyuseShona.P12notedthatsheusedEnglisheveryday
butdidnotfeelconfidentspeakinginEnglish.
5.2.3.9 Participant13
For the 53 year old housewife, English learning commenced at school. She did
formaleducationuptoformfourandwentontodoadressmakingcourse.Shesaid
spokeShonaallthetimeandseldomusedEnglishduringconversationsanddidnot
feelconfidentspeakinginEnglish.
Fromtheabovediscussionabout interviewsconducted, it canbenoted that there
was CS both within sentences (intrasentential CS) and outside sentences
(intersententialCS).Asmentionedearlier,theinterviewswereconductedinEnglish
todetermine theEnglish languageproficiency levelsofparticipants. It canbesaid
thatallparticipantswereabletoconverseinEnglishandthattheyunderstoodthe
languagewell.English-ShonaCSisprevelantintheinterviews.
Figure 5-1 to Figure 5-7 provide a summary of the biographical backgrounds of
participantsandanoverviewofparticipants’responsestointerviewquestions.
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Figure5-1isarepresentationofparticipants’agegroups.
Figure5-1Participants’agegroups
Belowisfigure5-2showingthegenderdistributionofparticipants.
Figure5-2Genderofparticipants
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
18-25years 26-35years 36-45years 46-55years 56+years
Num
bero
fpar9cipants
Agegroups
5
8
Males Females
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Figure5-3illustratesparticipants’responsestothequestion,“whendidyoustart
learningEnglish?”
Figure5-3AgeoflearningEnglishBelowisasummaryofthelevelofeducationofparticipants.
Figure5-4Levelofeducation
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Grade1
Nurseryschool/creche
AGergrade1
Numberofpar9cipants
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Form4("O"level)
Form6("A"level)
Secondary Te9ary
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Figure5-5representsparticipants’responsestothequestion:“Doyoustilluse
Englisheveryday?
Figure5-5EnglishuseFigure5-6showsparticipants’responsestothequestion,“doyoufeelconfidentto
communicateinEnglish?”
Figure5-6ConfidenceinusingEnglishTheemploymentstatusofparticipantsisshowninFigure5-7below.
6
2
5
Yes No Sometimes
9
4
Confident Notconfident
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Figure5-7Employmentstatus
5.2.4 Clozetest
In addition to semi-structured interviews, the cloze test helped determine which
participantsweremoresuitedtobeselectedforthestudy.Therewere14questions
whichrequiredparticipantstofillintheblankspacesusingthewordstheythought
weremostsuitabletocompletethesentences.Allparticipantspassedthetestwith
atleast12outof14.
5.3 ApplyingthemarkednessmodeltothecompiledShonacorpus
Inthissection,thefollowingresearchquestionswereconsidered:
• DoestheMMapplytothecompiledShonacorpus
• What functions do the code-switches serve in the contexts in which they
appear?
Thecompiledcorpuswasanalysedtodeterminewhether theMMapplies to it. .A
wordlist generated was used to manually search for English words. The English
wordswerethenenteredintoWordsmithtoseethecontextinwhichCSoccurred.
As mentioned in chapter 2, the MM is developed on the premise that speakers
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Formalemployment
Ter9aryeduca9on
Highschool Housewives Re9red
Num
bero
fpar9cipants
Employmentstatus
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choose linguistic codes not because of the societal conventions but because they
thinkcarefullyabouttheoutcome.Accordingtothemodel,speakersfollowthefour
proposedmaximsresulting in four typesofCS.This sectionwill consider the four
maxims and whether the types of CS proposed by M-S do in fact appear in the
spokenShonacorpus.
5.3.1 Theunmarked-choicemaxim
Asdiscussed inchapter2, theunmarked-choicemaximguidesspeakerstousethe
unmarked choice to assert what is expected in that type of exchange. Data was
analysedtodeterminetheoccurrenceof twotypesofCS(sequentialunmarkedCS
andunmarkedCS)resultingfromthemaxim.
5.3.2 SequentialunmarkedCS
TherewereincidencesofCSthatoccurswhensituationalfactorschangeduringan
interaction.TheMMstatesthatsequentialunmarkedCSoccursforexample“when
theparticipantmakeupofaconversationchangesorwhenthetopicisshifted.”(M-
S,1993:114)TheMMpredictsthatsequentialunmarkedCSmayoccurtoshowthe
seriousnessofthesubjectunderdiscussion.Thisistrueintheexample[1]whereP4
isdiscussingtheimportanceofrespectingGod.
[1](Setting:Fatherandchildarediscussingdifferentissuesathome.)
P4: Saka we don’t want to, to lose that opportunity of respecting God. Ee
ndakambotauranavakomanaava.Ndikati imimizvomotokoniwamanjendechekuti
ifyoudon’twanttorespecthanzvadzidzenyuidzi,Godwillneverrespectyou.
“Sowedon’twant to, to lose that opportunity of respectingGod. I once talked to
theseboys. I saidwhatyouare failing is if youdon’twant to respectyoursisters,
Godwillneverrespectyou.”
P3:Mm.
“Yes”
P4:Isu,inichandinokumbiraini,eezvandodakutaurapanoapandechokutiwemust
pray.Prayerisveryimportant.
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“WhatIask,whatIamsayingisthatwemustpray.Prayerisveryimportant.”
SinceP3andP4arefatherandchild,theexpectedlanguageinthisconversationis
Shona.This isbecausethefatherandchildsharethesamefirst language.Toshow
the change in tone and the seriousness of the matter under discussion, the
father switches to English when talking about prayer and respecting God. The
sentences;“wedon’twanttolosethatopportunityofrespectingGod”,“Godwillnever
respectyou”and“prayerisveryimportant”areexamplesofsequentialunmarkedCS.
[2](Colleagues)
Inanotherconversation,P11andP12arediscussingthepastinShona.
P12:--akanyararahaanarough.
“--isquietandisnotrough.”
P11:{LG}
P12:Ungazvikwanisaizvozvo?
“Canyoutoleratethat?”
P12:--anotiuchidakumutengeraanengeachikutuka.
“Whenyouwanttobuysomethingfor--,shescoldsyou.”
P11:--anotokutuka.Hanziiwe--iwe.--ka.{LG}
“--scoldsyou.Shesaysyou--.”
P12:(laughs)Haahaiwa.
(laughs)“WellIdon’tknow.”
P11:Unotozosekazvakokutihaavamwevanhuka,Mwaringaavaregererezvokwadi.
{LG}Aa--arirough.Unotovirirwawatoshaudwa.
“You just give up and say may God forgive her. {LG} Aa -- is rough. You end up
shouting.”
P12:Aa.
P11:--ndiyeanozivakutivanhuvaku-,avavanhuvakuruava.
“--knowsthatthesearegrownups.”
P12:Mm,haa--isasoftguy.
“Yes,well–isasoftguy.”
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P11:Pamwezvichachinjaotaura.
“Maybeitwillchangewhenhestartsspeaking.”
P12:Aazvochinja.
“Aaitwillchange.”
P11:Aneeavakuti-.
“Hewillbesayingthat-“
P12: Zvochinja haiwa. Kanoto- ka- ka- ka- ndakaona panda ndichiti usadaro.
Kakachiramba.
“Itwillchange.Hewill,IsawitwhenIwassayingdon’tdothat.Hewasrefusing.”
P11:{LG}
P12:Sakahaazvakatooma.Butheisasoftspoken.
“Soitisunbelievable.Butheisasoftspoken.”
P11:Kanozokurirwanekusataura.
“Hegetsoverwhelmedbythefailuretospeak.”
P12:HisfatherismissingoutIthink.Heisasweetguy.Imean--nothisfather.{LG}
P11:{LG}Yohweeaaya.{CG}Musandisetsazvangu.
{LG}“Goodness.{CG}Don’tmakemelaugh.”
P12:{CG}Imeanhe,shuwaheismissingout.Heisasweetguy.
“Imeanhe,yesheismissingout.Heisasweetguy.”
P11:--.
P12:Mm.
“Yes.”
Whenthesubjectchangestoachild’sbehaviourandtheabsenceofthechild’sfather
in [2], P12 switches to English. Since P11 and P12 are ethnic brethren, the
unmarked (expected) choice for them in this casual conversation is Shona.
Sequential unmarked CS here is caused by a shift in the topic under discussion.
Although P12 switches to English, P11 still uses Shona when replying. This is
evidencetosuggestthatbothP11andP12arebilinguals.Bilingualismisoneofthe
conditionsproposedbyMyers-ScottonasaconditionforCStooccur.
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5.3.3 Unmarkedcode-switching
As noted by M-S (1993a) speakers in many urban African communities switch
between a foreign language which will be the official language and their first
language.The foreign language isusually learnedat school. Itwas the case forall
participantsinthecurrentstudy.InunmarkedCS,“speakersengageinacontinuous
pattern of using two (ormore) languages, often the switch is intra-sentential and
sometimeswithinthesameword”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:117).Inthisstudy,there
isalotofunmarkedCSrecordedintheconversations.UnmarkedCSoccurredinall
theconversationsrecorded for thisstudy.TheMMstates that forunmarkedCS to
occur,speakersshouldbebilinguals.AllparticipantswereShona-Englishbilinguals
andusedboth languagesduringconversations.Hence this condition ismet in this
study.ThefollowingexamplesshowunmarkedCS.
[3] The following is a dialogue between two sisters, a Provincial Programmes
Coordinator (P1) and a nursing student (P2). They learned English at school and
Shonaistheirmothertongue.ThereisunmarkedCSintheconversations.Instances
wheretheyswitchtoEnglisharegiveninboldface.
P1: Vanhu ini ndakatozvibata ndikazvihwisisa ini. Zviri clear kuti vana chikoro
zvakatodii.
“Ifigureditoutmyself.Itisclearthatchildren’sschoolingwas-.”
P2:Zvakakona.
“Itfailed.”
P1:Mwanaakatoregisterzvaakaregister.Sakawhatnow?
“Thechildregisteredsomething.Sowhatnow?”
P2:Mm.
“Yes.”
P1:Muchatauranemunhumuchadei?Problemyangairipoissolved.
“Whatdoyouwanttalkingtotheperson?Theproblemissolved.”
P2:Ee.
“Yes.”
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P1:Sowhat?Vana--vanengevachingotipanoneapovachingodii,vanhuvachingoona
kuti vari kufemawo here, zvapera. Iye zvaanofunga kuti attention. Moziva kuti
munhuka?
“Sowhat? -- and companywill bemoving aroundwhilst people check if they are
breathing.Heisanattentionseeker.Doyouknowthataperson-?”
[4]BelowisaconversationbetweenP7a40yearolddoctorandP8,a27yearold
universitystudent.UnmarkedCSisshown.
P7:Yaapapropertyiyoinodakupendwa.
“Yes,thepropertyneedstobepainted.”
P8:Horaiti.
“Alright.”
P7:SoIdon’tknow.Maybekunana,tirimunaaniJune?
“SoIdon’tknow.Maybein,whichmontharewein,isitJune?”
P8:June.
P7:AroundendofJulyorAugust,earlyAugust.
P8:EarlyAugust.(talkstosomeone)(laughs)
P7:Haungambopeyifornhingirikiri.
“Youcannotpayforthat.”
P8:For?
P7:Becausevanhuvaunengeuchipayervachoka,anengeachiitirakutiapedzeainde
kunenext.
“Becausethepeoplethatyoupaywillberushingtofinishandgotothenextjob.”
P8:Ehe.
“Yes.”
P7:Awanemariyake.WhilstiweukazviitirayoucansayItakemytime.
“Togethismoney.WhilstifyoudoityourselfyoucansayItakemytime.”
P8:Wotoratimeyakozvishomanezvishomauchinyatsoonakutizvabudahere.(talks
tosomeoneelse)
“Youtakeyourtimeslowlyseeingifitcomesoutproperly.”(talkstosomeoneelse)
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Themonthsintheaboveconversation,“June”,“July”,“August”areconsideredtobe
borrowings in this study. Although Shona has terms that refer to these months;
“Chikumi”/“Chikuni”,“Kunguru”,and“Nyamavhuvhu”respectively,theyarerarely
used in conversations. They are more prevalent in the written form than in the
spokenform.TheiruseinthecorpusseemstosupportMyers-Scotton’ssuggestion
thatunmarkedCScancontainborrowedwords.
Example[5]isarecordedconversationbetweenaretailserviceworker(P11)anda
high school student (P12). Their conversation includes Shona-English CS which
occurswithinsentenceboundaries.Therearealsoborrowedwordslike“Maths”and
“TV”.
[5]P11:HanzivakandidzidzisakuverengaMaths?
“ShesaidhetaughtmetoreadMaths?”
P12:Kuverenga insteadofkungoudzwakunziunodaiunodai.Wotoverengawoziva
kutivanodai,vanodaisakaregaindiite.
“Readinginsteadofbeingspoonfed.Youreadandknowwhattodo.”
P11: Ee Maths dzoverengwa. Tiri kuchikoro taingoudzwa kunzi Maths
dzinoverengwa asi unenge usingabvumi hako munhu. Saka -- anogona kudzipasa
Maths.
“YesMaths canbe read.Whenwewere in schoolwewere told that you can read
Mathsbutwerefusedtobelieveit.So--mightpassMaths.”
P12:Haaakafoirawo.Munhuanotiapedzabasaaroundelevenototangakuverenga.
AnozonakirwaneTV.
“Well if she fails it’s her fault. When she finishes work around eleven she starts
reading.ShegetsexcitedbyTV.”
P11:Ee,inga--kavaserious.
“Well--isnowserious.”
The MM proposes that unmarked CS can consist of single morphemes or single
words with speakers alternating between the languages during a conversation.
Example[5]aboveshowsCSoccurringassinglewords(e.g.aroundandserious).
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ThereareincidencesofunmarkedCSintheconversationbetweenP5,a38yearold
female teacherandP6, a30yearoldhousewife.The twoare talkingabouthealth
issuesandtheirexperiencesvisitingthelocalclinic.
[6]P5:Kogumboririseikoimi?Ndakanzwakutifutimunegumbo.
“Howistheleg?Iheardthatyourlegissore.”
P6:Ririnani.NdakabvakuclinicneChinabutakangondipamapainkillerchete.
“It is better. I came from the clinic on Thursday but she just gaveme painkillers
only.”
P5:Havanaheremishongakwayo?Iish.Vanhuvepaclinicapavanodakutonetsa.
“Don’ttheyhavepropermedication?It istough.Thepeopleatthisclinicarebeing
troublesome.”
P6:VanayoasivakatimishongayachohaisisafekwandirindineBP.
“TheyhavethembuttheysaidthedrugsarenotsafeformebecauseIhaveBP.”
P5:Hoozviya.Sakavakagotimudii?
“OkIremember.Sowhatdidtheysayyoushoulddo?”
P6:Hanziindaikwadoctor.
“Theysaidgotothedoctor.”
P5:Ok.
P6: Ndichatoinda kana ndawana mari yacho. Nekudhura kunoita transport
zvinotodakuronga.
“IwillgowhenIgetthemoney.Withtransportbeingexpensive,itneedsplanning.”
P5:That’swhyndakangandaindakuclinicpapakakuvaramwana.Nokuti iishvana
doctorvachovanonetsa.
“That’swhyIwenttotheclinicwhenthechildwasinjured.Becausethedoctorsare
difficult.”
P6: That’s why ndakatangawo kuclinic. Vanodhura vana doctor. Fungai kuti
everytime yaunoinda vanenge vachitoda kuti ubhadhare consultation. Manje ii
ndinoiwanepinhaivasikana?
“That’swhyIalsostartedattheclinic.Thedoctorsareexpensive.Thinkaboutitthat
everytimeyougotheywantyoutopayconsultationfee.Sogirl,wheredoIgetit?”
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In example [6], that’s why, everytime, safe can be classified as CS. In addition to
unmarkedCSbeingevidentin[6],therearealsoborrowedwords.Oneareawhere
ShonahasborrowedEnglishwords to fill lexicalgaps in the language ismedicine.
This is evident in the above conversation where English terms are used. For
example, the speakers used the terms “clinic”, “BP” (Blood Pressure), and
“painkiller”.Thesyntax,morphologyandphonologyofthesewordsdidnotchange.
Onemay argue that “doctor” can be classified as a borrowedword because some
peopleuse it in conversationsoruse theborrowedversion, “dhokuta”.TheShona
wordmeaning“doctor”is“chiremba”butitisnotusedconsistently.Becauseofthis,
I classified “doctor as a borrowed word rather than CS in this study. Borrowed
wordsfoundinthecorpusarelistedinSection5.4.
5.3.3.1 AffixesinShona-Englishcode-switching
Thestudy showssomeEnglishwords thatareprefixedwithShonanounprefixes.
Theprefixesareindicatedinboldface.
[7]P9:Handitibreakdownyaka,yemapaymentswakaionahanditika?
“Isityousawthebreakdownforpayments?”
In Shona, zvakabhadharwa is the word meaning “payments”. One can therefore
consider the above sentence to be an example of CS. Yema- “Of the” has been
prefixedtotheEnglishnoun(plural)“payments”.ThisseemstoshowthatinCS,the
embeddedlanguage,whichisinthiscaseEnglishdoesnotviolatethesyntaxofthe
matrixlanguage,Shona.
[8] P10: Asi munoziva henyu kuti makanyorerana pasi kuti tobhadhara kana
tanyatsogutsikana neeverything zvamunenge maita. Kwete kuti tongokupai mari
takanyarara.
“ButIguessyouknowthatyousignedagreeingthatwewillpayifwearesatisfied
withyourwork.Notthatwewillgiveyoumoneyquietly.”
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TheEnglishword “everything” has beenprefixedwithne-. One can also consider
example[8]tocontainCS.ThereisonlyoneEnglishwordfoundintheexamplebut
inliterature,thereisnoprescribednumberofwordsrequiredforasentencetobe
considered as containing CS. The word “everything” cannot be considered as a
borrowedwordbecauseShonausesthewordzvese/zvosetoreferto“everything”.
[9]P1:Hanzimurumewachoanotomuabuserzvake.
“Iheardthehusbandabusesher.”
Intheexampleabove,“abuser”isprefixedwithanotomu-.WiththeShonaprefixes
added, the oneword createdmakes sense. This seems to further supportMyers-
Scotton’s claim thatCS isnotahaphazardphenomenonbut that speakersuse the
languageattheirdisposalinanorderlymanner.
5.3.4 Marked-choicemaxim
The marked-choice principle states that speakers can use the unexpected code
choice during a conversation. Therefore, it allows speakers to disregard the
standardsocietalexpectations.ThemodelclaimsthatmarkedCScanoccurformore
than one reason like to show anger, authority, annoyance, ethnicity, creativity.
MarkedCSresultsfromthemarked-choicemaximandwillbediscussedbelow.
5.3.5 MarkedCSanditsfunctions
The MM predicted that status contributes to the making of marked choices.
Membersofagroupthatismostlikelytomoveupwardssociallyandeconomically
will likely make marked choices. In addition, the well to do members of a
communitywillmost likelyusemarkedchoices. InmarkedCS“thespeakersimply
disidentifieswiththeexpectedROset”(Myers-Scotton,1993a:131).Myers-Scotton
notes thatspeakersusemarkedCS toshowauthority,ethnicity, levelofeducation
andarangeofemotionslikethatoneisangryorhappy.Lookingatthedataset,let
usconsiderthefollowingconversation:
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CSisusedtoshowangerin[10]betweena67yearoldretiredteacheranda53year
oldhousewife.Theyarearguingabout the focusofa torch.WhenP13argues that
thereiscockroachpoisonwhereP4wantsthetorchtobepositioned,P4surrenders
andleavesthedecisiontoP13.P13thenusesmarkedCStoshowheranger.
[10]P4:Taridzaiuko.
“Focusthere.”
P13:Iii.
“Iii.”
P4:(())
P13:Handitiapapanemushongawemapeteherenhainhai--?
“Isn’tittherewascockroachpoison?”
P4:Aachitsvetaicheropamunotsveta.
“No,putitwherever.”
P13:HaaimiIamnotasaskamu!Hezvo!
“WellIamnotmentallychallenged.Goodness!”
P4: Hamufani kumboti, nokutika kana tichitaura kudai toitira kuti tive newider
knowledgeyokutiiyekanaachiachiindakumushakwake.
“Youdon’thave tosay . . .becausewhenweare talking like thiswewant tohave
widerknowledgeforwhenshegoestoherhome.”
P13:Zvatoperawani.Zvatopera.
“Itisoveralready.Itisover.”
Theslangword“saskamu”usedbyP13meanssomeonewhoismentallychallenged.
TheconversationbetweenhusbandandwifehasbeengoingoninShona.Thetwo
participantsbothabove55yearsofage,areexpectedtousetheirmothertonguein
the rural setting. In the dialogue, Shona is the unmarked code during the
conversation. P13 shows her anger and annoyance by using English, the marked
choice and a slang word. By doing this, she is demanding to be respected as
someonewhocanmakeherowndecision.Theuseof anexclamationmark in the
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transcriptionshowsthathervoiceisraised.WhenP4repliesinShonaandEnglish,
P13revertsbacktoShonaandpleadsthattheconversationtobeover.
OneoftheclaimsmadebytheMMisthathighlyeducatedmembersofacommunity
are likely tomakemarked choices during a conversation. This claim seems to be
trueinexample[11]P7hasaPhDdegreewhilstP8isauniversitystudent. Inthe
conversation,P7usesEnglishtoshowhisauthority.HeisgivinginstructionstoP8
inEnglish.
[11]P7:Somaybeyoujusttakethatreceiptwoindafor-
“Somaybeyoujusttakethatreceiptandgofor-”
P8:Horaitindono,fiftypagore?
“Ok,Iwill,fiftyperyear?”
P7: I think so. So you can pay fees idzodzo. Then aa yaa aam maybe uyo anoita
mapipingakaitapipingyakeakapedza,thenuyootangakuplaster.
“I think so. So you canpay those fees.Then aa yes aammaybe after the guywho
doespippingisfinished,thentheotheronecanplaster.”
P8:Handiti?Mr--.
“Isthatso?Mr--”
P7:Maybetaikwanisakutsvakayokutiakaplasterpafrontnokuisaveranda.
“Maybeifwemanagetogetsomethingtoplasterthefrontandtoputtheveranda.”
P8:Plasterkufront?
“Plasterthefront?”
P7:Mm.
“Yes.”
P8:Aabutmatitopendakahanditi?
“Aabutdidyousaywepaint?”
P7:YaIthinkso.
“YesIthinkso.”
P8:Hoosakait’sliketoregedzakupendathewhole?
“Ok,soit’slikewedon’tpaintthewhole?”
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P7:Yajustleavetheoutside.
“Yesjustleavetheoutside.”
P8:Vongopendakumberi.
“Theyjustpaintthefrontonly.”
P7:Mm.
“Yes.”
P8:Pane,yapanepandakamboonapakapendwa.Itwasnice.(childrentalking)(...)
“Isawthesametypeofpainting.Itwasnice.
P7:MmmbecauseIthinkitshouldbeok.Idon’trememberkapane-
“YesbecauseIthinkitshouldbeok.Idon’trememberifthereis-“
P8:SakapanengepodakungoplastwaIthink.
“SoIthinkitwillneedtobeplastered.”
P7:Yaa,kutopuku.
“Yes,atthetop.”
P8:Yaa.
“Yes.”
[12]P9,abuilderandP10,auniversitystudentarediscussingchildren.Thesetting
isaruralshop.TheduohavebeenconversinginShonabutP9changesthecodeto
English.
P9:{LG}(...)Sakamukomawakoavanevanganikokukukwaariikoko?
“Sohowmany(kids)doesyourbrotherhave?”
P10:Aavanongovanetwoavo.Koimimakazomavanevanganizvamurimi?
“Aaheonlyhastwo.Howmanydoyouhave?”
P9: Haa ini ini vanonetsazve vana. Nekunetseka kwatoita mari ungaramba
uchingotsvagamariuchingopinzachikoro.Haaasihaandinethreezvangu.
“Wellformechildrenaredifficult.Withthewaywestruggletogetmoneyyouend
uplookingforschoolfeeseverytime.Well,butIhavethree.”
P10:Aakomakazoitawechithree?Ndaifungakutimunevavirikaini.
“Aadidyouhaveathirdone?Ithoughtthatyouhavetwo.”
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P9: Haa ndakazoita wechithree, kakomana twenty thirteen but haa zvakabva
zvatoguma. Totosiira imika imi ndimi mava kutofanirwa kuronga mhuri
dzamangwana.{LG}Vanavoku,vanhuvokuuniversityndimimunowanamarikaimi
kana mazotanga mabasa saka ndimi munotozoita vana vakawanda imi. Isu
tingazvigonerwananizveduisumadharamadhara.
“WellIhadathirdone,aboyintwentythirteenbutthatwastheend.Weleaveitto
youtoplanfuturefamilies.Youuniversitygraduateswillgetmoneywhenyoustart
workingsoyoushouldhavemorekids.Wetheelderlycannotmanage.”
P10:Aa isuhere?Zvekuita vana vakawanda zvakatoperakudhara. {LG} Iwon’tbe
able to take care of them. Iwill be verybusy. Saka ah handitomborina plan yokuti
ndiitevanavakawanda.
“Aadoyoumeanus?Havingalotofkidsisathingofthepast.Iwontbeabletotake
careofthem.Iwillbeverybusy.SoAhIdon’tplanonhavingalotofchildren.”
P9: Aa plus inizve ndakazotora mumwe mudzimaizve saka. Handiti unoziva kuti
ndaiva netwo vaya? Asi ndakazoita mumwe. Uyu wandakazoita uyu ndakaita
neumwemudzimaiasihii,hi,hi,barikaharisinyorehaiwawo.
“AaplusItookanotherwife.IguessyouknowthatIhadtwo.TheoneIhadcame
fromanotherwifebutwell,polygamyisnoteasy.”
P10:Aamotoshinga,barikaharisinyorezve.
“Aayoushouldbestrong,polygamyisnoteasy.”
P9:Handagutamuzukuru.Thanksverymuch.
“WellIamsatisfiedmygrandchild.Thanksverymuch.”
P10: Muchitendeiko sekuru haa muchitendei zvenyu. Matombodya here imi?
Mangotoranyamandokudyandokutotimapedza.
“Don’t mention it uncle. Did you even eat? You just ate meat and said you are
finished.”
Example[12]aboveshowstheuseofmarkedCSbyP10toshowhisstatus.Whenhe
ischallengedtohavemanychildren,heobjects.Heconsidershimself tobepartof
theyounggenerationwhohavemovedonwiththetimesanddoesnotwanttohave
manychildren.P10explainsthat“Iwon’tbeabletotakecareofthem.Iwillbevery
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busy.”Toshowthathehascontroloverthematterofhowmanychildrentohave,he
usesEnglish.TheuseofEnglishherecanbeexplainedasshowinghiseducational
status (university student). In example [12], participants used the interjectionaa
severaltimes.
The conversation below [13] between P3, a teacher’s college student and P4, a
retiredteachershowstheuseofmarkedCStoshowhappiness.
[13]P3:Panehembedzachozve.
“Amongsttheclothes.”
P4:Idzodzo?
“Thoseones?”
P3:Mm.
“Yes.”
P4:Uchandipafuti?
“Areyougivingmeagain?”
P3:Ndakupaiwani.Dzirimoidzo.
“Igaveyou.Theyareinthere.”
P4:MyLord!(claps)(alllaugh)Kutindipfekeyakadaineimweinedifferentcolour?
“MyLord!(claps)Formetowearthisoneandanotheronewithadifferentcolour?”
P3:Mm.
“Yes.”
P4:AamyLord!(laughs)
“WellmyLord!”(laughs)
To show his happiness about the clothes that he has been given, P4 switches to
English and claps his hands. Upon listening to the recording of this conversation,
one can hear the pitch of P4’s voice getting high to indicate his happiness. The
phrasesmyLord!andaamyLord!seemtoshowP4’shappiness.
InanotherexampleofmarkedCS found in this study,P9startsexplainingapoint
andthenrepeatsitinEnglishintheconversationbelow.Thisisdonetoreinforceor
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to emphasise thepoint that althoughhe is facing challenges in his business, he is
determinedtokeepgoing.
In[14],P9uttersasentenceinShonaandrepeatsitinEnglish.
[14]P10:Ok,ok.Sakakambaniyenyuirikushandaherenhaibaba?
“Ok,ok.Soisyourcompanystillfunctional?”
P9:Hihaazvakadzvanyamuzukuru.MacustomerndoarikuitamashomabuthaaI
willkeeptrying.ZvasiyananekushandiraumwemunhubutIwillkeeptrying.
Ndongorambandichingoonakutindoitasei.Ndakatoshingirira
handichatombodzoki.Iwillneverlookbacknow.
“Well it isdifficultmynephew.The customersare fewbut Iwill keep trying. It is
differentfromworkingforsomeonebutIwillkeeptrying.IwillseewhatIcando.I
willkeeptryingIwillneverlookback.Iwillneverlookback.”
5.3.6 Exploratorycode-switching
ThistypeofCSoccurswhentheunmarkedROsetisuncertainorwhenspeakersare
doubtfuloftheexpectationsinaconversation(Myers-Scotton,1993a).Accordingto
theMM,exploratoryCSdoesnotfeaturemuchinconversationsbecauseusuallythe
unmarkedchoiceisclear.NoinstancesofexploratoryCSwerefoundinthecorpus.
5.4 BorrowedwordsinShona
AlthoughthisdiscussionisaboutCS,itisinterestingtonotethatthereareborrowed
wordsinthedataset.LetusconsiderKamwangamalu’s(2000)explanationthatthe
borrowed word’s morphology, phonology and syntax changes to that of the
borrowinglanguage.Table5-2containsalistofexamplesofborrowedwordsthatfit
Kamwangamalu’s explanation. The Shona words are given with their English
equivalents.
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Shona English
Shuwa Sure
Fenzi Fence
Majuzi Jerseys
Kicheni Kitchen
Dhora Dollar
Pendi Paint
Bhuku Book
Heti Hat
Sitaira Style
Horaiti Alright
Dhirezi Dress
Hwani One
Hwindo Window
Kosi Course
Bhegi Bag
Dhishi Dish
Zipi Zip
Bhenji Bench
Taundishipi Township
Wikendi Weekend
Table5-2Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus
Whenconsideringthesentencebelow:
P11:Inodiwanhingirikiniiya,sprayiyayemutoilet.
“Thattoiletsprayisneeded”.
Chimbuzi is theShonawordmeaning “toilet”. Insteadofusing it,P11uses “toilet”
whichhasbenprefixedwithyemu-.ThiscanbeconsiderdasanexampleofCSand
notborrowingsinceShonaalreadyhasatermfortoilet.Argumentscanbemadein
support of “toilet” being a borrowedword because chimbuzi is rarely used. The
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difficulty in classifying “toilet” as either an example of CS or as a borrowedword
seems to support the suggestion that there is no clearcut distinction between
borrowing and CS (Kamwangamalu 2000). In this study, “toilet” is classified as a
borrowedword. This is because as indicated in Chapter 2, CS and borrowing are
sometimes difficult to differentiate (e.g. Gumperz, 1982). This view is shared by
Moro(2015)whonotesthattherearedivergentviewsaboutCSandborrowing.The
example below contains aword that can be classified as either CS or a borrowed
word.
TherearesomeShonawordswhichhavebeenborrowedfromEnglishwhichhave
retainedtheirEnglishmorphologyandphonology(e.g.“airtime”,“library”,“square”,
“fleece”, “percent”, “fifty”, “eight”, “fees”, “metres”, “ceiling”, “first”, “fifteen”,
“calculator”,“grade”,“thousand”,and“doctor”).Thistypeofborrowingisreferredto
as“nonceborrowing”inliterature.
5.5 Thenatureofcode-switchinginspokenShona
AnassumptionwasmadeinSection1.8regardingthesocialfunctionsofCSthatthe
markednessmodelofCSasexplainedbyMyers-Scottonwillapplytoallinstancesof
CS in my data set. Data was analysed to determine whether the assumption is
correct.
5.5.1 Code-switchingoccurswithinsentenceboundaries
Fromthegathereddata, itcanbenotedthatCSoccursinsidesentenceboundaries
(intrasententialCS)
Thisistrueofthefollowingsentences;
[15]P9:Atleastwakawanabasa.
“Atleastyougotajob.”
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ThesentencestartsinEnglishandswitchestoShona.Duringthesameconversation,
P9startsasentenceinShonathenswitchestoEnglishbeforerevertingtoShonato
finishthesentence.
P9:Manje havazivi kutimazuvano ukatowana chero basa zvaro youarebetteroff
thankutongogarakumbauchishayazvokuita.
“Buttheydon’tknowthatthesedaysifyougetanyjobyouarebetteroffthansitting
athomedoingnothing.”
P10:Haiwa,vanotodakukuonaiimifacetofacesakatinotofanakuindatose.
“No,theywanttoseeyoufacetofacesoweshouldgotogether.”
Considering the sentence above, the English words “face to face” form part of a
sentence which includes Shona words. This sentence seems to show that
intrasententialCS followsapattern.This isbecausealthoughthere isamixture in
the languages used, the resulting sentence still makes sense and themorphology
andsyntaxofbothEnglishandShonaisretained.
P9:Ok,aslongaspanenyamathenhoraitionefiftyyacho.
“Ok,aslongasthereismeatthenitsfineonefiftyisfine.”
Example [16] shows CS occurring inside sentence boundaries with the sentence
commencing in English, then there is a switch to Shona in the middle of the
sentence.ThesentenceconsistsoffragmentsofShonaandEnglish.
[16] P6: Ii vanhu vanoziva kuti mukando unobatsira especially kana uchida
kukwereta.
“Wellpeopleknowthatcontributionshelpespeciallyifyouwanttoborrow.”
Inthemiddleoftheabovesentence,P6switchestoEnglish.Theword“especially”is
used.InShona,“kunyanya”isthewordthatmeans“especially”.Insteadofusingthe
Shonaword,P6usestheEnglishequivalent.TheoneEnglishwordthatisusedinthe
abovesentence fitsperfectly into thesentencesuggesting thatCS isnota random
andhaphazardphenomenon.
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5.5.2 Shona-Englishcode-switchingoccursoutsidesentenceboundaries
In the corpus, CS occurs outside sentence boundaries (intersentential CS) as
supportedbyexamplesgivenbelow.
[17]P7:Tobeconstructedonsite.Yaa,hazvinabasareseizvi.
“Tobeconstructedonsite.Well,thisisnotimportantatall”.
ThefirstsentenceintheexampleaboveisentirelyinEnglish.ThenP7switchesto
Shonainthesentencethatfollows.Thisshowsthatthetwolanguagesarenotmixed
duringtheswitchandseemstosupportKamwangamalu’s(1999)claimthatCSisa
languagecontactphenomenonthatisavailabletobilingualsandnottopeoplewho
speakonlyonelanguage.
P7:Iwillmakeacopy.Ndinindaivandakunyoraizvi.
“Iwillmakeacopy.Iamtheonewhowaswritingthis”.
P7usesEnglishinthefirstsentenceandthenchangestoShonainthesentencethat
comesafterwards.
Inexample[18]below,thefirstsentenceisinShona.ThenP8switchestoEnglishin
thesentencethatfollows.
[18]P8:Pane,yapanepandakamboonapakapendwa.Itwasnice.
“Thereis,yesthereissomewherethatIsawpainted.Itwasnice.”
Example[18]showsCSoccuringoutsidesentenceboundaries.Thefirstsentenceis
inEnglishfollowedbyaswitchtoShona.
5.5.3 Code-switchingappearstobeorderly
The sentences involved in CS still make sense despite being made up of two
languageswhichhavedifferentmorphology,phonologyand syntax. Ifwe take the
followingexamplefromthestudy,thepointwhereCSoccursisshowninboldface.
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[19]P4:Ee.Sakatheinfluenceyavakadziivavoitdoesn’tworkkuitaunitethefamily.
“Yes.Sothewomen’sinfluencedoesn’tworktounitethefamily.”
Theabovesentence isgrammaticalalthough it containsShonaandEnglishwords.
This shows that CS has not rendered the sentence ungrammatical. Therefore this
seemstosuggestthatShona-EnglishCSappearstobeorderly.
Ifwe consider the sentencebelow, the firstpart is inEnglish thenP4 switches to
Shona.ThetransitionfromEnglishtoShonaseemstobedoneinsuchawaythatthe
sentenceiswellformedandisinaccordancewiththerulesofShona.
P4:Youdenyusthatchanceyokutitivetinoraramawo.
“Youdenyusthatchanceforustolive.”
Inthefollowingsentence;
P12:Mm,haavaka,zvakavaaffectamentally.
“Wellyes,itaffectedhermentally.”
The Shona prefixes zvakava- and suffix -a are added to affect. The word
“zvakavaaffecta”meaning“itaffectedher”iscreated.Theprefixesandsuffixadded
createagrammaticalword.
5.5.4 Concordances
Thecorpuswasquerried forconcordances.Thiswasdone inorder toanalyse the
contextinwhichspecificEnglishwordsappeared.Forexample,concordancesofthe
word“this”areshowninFigure5-8.
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Figure5-8Concordancesoftheword“this”
“This”appearedbothatthebeginningansdinthemiddleofsentences.“This”
appearedinsentencescontainingCSasillustratedinthefollowingsentence:
“Hopethistimezvinorongeka”“Hopethistimeitwillbeorderly.”Concordancesof“but”
“But”wasthemostfrequentlyusedEnglishwordintheShonacorpusasshownin
figure5-9.Itappearedbothatthebeginningandatthemiddleofsentences.Inthe
followingexamples,“but”appearedatthestartofsentences.
P1:Ee.Buthavachaitiwolifeyakanaka.Patoshata.
“Yes.Butshewillnothaveagoodlife.Thereisaproblem.”
Theexamplesthatfollowshow“but”appearinginthemiddleofsentences.
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P9:Istartedtwoyearsagobutndinevanhutwovandirikushandanavo.
“IstartedtwoyearsagobutIhavetwopeoplethatIamworkingwith.”
Considering the sentences above, Shona-English CS seems to appear both at the
startofasentenceandinthemiddle.Figure5-9isascreenshotshowingsomeofthe
concordancesoftheword“but”.
5.5.5 FrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpus
From the wordlist created using the Shona corpus, the 5 most frequently used
EnglishwordsinthecorpusareshowninTable5-3.Thepositionofthewordsinthe
wordlist, frequency and percentage are shown. The English words appeared in
Figure5-9Concordancesof“but”
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sentencescontainingShona-EnglishCSeitherastheonlycode-switchedwordsoras
partofaphrase.
Position Word Frequency Percentage
16 but 135 0.46
18 because 128 0.44
22 I 108 0.37
26 ok 98 0.33
42 it 75 0.26Table5-3FrequentlyusedEnglishwords
In comparison, the 5most frequently used Shona words are shown in Table 5-4
below.
Position Word Frequency Percentage
1 kuti 633 2.15
4 saka 393 1.34
5 kana 334 1.14
7 ini 271 0.92
8 hanzi 259 0.88Table5-4FrequentlyusedShonawords
Data seems to suggest that the 5 frequently used Shona words recorded higher
frequencies and percentages than 5 frequently used English words. Even the
positionofShonawordsonthewordlistwashigherthanthatofEnglishwords.This
maybe because Shona was the matrix language and English was the embedded
languageduringtheconversations.
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The followingdiscussionwill illustratesomeof the frequentlyusedEnglishwords
andtheircollocations.
(i)Because:128entries
ThesecondfrequentlyusedEnglishwordinthecorpusis“because”whichappeared
128times.Someofthesentencesinwhich“becauseappearedareshownbelow.
P11:BecausevanhuvarikunyoraJune.
“BecausepeoplearewritinginJune.”
P4:Sheisnottiredbecausezvokufoneranazvonetsa.
“Sheisnottiredbecausephoningisdifficult.”
(ii)I:108entries
P9:HaaIunderstand,Iunderstandmuzukuru.
“WellIunderstand,Iunderstandmynephew.”
P1:“Inihandinakutauranayeini.Ithinkkungomunyararira.Ignorancepays.”
(iii)Ok:98entries
Okappearedasacompletesentenceinmostsentencesinthecorpus.Itwasusedto
agreeortoacknowledgeapoint.
P9:Ok.Komabasaariseiedegreeraurikuita?
“Ok.Howarejobsforthedegreethatyouaredoing?”
P10:“Ok,ok.”
5.6.6Collocationsofcode-switchedwordsfoundinthecompiledcorpus
Dataanalysisshowsthecontextsinwhichthecode-switchedwordsappeared.This
isshownintheexamplesofcollocationsgivenbelow.
(i)Think:33entries
“Think” collocateswith “I” in 30 instances out of the 33 entries recorded in the
corpus.
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P1:HaaIthinkmwanawake.
“WellIthinkit’shischild.”
P6:YaaIthinkvazhinjivanodakutivajoine.
“Yes,Ithinkmanywantthemtojoin.”
(ii)Know:21entries
“Know”collocateswith“Idon’t”in18instancesoutof21inthecorpus.Someofthe
instancesareshownbelow.
P7:Idon’tknowkutitingadiikoapa.
“Idon’tknowwhattodohere.”
P12:Doyouknowkutihaatsatiswi?
“Doyouknowthatyoucannotcrushthem?”
(iii)Was:8entries
Wascollocateswithitin7ofthe8entriesinthecorpus.ItalsocollocateswithIin1
instance.
P7:Idon’tknowaboutthesamebutapaIwastemptedkutsvetafutiextrabut...
“Idon’tknowaboutthesamebuthereIwastemptedtoputextrabut...”
Thetablebelowillustratescollocationsofthewords“think”,“know”and“was”.
Word Entries Collocation Collocationtimes
Think 33 I 30
Know 21 Idon’t 18
Was 8 It 7Table5-5Collocations5.6 Conclusion
DataanalysishasshownthattheMMisastrongmodelthatcanbeappliedtoShona-
English CS.Data analysis confirmed the assumptionsmade in section 1.8 that the
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MMofCSasexplainedbyM-SwillapplytoShona-EnglishCS.However,duetothe
morelimitednatureofdatagathered,therewerenoincidentsofexploratoryCSin
the study. According to the MM, exploratory CS is a less popular type because
usually the unmarked choice is apparent during conversations. Since data was
gatheredfromindividualswhokneweachother,theunmarkedchoicewasclear.
In this chapter, data was analysed to determine the nature, occurrence and
characteristicsofCSintheoraldiscourseofShona-Englishbilinguals.Inadditionto
analysing transcripts of recordings, the compiled corpus was analysed using
WordSmithtools.
Data seems to suggest that Shona-English CS occurs both within sentence
boundaries (intra-sentential) and outside sentence boundaries (inter-sentential).
The functions of CS like to showauthority, anger andhappiness, are discussed in
thisstudy.SomeEnglishwordsfoundinthecorpuswereprefixedwithShonanoun
prefixes. It can be noted that some sentences found in the corpus contained both
ShonaandEnglish.
ThefivefrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpusareshownincomparisonto5
frequently used Shona words. The study also shows some of the collocations of
Englishcode-switchedwordsfoundinthecorpus.
It is also interesting tonote thatEnglishborrowedwords appear in the compiled
corpus.Thewordsareeitherusedastheyareortheirspellingsarechangedtosuit
Shonaspellingconventions.
Inthefollowingchapter,conclusions,recommendationsandlimitationsofthestudy
arediscussed.
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Chap te r 6 Conclusionsandrecommendations
6.1 Introduction
Conclusionsdrawnfromthestudyarediscussedinthischapter.Theconclusionsare
basedontheresearchquestionsthatwereposedinordertodealwithsub-problems
identified. In addition, recommendations are made and attention is drawn to
limitationsofthestudy.
6.2 Conclusionsdrawn
After analysing data, the following conclusions were made concerning the
subproblemsidentifiedinthisstudy.
6.2.1 Subproblemone
Myers-Scottonproposed theMM to explain socialmotivations forCSandnoted that
themodelawaitsfurthertesting.
Inordertodealwithsubproblemone,thefollowingresearchquestionswereposed;
“DoestheMMofcode-switchingapplytothecompiledcorpus?”
“Whatfunctionsdothecode-switchesserveinthecontextsinwhichtheyappear?”
Data seems to suggest that theMM of CS applies to the compiled corpus. This is
evidenced by the occurence of the types of CS suggested byMyers-Scotton in the
MM. The compiled corpus provided evidence of the CS types that are discussed
below.
6.2.1.1 Sequentialunmarkedcode-switching
The study showed that when the situation changed during conversations, some
participantsusedCS.Thisisillustratedin[1].
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6.2.1.2 Unmarkedcode-switching
Data gathered for this study shows a lot of unmarked CS. All participants in the
study used unmarked CS in their conversations. One of the conditions for the
occurrence of unmarked CS suggested by the MM is that participants should be
bilingual peers. All participants in this study were Shona-English bilinguals and
kneweachother.Therefore,onefindsunmarkedCSinparticipants’conversations.
TheexistenceofunmarkedCSinthecompiledcorpuscanalsobeattributedtothe
educationlevelsofparticipants.Allparticipantschosenforthisstudyspentatleast
10yearsinformaleducationwhereEnglishwasthemediumofinstructionandthey
usedEnglishoftenatschool.
6.2.1.3 Markedcode-switching
Participants used marked CS during conversations in this study. Data seems to
suggesttheuseofmarkedCStoshowanger,annoyanceandhappiness.
6.2.1.4 Exploratorycode-switching
According to the MM, exploratory CS occurs where the unmarked choice is
uncertain.ParticipantswerebilingualpeersandthereforeunmarkedCSwascertain.
ThereisnoevidencetoshowtheuseofexploratoryCSinthisstudy.Thiscanalsobe
attributed to the limited number of participants which might have affected the
diversityofparticipants.
6.2.1.5 Functionsofcode-switchesinthecontextstheyappeared
DataseemstosuggestthatCSwasusedtoshowemotionssuchasanger,annoyance
andhappiness.OtherfunctionsofCSwerenotaddressedbecausetheywerenotpart
ofmystudy.
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6.2.2 Subproblemtwo
ThereismorethanoneperspectiveonCSavailabletoscholarsandallofthemshould
beexplored(inparticularinrelationtoShona-EnglishCS).
Thefollowingresearchquestionaddressedsubproblemtwo:
• WhatisthenatureofCSinspokenShona?
Afteranalysingthecompiledcorpusandtranscriptionsofrecordings,thefollowing
conclusionsweremade:
(i)Shona-EnglishCSoccurswithinsentenceboundaries
Data showed instances where Shona-English CS occurred within sentences
(intrasentential CS). Examples of sentences found in the corpus were given as
evidence. Some sentences started in English and switched to Shona whilst other
sentencesstartedinShonaandthenswitchedtoEnglish.
(ii)Shona-EnglishCSoccursoutsidesentenceboundaries
Examples drawn from the study seem to suggest that Shona-English CS occurs
outsidesentenceboundaries(intersententialCS).Forexample,aparticipantwould
useShonainonesentenceandthenswitchtoEnglishinthenextsentenceandvice
versa.Thiswasevidentinthesentencesanalysedinthisstudy.
(iii)SomeEnglishwordsareprefixedorsuffixedwithShonaprefixesandsuffixes
The study has shown that Shona prefixes and suffixes are added to someEnglish
words during CS. With the Shona prefixes or suffixes added, the code-switched
wordsstillmadesense.Thisseems tosupportMyers-Scotton’s (1993a)claim that
CS is not a haphazard phenomenon but that speakers use the language at their
disposalinanorderlymanner.
(iv)Shona-EnglishCSappearedtobeorderly
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Despite speakers using two languageswhich have different rules of grammar, CS
seemed tobeorderly.Thestudyseems to showsentences inwhich the transition
from English to Shona seems to be done in such away that the sentence is well
formedand is inaccordancewith therulesofShonawhich is thematrix language
(mainlanguageusedduringconversations)inthisstudy.
(v)FrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecompilescorpusandtheircollocations
Thewordlistcreatedfromthecorpusshowedthat“but”,“because”,“I”,“Ok”,and“it/
it’s”werethetop5frequentlyusedEnglishwords.AqueryofsomeEnglishwords
found in the corpus generated their collocations. The study has shown that the 5
mostfrequentlyusedEnglishwordsinthecorpusdidnothavespecificcollocations
buthadavarietyofcollocations.“Think”,thewordwhichfeatured33timesinthe
corpus collocated with “I” in 30 instances. This was the highest number of
collocationsofanEnglishwordfoundinthecorpus.
6.3 Borrowedwordsfoundinthecorpus
Although this discussion is about CS, it is interesting to note the existence of
borrowedwordsinthecorpuscompiledforthisstudy.Therewereseveralexamples
drawn from the corpus to show the borrowedwords. The difficulty in classifying
some words either as examples of CS or as borrowed words seems to support
Kamwangamalu’s (2000) claim that there is no clearcut distinction between
borrowingandCS.
6.4 Recommendations
1. ConsideringthatparticipantsswitchedbetweenShonaandEnglishandtheir
conversationsremainedmeaningful,CSseemstobeastrategyemployedby
speakers during conversations and should not be treated as inadequate
speech.
2. TheresearchgroupconsistedofShona-Englishbilingualswhohadattended
formaleducationforatleast10years.Itwouldbeinterestingifstudieswere
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done to determine whether those who have spent fewer years in formal
educationstilluseCSinthesamemannerastheparticipantsinthecurrent
study.
6.5 Limitationsofthestudyandimplicationsforfurtherresearch
• Duetotimeconstraints,thechoiceofparticipantswaslimitedtothosewho
gaveconsentandwereavailabletoparticipateduetotimelimitations.Some
participants kept postponing the scheduled meetings for interviews or
cancelled the meetings altogether and the researcher had to look for
replacements. If therewasenoughtime, theresearchercouldhaveselected
participantsfromawiderpool.
• Whendetermining the English proficiency levels of participants, this study
reliedoninterviewsandaclozetest.However,thestudycouldnotdetermine
theexact levelofparticipants’Englishproficiency. It couldhavebeenmore
interestingifmorestandardisedtestswereusedbeforeselectingparticipants
forthestudy.
• ThestudyonlyfocusedonShona-Englishbilingualswhohadspentatleast10
yearsdoingformaleducation.Therefore,resultscannotbegeneralisedforall
Shona-Englishbilinguals.
• Sincethecorpususedforthisstudywassmall,furtherresearchwithalarger
corpuscouldproducedifferentresults.
6.6 Contributionsofthestudy
6.6.1 Corpus
AShonacorpusconsistingofabout29900wordswascompiledforthepurposeof
thisstudy.ThecorpusisacontributiontoShonalanguageandcanbeusedby
researchersasalinguisticresource.
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6.6.2 Addingtoempiricaldata
ThisstudyaddstothealreadyextensiveempiricaldatathatMyers-Scottonreports
on.WhentheMMwasproposed,itwasnotedthatthemodelneededfurthertesting.
ApplyingtheMMtoaShonacorpushasshownthestrengthofthemodel.
6.6.3 AbetterunderstandingofShona-Englishcode-switching
In addition, as Shona is a less resourced language, this studyhas contributed to a
betterunderstandingofShona-EnglishCS.CSisshownasausefuldiscoursestrategy
inlinewithclaimsmadebyotherresearcherslikeGumperz(1982).CSoccursinthe
speechofShona-Englishbilingualsastheynegotiatemeaningduringaconversation.
6.7 Conclusion
SincethereismorethanoneperspectiveonCSavailabletoscholars,thisstudyset
out to analyse the nature, occurrence and characteristics of Shona-English CS by
usingtheMMandcorpusanalysissoftware.Twosubproblemswereidentifiedand
dealtwithusingresearchquestionsproposedforthestudy.InordertotesttheMM
and to unpack the socialmotivations of CS in spoken Shona, a Shona corpuswas
compiledusingconversationtranscriptsof13participants.
Data seems to show that the MM of CS applies to spoken Shona. Sequential CS,
unmarkedCSandmarkedCSwereevidentindatacollectedforthisstudy.However,
there is no evidence of exploratory CS in the corpus but the MM explains that
exploratoryCSrarelyappearsinconversations.ThestudyalsoshowsCSbeingused
to show anger, annoyance, happiness and authority. In the compiled corpus, CS
appearstobeorderly.
CS as a research topic has come a long way from being considered as imperfect
speech to being one of the widely researched language contact phenomena.
Although the subject is fraughtwith disagreements and use of different terms to
refer toCS,more research is shedding lighton thematter.Onewonderswhat the
nextdecadewillproduceintermsofCSresearch.
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AppendixA:Interviewquestions
Howoldareyou?
Whatisyourfirstlanguageormotherlanguage?
WhendidyoustartlearningEnglish?
Howfardidyougowithyourformaleducation?
DidyouuseEnglishalotatschool?
DoyoustilluseEnglisheveryday?
DoyoufeelconfidenttocommunicateinEnglish?
Thankyouforyourtime.
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AppendixB:ClozeTest
Fillintheblankswithwordsthatwouldbestcompletethefollowingpassage.
Jillwas____toherclassslowlyoneday.Shewasworried_____theHistorytestshewouldhaveto__thatmorning.Asshewasreachingtheclassroom,apieceofpapersuddenlyfluttereddownand___nearherfeet.AsJill____atthepaper,herheartnearly_____abeat.ItwastheHistorytestpapercomplete____answers!
Jill'sveryfirstthoughtwasnotto___anyoneaboutwhatshehadfound.Shewouldmemorize _____ theanswersanddoextremely ____inthetest.Aftersomehardthinking,however,sheknewthatitwouldbeavery___thingtodo.Besides,itwouldnotbe____toherclassmates.Inthe____,JillreturnedthepapertoherHistoryteacher,MissJames.
"Thanks,Jill.Ihavebeen_____forit,"saidtheteacher.
Answers
1. Walking7.with13.end
2. About8.tell14.looking
3. Write/take9.all
4. Landed/dropped10.well/good
5. Looked11.bad
6. Skipped/missed12.Fair
(Source:www.englishdaily626.com)
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AppendixC:ListoftranscribedconversationsThe followingrepresentssamplesof the transcriptionsused in thisstudy. In total,12transcriptionsofconversationsareavailable.
• Transcription1:Participant1and2
• Transcription2:Participant3,4and13
• Transcription3:Participant5and6
• Transcription4:Participant7and8
• Transcription5:Participant9and10
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Transcription1:Participant1and2
P1: Heater hapana,ini handingazvikwanisi {LG} Motofuka ma motofuka machiranayo. Moramba muchingodaro kusvika adzokera kumusha achivatisa nayo.Kwakutozoitakurakwakuindanayo.
P2: {LG} Ka-- kanoweta. {LG} Ndakaona kunhingikiri -- dzovhura, dzoweta doorrakavhurwa.
P1:Ee.
P2:Iish,ndozvamunoitawo?
P1:Kupiku-(interrupted)
P2:KuHarare.
P1:Aataidiikoisu,taivharahanditi?
P2:Mm.
P1:Aainindaivhura.
P2:--aripo.
P1:Nhaiwe--,inindaivharahereini?
P3:Tangatisingambovhari.
P2:Hezvo!
P1:Aainindangandisingavhari.Ndaitozotikanandodaku...
P2:Aasakazvirinormal?
P1:Inindaitotikanandodakukukumama.
P3:Zvirinormal.
P1:Inindaitotikanandodakuzomamamanjendovhara.
P3:Mhh,ndopomozovharadoor.
P1: Mm, kana kuti -- aripo ndopandaivhara. Mazuva ataivakozve -- waionekwaonekwapamba.
P2:Sakandokutorawigndokuchizadzamumusoro.
P1:Masvikavanhuvakatamazve?
P2:{LG}Zvakarova.
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P1:Aa,mm.
P2:Butit’sait’sanicehome.
P1:Zvakarovatika...
P2:It’sit’sniceandfriendlythan(interrupted)
P1:Thankuyakuya?
P2:Aiwa,ndirikurevahangukuti.
P1:Horaitikutiyakanaka.
P2:Fortheamountit’sok.
P1:Aachakazo.
P2:Becauseiyaiyahanditiyaivatworooms.
P1:Mm.
P2:Youdon’tneedtworooms.Thisisok.
P1:Mm,chakazomonandikatiaa.Iyeyundiyewakatsvagauyu.
P2:Yowe!Ingavanhuvanokuratakatarisa.
P1:Zvezvisatiaaa.{NS}{LG}
P2:Ndiwewakatsvaga?
P1:Ee.
P2:Uchifamba?(giggling)
P1:Ee.
P2:Hoo?
P1: Ndakatanga kuti first day ndobva ndabva kubasa. Ndobva ndauya, ndobvandatanga kuti kumafive kwatosviba time dzandasvika dziya. Ndokutsvaga,ndokutanga kutsvaga. Ndobva ndainda kucorner uko, mberi uko. Ndobvandatozodzokera kumba late. {LG} Ndobva ndachinosvika ndobva ndatoudza --ndikatipakatipakatipakatipakati.Ndobvaamukawochakacolouriyendobvaaindakwandakaandamuudza.Ndobvaasvika,ndobvaavashaiwa.Uum,wakawanikairipohanditi?
P3:Mm.
P1:Asipaivanevanavechikoro.
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P2:Vanodii?
P1:Sakatreatmentdzachowoakangoonakutihadziitimagariro.
P2:Hoo?
P1:Hamhenoodzokawondobvaatojingirisajingirisa.{LG}
P2:Sakakuserikunemunhu?
P1:Ndeya--.{LG}
P2:Kuserikunemunhu?
P1:Hee?
P2:Kuserikunemunhu?
P1:Ee.
P2:Ithinkit’sok.
P1: Anga asati ambotsvagazve --. Waitoti a handisati ndambotsvaga. HavanakumbotsvagazvecherokuHararendinindaingotsvagapaya.
P2:Hooit’snewterritoryforher?
P1:Aaauyuwakurauyu.{LG}Ndopandakaonakutiwakura.
P2:Kutotitotsvagawopokurenda?
P1:Eezvake.Sakandakatozotindakudzokandobvaatonditi,ndobvatatomhanyaee.
P2:Makatamasei?
P1:Mhm?
P2:Makatamasei?
P1:Takatsvagamotamutown,rhori.
P2:Ingamakura.
P1: Haa ini ndagara ndakakurazve ini. {LG} MuHarare handiti ndozvi aa . . .(interrupted)
P2:Koiribagiri?
P1:Nderenyuzve,ndiro...
P2:Iri.
P1:--ripi?
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P2:Iri.
P1:Mornachy?
P2:Ndoriyahe?
P1:NdoriyaMornachyra--.
P2:Okaahoondoraiindisa--kuchikoro.
P1:Ndera--rekuchikoro.Marirememberka?
P2:Irindorawakatengamanjemanje.
P1:Irindorandakatengaku-.
P2:Mhm?
P1:Chimwechachochakatozopambiwawona--haa.
P2:{LG}Asiunofariramapumps?
P1:--?
P2:Ee.
P1:Eendocashyachoinengeiripo.
P2:Ndoinengeiripo.{LG}
P1:Anodamagogo.
P2:Ehezvendakamunzwa--na--kutianodazvegogo.Sakaimariiidzodzi?
P1:Sixdollars.
P2:Hoo,(.)mapumps.Ingaunochengeta,kanakutihadzipfekwi.
P1:Aadzodzodzakaadzapedzisiragoreraperapaya.
P2:Nguvayechandozvendoi-(())
P1:Hadzizopfekekizveee.Sakaikezvinondopadzavakutangakuchishandabecausemunomunotonhora.Haapamajombo(())(interrupted)
P2:Aababavarikunetsekanenyayayemakumbonhingikirikudzingambudzi.Maivanotonetsekawo nemakumbo saka vasimbisisa kuti hanzi tsvagai mari ye-(inrerrupted)
P1:Fenzi?
P2:Yefenzi,aahazvisikutomboita.
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P1:Eezve,hazviiti.
P2:Becausembudzinemombe.
P1:Inindakaandatozviona.Nokutipanodakuti,kutivagarezvakanakapanodakutipofenzwapoiswagedhe.
P2: Hanzi barbed wire mukatsvaka mabhanduro two. Hino mabhanduro hwanirinoitaeighty-three.
P1:Kupi?
P2: Kunodiwa two saka ah ndonyaya iripo. Haa vari kunetseka nemakumbo vese.Nyayayekumanyirananembudzinemombeiyi.
P1:Mm.
P2: Hino dei vakomana ava dei va zvaa zvichiita taingoti mwenemwe hundredhundredtirithree.
P1:Mose?
P2:Inina--na--.Toitamwenemwehundredtotengamabhanduroedu.Plusvatihanzipanofanirwakupendwa.
P1:Mm.
P2:Sakahundredvopenda.Zvinoiiunoudzaaniwako?
P1: Veduwee kana muchida zvakanaka, siyanai navakomana ava. Munorongeswakuindamusango.
P2:Anongobvuma.
P1:Betteruzivekutihapanahapana.
P2:Haatomborambianongotihoo.
P1:Izvozviukatoindazvonziaamatichiikoimi,matichii,matimarii?Aammhoraiti,monthendtoonana.Mugoiona,anodzimafoni.Ende--futihaanaproblemnomunhu.Unongodzimafoniogara.
P2:{LG}Haaibasa.
P1:Otichinouyachinoonaini.Ndozvaanoita--achizivakutihaumubati.Kanaari--,--nhai?Haahoraitihoraitihoraiti.Unopedzafiftydollarsirorichiitaeighty,mm.
P2: Haa vanoda nhingikiri, vanoda fenzi. Vanototambura chaiko nenyayayekudzingirirananemombe.Samaivatosimbisisakutiveduweenditsvagireiwofenzimundindifenzerewomusha.Zvimwezvesehazvotiriright.
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P1:Haamaivakatodaro,vaitodaro.
P2:Vakadarokubvalastyearpaya.
P1:Inilastyearndaitozvizivakutipanofanirakuitwaizvozvoasikutizvakazouyawochamhepodzasumukawoukoha.
P2:Aadeivakomanaavovachikwanisakuwanasomethingzvaiitahinoii.
P1: Ndokuchingozo ndokuchingozosara pachena seizvozvi. Zvino hapanachaucharonga.Kungoticherouchifema.
P2:Hauna chaunoronga but ivava ava dei vachinzwisisa taingo taingoitamudememudeme.Hinohapanaanonzwisisa.
P1: Haa hapana. Uyo wakatoitwa takeover na--zve. Uri kungoshandira yokurooranemabhachi.Akatotengamabhachianamaiva--?
P2:Mm.
P1:Aa.
P2:Majasieseakatenga.
P1:Aa,mishongainoshanda.
P2:{LG}Buthaa...
P1:--zvichamupfukirarimwegore.Izvozvozvokutihanzihavandifoneriit’seatingherup.
P2:Ee.
P1:Nerimwe,angataurazvakena--angasekaka.
P2:Hanzivanatetevanguvesehapanaanodakundifonera.
P1:Becauseizvozvoka,cheroiwewewegamufungwadzakokufungakuti(grunts)
P2:Kanandikaindakondonogarasei?
P1:Hapanawaunojairananaye.
P2:Hauna.
P1:Becauseinindinosungaplayzvokutimunhuhaaswederipadhuzeneni{LG}.
P2:{LG}Iweunotosungaplay.
P1: Ini ndosunga play ini zvokuti chero kupfuura nepandirimunhu anotendereranekuseriukoachidacupiripapaanoindanekoko.
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P2:{LG}Aya.
P1:Ndakatarisazvangundirizii.Wobikazvitiizvakowopedza.
P2:Wobikasadzarako.
P1:Inindosumukandonobikasadzarangundodya.
P2:{LG}
P1: Ndorandinodya sadza rangu randakakura naro ndichirerwa namai vangu.Zveshutsvigiridzenyuidzimunadzo.
P2:Ndozvandaiudzavana--kutiaa.Hoondaiudzamai--madekondikatimai--ka,panoapatakakuratichitidhekariyarewhite.
P1:Mm?
P2:Raiindakunotsvagamuvhunzandadya.Wouyamuvhunzandadyausinamafuta.
P1:Mm.
P2:Wobika,totorovasadzamotoswera.
P1:Mm.
P2:Manheru ndizvozvo. Saka nhasi zvokutimunhu anoramba nemari achidini it’snotnew.EvenkumbakwanguwhenIlookatwhatIhavendototitsk.Inindakakurandichitambudzika saka hazvitombondishamisi kuti paita chikafu chakawandisachinonyimwa nomunhu kana kuti paita munhu ane mari achanditengerawochingwa. Handinei. Pandakasvika kuHarare kwacho, takadya sadza nemurivo.Ndakafa here? {LG} Ndikamuka ndika- ndakaa ndatengawo chichingwa ndikatikamwatiiyedu.Vavavaneshugavavavanezvimasambaneinei.Aavaivanesadzaneufunemasamba.Ndandakanganwa.{LG}
P1:Vaivanei?
P2:Masambavaivanawo.
P1:Nemasamba,ha,zvakaoma.Sakavangavakaomerwavasikana.
P2: Saka vakangonhonga nhongawo zvunhu zvefifteen fifteen dollars ndobvatazotsvagamuriwo.
P1:--,eevaka,havanakufananavakomana.Vakasiyana.
P2:Sakandakamuudza(interrupted)
P1:--ukamusvikiraukati--,kanaanemarizvakeabayekuchikorozviya.
P2:{LG}
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P1: --, hona zvinhu zvakamira zvakadai, zvakadai, zvakadai. Ane zvaanoita --. Anezvaanoita--.Asikanaainayoanokuudzakutiaamira,kanaachidazvake,mangwanandokupa.Omukaodealerkuchikorokwake.
P2:Mm.
P1:Yaunengewatauraiyoyoanokupa.
P2:Mm.
P1:Kanaichitovapoanotokupayeseagotokupayekombi.Chiindakumba.
P2:Mm.
P1:Asiadaroanotombodealernewechaizvokanaambokupa{LG}
P2:{LG}
P1: Haakupi futi anotombogara because-. Asi zviri nani pana --. -- unorwadzabecausezvaanoita.Anototihaunachiihaahoraiti,iwehaunahereyauinayo.
P2:Ndozokupa.
P1:Tongozotipamonthendndongozokupayese.
P2: Ini handiti ndakanzi ndipeiwo two dollars ndouya ndichikupai manheru butmangwanaachoaitondivhunzayebhazi{LG}yekombi.
P1:Yekuindakumukadzi?
P2:Mm.Uyuachingoshushirazvanzi-
P1:Iyeanengeachingotihuya.
P2:Eehanzihuya.
P1:Anengeachitiunofambanei?
P2:Pataitocrosser,becausekubvaukohanditiunofambanekuseri?
P1:Haachisinamotahe?
P2:Aayakaindakuservice.{CG}
P1:Ndoyaanenge achidira. Kuti -- huya ugare kuno kuitiramota achiinda kubasa.Nokutiwaiidakamotaiya.Zvaingogarazvichitonetsana.
P2: Hino unovhaira nemota isu tinayo. Ini ndaa kudriverka ini. Ndakazoindakumalessons.
P1:Hoo,mavanelicence?
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P2:Handisati.Ndavanethirteen,ndodakusvikatwentylessonsbutndakutodhiraivha.
P1:Hoo?
P2:Ukatouyakunhingiukondokwanisakutokufambanewe(laughs).
P1:Ingamanaka.
P2:Aandakaonakuti(interrupted)
P1:Drivingndidzodrivingdzinoshainwanadzokubasakwedu?
P2:Aah.
P1:Vanhuvanoshainanedriving.
P2:Uhm?
P1:Unonzwakunzimotadziripoidzi,haudhiraivhi,indanebhazi.
P2:Aahamenowokuti fenzi yacho inofenzwa inoitwa riinibut aa vari kutamburanemombe.Ikezvinomombedzichangosundirwakadzonetsa.
P1:Ichiieightyfive,eighty-fivehere?
P2:Haababavatihanzipanodiwahundredbecausevanozokwidza.
P1:Chii?
P2:Nhingikirizve.(interrupted)
P1:KuikwidzakubvamaGutu?
P2:Ee,vanoitengakazvibhandurozviya.
P1:Hundredhundred.
P2:Ibarbed?Mm.
P1:Komatandaachovanawohere?
P2:Nematanda.Haazvinhuzvachohere.Butmatandaukatengaliketombotikubvapakona kusvika pakona ukaita kana five aka treatwa, amwe unongotsvaga asinakutreatwa.
P1:Mm.
P1:Ivobabakanavachitotihundredvanozivakutotivanotengasei.
P2:Eevatihanziaiwa(interrupted)
P1:Babavakangwarakavaya.
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P2: Vati hundred inoita nokukwidza but panozodiwa matanda saka pakaita onetwentytotsvaganematanda.Vanhuvachovanodakufu-(interrupted)
P1:Sakaitoitaionetwenty,onetwenty.Ndofungatwofifty,haafifty.
P2:Vanhuvanotodaku-.Kovanhuvachovanofenzavanengevachidamari?
P1:SakayekutotivaindeivokwaGutunokunotranporteritwofifty.
P2:Ivovakatorimisakafutidhirenhiriyariya,bani,fortydollars.
P1:Kuhwinda?
P2:Ee.
P1:Deivachingoregakuhwinda.Havasativaibhadhara?
P2:{LG}Unoitasamai.Hanzinamaimunongorima.
P1:Inihandidiini.
P2: Hanzimunongorima, vanhu vouya vachingouya everymonth vachitipensioneruya ngaachitipa mari dzedu. Mai havadi kuti parimwe. Hanzi siyai becausekunongoitanzaraIdon’tseewhy.
P1:Iniiniinikandakambovaudza.
P2:Hanzindingapata.
P1:Ndakambovagarirapasindikati-.
P2:Hinobabavano,havadi.Hanzihanzindingapata.
P1: Mm, ini ndakambovataurira ndikati no zvokuti hanzi murambe muchitingengenge,munongonorimapazvuruzvenyumogara.
P2:{LG}
P1:Churuchemomo,churuchemomo.
P2:Becausekumbakwakatorimwaka,kwakatotsindikirwa.
P1:Nokutiunonetsekanei,nokutiuchadakusakura.
P2:Butkutsindikirakurirightbecausemashanga.
P1:Anonetsa.
P2:Anonetsa.
P1:Eehaazvaizotovanetsaworsenemombeka?
P2:Haamombevarikunetseka.
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P1:Butpambapanodakufenzwanokupendwa.
P2:Deindandinemarindai.
P1:Mushawachohaunaki.
P2:Eeaababavanditsanangurirakutimunofanirwakutinofanirwakufenzamusha.Ndodakubvisaiyiyazaramuraini.{CG}Vanodayellow.
P1:Vatevedzerazvevanhu?
P2:Ee,sortoforange.It’syellowgoingfororange.
P1:Iyaiya,paneimwe.
P2:Renhingikiririyarakanzidon’tquit.Riyacardririkumadziro.
P1:Horaitichiyachiyaichi.
P2:Iyoyo.
P1:Yakanakaiya.
P2:Ndoyavanditaridzakutivanoda.
P1:Nokuti--wakatoshinganayo.haatombodinayo.Akatoitorakakutoiisapa-haa.
P2: Saka ivo vanoda kuichinja kunhingikira, kuita yellow. Yellow muraini muyahamuna.Hamenokwakwa--kunei?
P1:Aahakunakunepink.
P2:Sakamurainimuyahamunayellow.Ndoyavanodasortoforange.
P1:Ee,ndozvavanofanirwakuitaizvozvo.
P2:Sakavatihanzithirtydollars.
P1:Pendi?
P2:Mukawanathirtydollarsee.
P1:Aaishoma.
P2:Ishoma.
P1:Haathirtyishoma.Maingotiumweneumwe.
P2:Thirtydollarsunowanagabariyazihombweriya.
P1:Motokwana.
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P2: Saka rinokwana. Saka a hamenowo kuti. Ivo vati hanzi taura navakomanandikatiii.
P1:Navakomanamai--.
P2:Mm.
P1:Hee,kanamuneairtimekanayefifty.Motombobhajetaairtime.
P2:Plushanditindakambotindichauya.
P1:Airtimeyefifty.
P2: Ndakamboti ndichauyaka kudhara dhara. Ndobva ndamuudza kuti --, -- ndirikuuya. Zvikanzi aa, ndobva atanga kuchindifonera. Ndati hallo obva akata. Kudakuzivakutindirikupi.{LG}Akaitanguvaachidaro.Sakaakaitanguvaachidaro.
P1: Vakomana vanoda une airtimeyako yethir fifty iwe uchida eighty, wowowowobenefitathirty,ha.
P2:Zvanzinamaiindaimunotaurakutimoitaseina--.Ndikatimhai.
P1:Hanzii?
P2:Hanzitauraikutimoitaseinaye.
P1:Pachii?(chewing)
P2:Aavanotivarivarivaitihanzi taurainaye. Inihandidikutauranaye ini. Ithinkkungomunyararira.
P1:Ignorancepays.
P2:Haiwangaangosiiwaakadaro.Becausekukurakwatakaitaka.Handiti takatoonakutifeeshaadinayo?
P1:Mm.
P2:Ndoyatainyanyoda.Taidachikafuhereisu?
P1:Uuum.
P2:Taidafeeskutiapinzewo,sokupinzwakwawakaitwawowopinzawohwani.
P1:--ka?
P2:Ndozvaakarambazveizvozvo.
P1:Feesya--zvakatopera.
P2:Sakatichanetsekerei?
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P1:Mwanaakatotadzakuindakuchikoro.
P2:Ee,sakatinonetsekerei?(())
P1:Mozivaka?
P2:Ee?
P1: Vanhu ini ndakatozvibata ndikazvihwisisa ini. Zviri clear kuti vana chikorozvakatodii.
P2:Zvakakona.
P1:Mwanaakatoregisterzvaakaregister.Sakawhatnow?
P2:Mm.
P1:Muchatauranemunhumuchadei?Problemyangairipoissolved.
P2:Ee.
P1:Sowhat?Vana--vanengevachingotipanoneapovachingodii,vanhuvachingoonakuti vari kufemawo here, zvapera. Iye zvaanofunga kuti attention. Moziva kutimunhuka?
P2:Anofungakutivachauyachete.
P1:Hanzivanodamarivachandifonerachete.
P2:Ee.
P1:Ivovana--vanofanirakuudzwakunzimusamufonera.
P2:Musamufonera.
P1: Handiti? Ndokutotaurirana kwatingaita. Kokuti vana --, never contact -- anyproblem.
P2: Kana akauya akati pane chinodiwa here munongoti aa hapana monyararabecause-.
P1:Mm.
P2:Ndootreatmentyogayandinotoonabecausemozivaakashaiwa.
P1: Because akaramba achiteverwa kunzi chii achirafura vanhu achiita seika,anozoonasekutindiyeakanyanyakukoshasitereki.
P2:Sepandakaindaaidakutinditichii,ndimutichiuyakunotimbotaura.
P1:Muchimufoneramutihuyaundione.
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P2:Ehezveaidakutinditaure.
P1:Muchitaurei?
P2:Becausenyayayenhingikiri-
P1:Ya--?
P2:Ndobvandanyararazvangu.
P1:Mozivakutichii?
P2: Saka paakazofona ndichiperekedzwa na-- hanzi aa, achitaura pafoni, hanzindichamboprekedza mai --. Vakutodzokera? Kana kumboti nditaure navo. Inindanga ndisingatodi kutaurawo naye zvangu. But haana kana kumboti nditaurenavo.KanakutindirikuuyakuMbarekuzovaonakanachii.
P1:Mm,muneinazvo.
P2:Zvikanzitosanganakumaten.
P1:Naiyemanje?
P2:Ee.
P1:Oreva--?
P2:Ee,ukumunhuhaanamariyekombi.
P1:Ee,iye--unongohoraachipa--zve.Maiva--ndovanouyakuzotoramari.
P2:Eevakaavatouyazve,kanadzirichokwadi.
P1:Kupata,aiwa-
P2:Kupayya--?
P1: Mm (chewing) asi munozivaka, zvakaoma kudaroka, vanhu vakadzidzakumuiginowamuchazondiudza by end of the year kuti iye -- unohwa sei.Becauseignoranceinorwadza--.
P2:Inomurwadzaka?
P1:Ndakazviona.Inhemahere--?
P2:Mmm.
P1:Makamakamaka.Inomurwadzazvokutiunosvikapakudakuchema.
P2:Kutihamusikudakutauraneni?
P1:Ee.Iniakanditsvagandichi-
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P2: Because aindibeeperka, aindibeeper izvozvi kuti. Ndaiva ndati ndiri kuuyazvekudhara.Obeeperndotihallootoonakutinumberyangu.Haazivikutindinoroamer.{LG}
P1:Mm.
P2:Handianzihangumacallsbutizvozviirikushandisa(())
P1:Manjeiye.
P2:Inokwanisakuanzikandirimuno.Iyeanofungakutiikaanzwavariku-{LG}(())
P1: --, moziva kuti chinongoshanda panama -- moziva kuti musatuka munhu,munongoignowa.
P2:Babavazvitaurakutihanzisiyanai,ngatichingosiya,siyaizvakadaro.
P1: Ignorance ndomuziva -- kuti inomurwadza. Ivo vana -- variko kumba ikoko,handitihaauyi?Ngavasamufonera.
P2:Mm.
P1:Mozivakutiariegaanofungakuti,kutivanhuvapenyuuko.Chiichirikumboitikakumbauko?
P2:{LG}
P1:Moziva?
P2:Ukumai,ukumaimapiritsi,chiichirikuitika.
P1:Chiichirikuitika?Vanhuhavachambondifoneri.
P2:Havachambonditimari.
P1:Nokutinoisechaiyochaiyoka?Noisechaiyohaibhadhari.
P2:Ee.
P1: Asi munhu ukamusetera table yokuti aiwa chimboitai veduwee, isu tadini.Nokuti ikezvinoproblemhapana.Problem ya--yakatopfuura.Vanhu takatojekerwanazvokutimwanangaaindekwa--imimakapasamuripo.
P2:{LG}
P1: Saka munodei? Haafanirwi kumbotaurwa naye. Unofanirwa kungoignowewa.Naiye--wachovanhuvongonyarara,ziibecausemunga-
P2:Ndakaindandichitindodakunomushaudhabutndakangotihaatsk.
P1:Munodzingirirananemhepo.
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P2: Unoziva kutimaybe mhepo idzodzo handiti ndaka, maybe ndingadei ndakafazurobutnenyayayokutindakanyararazvanguIsurvived.Unodzingirirananemhepouchifambashuwa.Ndakanyararandikatiaatsk.Becausendaandati-(interrupted)
P1:Haaignorance--inomuuraya.
P2: Mai vanga vanditi hanzi, hanzi kana wasvika kuHarare wotombo, hanziunovadanavesewotangakuvatonga.
P1:Haakutongesei?
P2:{LG}Namaindikatihoraitimhai.
P1:Unotourawauriwe.Unotozoindakun’angaachiti hanzi vayavanofanirwakufa.Saka ukanyarara unondipomeramhosva yei? Ini ndoona kuti hapadi kutaura ini,panoda kunyarara. Ini handimbofi ndakafonera -- kana kumuvhunza ini. Kana --kanakumuvhunza.Tinongonosanganakumusha.
P2:Kubvapayahamunakumbozotaura?
P1:Hatina.
P2:Makatombotsvaga?
P1: Akanditsvaga ndikangota ndichingotarisa hangu ndichingonyarara.Wakanditsvaga--.WakazonditsvagamunaanikoKiri?
P2:Hezvo!
P1:Mm,maivakatozondifoneravachitihanziiwedaviracallya--.
P2:Anonhingikira,unozivazvanoita?Anoudzababanamaikana,seipapaapapauyu--.
P1:Zvakaitika,akatoraadvantage--.
P2:Ee?
P1: Ndomazuva azvakaa zvakatosunga aya aya, paya paya. Saka ndobvandichitotaurananamaindichitoti aazvinhuzvakamirazvakadai zvakadai zvakadaihanditi. Saka iye ndopaaindako ndobva anoudzwa kunzi chii chii chii handiti.Ndobvaafungakutiinikanazvakadaroakandifonerandinodiindinodavira.
P2:Unoanswer.
P1: Ndobva ndarega. Ndobva afona kumba zvikanzi haasi kudavira foni yangu.Ndobva mai vandifonera vachiti davira foni ya-- ati hanzi anoda kukutumidziraimarichiichiichii.Ndikatimuudzeikutiarege.Seizvozvi.Ndakavaudzainivhunzai--uyu.Ndikatimuudzeikutihanzineniregerazvakothankyou.Ndobvaazofollowing
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dayakaitamazuvazveachitiakagaragaraofona.Tenmissedcalls,elevenmissedcalls.Ndikatihandidaviri.
P2:Hezvo!
P1:Takapedzeranapatakabudamo.Ndobvandatoregera.
P2: Aa ini aindinhingikira, anondifonera. Akambondifonera zvake ku- {LG}akandifonera.{NS}Manjemumwemusindamusenderamessagendichiti--uriku-.Panemusiwandakaandabhoikana.
P1:Anengeanefonizve--.--unojusirwaimariiko?
P2:Ndakandakaandabhoikana.
P1: Line rake reNetone unongofona kusvika pamadiro. Hameno kuti unojusirwahundredherekanakutitwohundreddollars.
P2: Ndokuchindifonerazve zvikanzi, ndamusendera message ndichimuti,handichazivikutiyaivanyayayei,ndatsamwawofuti.
P1:(())
P2:Zvikanzi,aainindikaudzwazvinyayazvokutianodaindinonyangadzwazvokutindobvandasendamessage.Ndobvaafonandichitovamulibrary.Zvikanziaa,iikudakundiudzanyayadzokutihanzi -- ari kuinda.Ndomazuvahanditiuyuangaapuwahundreddollarsna--.
P3:Mm.
P2: Haazvizivi --. Zvikanzi -- ndiri kutomutsvagira hundred dollars yake.Kwangoshota kwangosara hundred dollars yokuti aindise, aindise kunobhadharamunhu.Ndikatihoraiti--.Asingazivikutindotozviziva{LG}
P1:Eeanengeasingazivi.
P2: Hanzi ndiri kugadzirisa. Ndandamuudza kuti gadzirisa zvunhu --, ndiwewatakatotarisachiichiichii.
P1:Aaa.
P2:Zvikanzindirikutogadzirisachiichii.
P1:Anoworsenauya.
P2: Ndokuchidii, ndokuchibva ndanyarara handina kumbozotaura ndichinzwazvinyayaizvozvo.Seipapapamakaitazvamakaitahandinakumufonerakumutichii.Iyeaifungakutichiimai--vachafona.
P1:Ndichafonerwa.
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P2:Ndobvaabeeper,ndobvandaregakufona.Ndobvaazofona,ndobvandichitihallo,obva akata. Ndobva zvapera izvozvo. Ndobva ambozoshaudha -- mazuva manjemanje.
P1:{LG}Aidakumurova.
P2:--ndokudii?
P1: Ndobva -- aka akakandwa pazheka --. {LG} Hanzi kunongwa kunonzi pazhegwengwendere.{LG}Pazhe.
P2:Adaromanjehanditi.
P1:--ndokusaramumbaakagara.--?–{LG}Hanzina--ndikati-
P2:Hanzi na-- ndakamuti ini I have seen it all. Zvenhamo ndakatoita zvese zvesezvaungandiitira.Sakahapanaanotherwayyaungandiitiraini.
P1:Anengeachidaanengeachidavana--zvevaakapotsaauraya.
P2:{LG}Haiwawousazvitevedzeraiwe--.Ndozvaarisakakutongoiginowa.
P1:Asi--wakapotsaafahaa--aawakarwara.
P2: -- ane shunguzve. -- aiti akachema kumusha handiti haa anoita gore reseachichema.{LG}Ndozvaari.
P1:Hinozvaiti--unestress.
P2:Mm.
P1: Aiva neshungu dzake achirwara. Ini ndopandaiti, ndaingoti ndikadzokawokumbandongoitazvirinaniasindabudakuzhendengendichatodonha.Ndichiudza-- kuti uyuune zvake. {LG} Inindobudapazhendendichiita zvangu.Kubasa chaikokutotihaa.
P2:Saka ipapomanjeatukavana --, --,vana --. --avakundisenderamessage achitindozvaitikakuno.Dzakafungakutichii,haathistime.
P1:Hanzizvakanzihanziiwe--(interrupted)
P2:Chizviuraya.
P1:Ndodakuindanewekumusha,anzikuMbudzihere.
P2:NeNyaradzo?
P1:Eee.Hanzizvakanzi--,iwehaumbondinetsi.
P2:{LG}NokutiuripaNyaradzo?
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P1: Nokuti uri paNyaradzo. {LG} Ndoinda newe neNyaradzo kumusha ini. Motimunhu?
P2:Sakandokuchidii,ndokuchi-{NS}
P1:UnotihanzindakakuisapaNyaradzosaka{LG}
P2: Aiwazve zvikanzizve, ndukuchifunga chii kuti aa -- vanozo-. Ndobvandaudzwawozvakanakazvikadii,ndobvandatiiminyararai,siyanainazvo.Imhepodziri kutosumuka idzi. Ndobva iye atanga kuchindibeeper aindibeeper. Ndirimulibrarykudaiatobeeper,kudaiatofona.Ndikadaviraanokata.Sakakudakutiiweakukatawobvawafonaback.
P1:Wofonaback.
P2:Ndobvandatihaa.--achitotihaungofoniherekudapanezviriko?Ndikatihaiwa.
P1:Zveiko?
P2:Iyendiyeane,ndakamuudzandikatiiyendiyeaneairtimeyemahara.
P1: Aa -- handiti Netone inenge yakazara? Apa aida kunzwa kuti zvunhu zvaaitazvatazvasvikahere.
P2: Zvataurwa here? Ndobva ndati ii --, ngatinyarare, siyanai nazvo. {NS} Sakapaaingondibeeper ndikati hallo okata. Ndopazvangopera zvakadaro. Sakapandakainda handina kumbomuvhunza kuti wakatukirei vana or wakatukurei --,wakatukirei vasikana vamwe ava? Handina kumuvhunza. Aihuta asingadi kana,achitotimaivayavauya.Ndozvavaitoitazve.
P1:Toitwamahighcourts.
P2:{NS}Mm,kutotimaivayavauya.
P1:Hazvifanirwikumboitwamahighcourts.
P2:AainiIthinkkusiyananazvo.Akatorambahakenemariyake.Whatcanwedo?
P1:Because ini chandakazokwanisa ndechekutora laptop. Ndakatomuudza ndikatindinotohaa.
P2:{LG}
P1:Pakanetsazvevhunzai--uyu.Hinoinindinozomirawofutikanandada.
P2:Ndeyake?
P1:Ndeya--iyi.
P2:Wakatorasei?
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P1:Saizvozvi.{LG}
P2:Haisiyekubasa?
P1:Kuto,ndeyekubasa.Ndakatoitora.
P2:Ndorevakutihaisiyokubasakwako?Waivanelaptopyokubasakaiwe?
P1:Eendinayo.Ndinembiri.{LG}Yekubasamubhegi.--osaraneimwe.
P2:Hezvo!
P1:Iyindeya--woyemuno,personalcopy.
P2:{LG}Munezvinhingirizvenyu,zvirozvenyu.Ndatofungakutindeyekubasa.
P1:Aiwazve,iyindeya--zveiyi.Vanepersonal.
P2:Personalcopy.{LG}Makaomavanhu.
P1: Iyika iyi, ndoya-- personal copy. Zvayaida kuitwa, -- anga atora chibhegizve.Inzwai,inotovanehistory.
P1:Ndiyeaidakutoitorawo--.
P2:Ndiyeangadaiatovanayoizvozvi.
P1:--,inzwai,--wakatorachibhegipayakamboinda.Ndobvaanosiyachibhegikwa--.Kwakuchiuya, iyi manje iyi ndoyaida kuti ichiinda kwaani, kwa--. Ndoyaakangaakatargeta. Ndobva tazvibata zvedu isu vana batai. {NS} Ndikati -- chibhegichenhingikirichiripai?Aahanditombozivi,ndimimakatochirashaimomo,ndimima.Ndobvandaitora.
P2:Sadzaraita.
P1:Ndikatiforeverything--.
P2:Hootodyirepi?Whereisthetable?
P1:{LG}Tablendoiyoyiiripapo.
P2:Haamaslippers?
P1:Ndikatiforeverything--,chese,chese,chese,chese.
P2:Mamuchitimagwavhaanonzwisamudumbuasiapera.{LG}Vanhu.
P1:Haaisutinodyaporena--.
P2:Hoo?
P1:Asimuchaonamangwana.
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P2:Mamanyoka?
P1:Munongotivadhiraivhamirai.{LG}
P2:(waterpouring)Haainodziya.{LG}Haaiyiinotopisamunhuchaiko.
P1:Inodziya,wavadziisira?
P2:Haainodziyazvisingamboiti.
P1:Handinakumbodziisaini.{LG}.Avahavadisadzarakawandaava.
P2:Whichiswhich?
P1:Chingotoraichero.Daitavabikiratii.Ndevetii.
P2:Ndangotiaandamwatiihere?{LG}Aaisuzvetiindozvedu.
P1:NdikatitozotadzakuchengetwakanataindakuSouth.{LG}
P2:Iiihaaya.
P1:Tigowanazvimacoffeecofffene-
P2:{LG}Aaa.
P1:Kunohatichazvizivi.
P2:Hamuchazvizivizve?
P1:Zvimacoffeecoffee,chiichii.
P2:Aagorerinorakangooma.
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Transcription2:Participant3,4and13
P4:Haandandichimbotimumbowanakatimeyokumbodiscussa.
P3:{LG}
P13:Haiwawo.
P4:Hanzimhamhavanamhamhavavowo.
P3:{LG}Yaa.
P4:Handitiiweurimhamha?
P3:Ee.
P4:Unamhamhavakowo.Sakandatihaano,regandimbotioondimbotitaramukeikutimumbokurukura.
P3:{LG}
P4:ButzvinengezvakanakaizvozvonokutitikarambatakangotigoOpano.Unofanakutaura namai namai muchikurukura, muchimbokurukura nyaya dzenyu. Isutinopindawo.
P3:{LG}
P4:Eetotaura.Isukanatotauraka,dzeduhadziiti.Dzangunewe.
P3:Mm?
P4:Haadzangudzedziripublic.
P3:{LG}
P4:Tirimawhistleblower.{LG}Isutisuvanonzimawhistleblowers.Imienyuzvezviriprivatebutinindokwanisakukublower.Ndongotiimimaizvakati,zvakati,zvakati.
P3:Asilightharisikushanda?
P4:Ani?
P3:Lightramunosimboitariya.
P4:Mai?
P3:Light,mwe-ii.
P4:Lightirorakatsva.
P3:Mhm.
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P4:Ee,sakaharisikushanda.Sakatirikushandisanhingi.Hanzirinodaeightdollars.
P3:Hoo.
P4:Kutirishande.HanzirakatsvamamaTB.Ifo-ifour.
P3:Ok.
P4:Sakarinotitwo,four,six,eightma-manhingiacho,ma-.HanziasikuHararehanzianoitafifty,fifty,fifty.
P3:Ok.
P4:Sakandakaonakutihaa. (( ))Nokuti tatichingotizvekungotungidza tochi. {LG}(.)Haawandishainisamwanangu.
P3:{LG}
P4:Ndandongonzihuyaiku,va--huyaipano.
P3:{LG}Nokutimakapfekajuzidzva?
P4:Haaiwezvakaoma.Irihereiri,hariiti.
P3:Panerimwerakadaro,differentcolourasi.
P4:Rauinaro?
P3:Panehembedzachozve.
P4:Idzodzo?
P3:Mm.
P4:Uchandipafuti?
P3:Ndakupaiwani.Dzirimoidzo.
P4:MyLord.{NS}{LG}Kutindipfekeyakadaineimweinedifferentcolour?
P3:Mm.
P4:AamyLord!{LG}
P3:Panamajuzithree.Majuzitwonesweater,sweaterisinazipi.
P4:Aaunofanakuzondi,unofana.Aakwete.Unofanakundiratidzamwanangu.
P3:Zviripabedpenyu.Ndizvitore?
P4:Chimbotungidzazve.Haunafonihere?
P3:Maivane,ndavapamakenduromai.
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P4:(())Zvakanakauno.Hapanachunhuchakanaka.
P3:{LG}
P4: Sokuti mwana kana auya. --, togara tichinamata nguva imwe neimwe kuti bewiththosepeople.Haa{LG}Kandichinamatandotangaiwe.Wazvinzwahere?
P3:Mm.
P4:Cherokanandovatandonamata.
P13:--,--!
P3:Mhaa.
P13:Regaitirikutowarirakumbaukokutivanhuvaonekuzorora.
P3:Chimboisailightmhai.
P13:Mazuvanoirirakafairi.
P4:Makendurozveandakupai.
P13:Haaanonetsa.
P4:Haaitai.Anonetsachiizve?
P13:Aandajairakushandanefoniini.
P4:Haa.
P13:Inofutakusvikamangwana.
P4:Imboitaizvamaudzwanomwana.
P3:Vanodakuonahembedzavobaba.
P13:Aandongovapahembedzavo.
P4:Hembedzandapuwandodakudziona.
P13:Munodziona.Idzihembedzenyuidzi.
P4:Eeeusinakuzvarawofanananowakazvara.
P13:Ooidzihembedzenyuidzi.
P4:Musangotutirazve.
P3:Regaindikupeindichiitahwanihwani.{LG}
P4:Haavakomana,kungokandahere.
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P13:Aa.
P3:Masiyajean.
P13:Hee?
P3:Masiyatrouse.
P13:Regandioneapakuti,iri.Zvemakendurozvonetsa.Ndodakutotiavavawarireti-,vanhuvazorore.{NS}
P4:Ndodakuonazvangu.
P3:Oo.
P13:Zvenyuizvo.
P4:Iri?
P3:Ijean.
P4:Ijean?Aarakanaka,horaiti.
P13:Regandotorarupasandigadzirekumbauko.Handitindozvawataura?
P3:Mm.Irirakangofanananeiroroasiigreycolour.
P4:Hoogreycolour?
P3:Mm,rinezviblue.
P4:Rakanaka.{NS}Aaaa.
P3:Asizi-isamenhingikiri.
P4:Patani?
P3:Eheisame,differentcolour.
P4:Iyindodakuinotengesakushopiyi.
P3:Aa{LG}Mukatengesahandichakuvigiriichunhu.
P4: Horaiti yapera. Handichadi. Handichakutengeseri. Vakomana nhasindandonanaidzanana--zvikanzi.
P3:Nanaani?
P4:--.Hamatihaatrackuit?MyLord.
P3:Kanakukazonyanyakutonhora.
P4:Kwete,kukanyatsakudii?
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P3:Kukanyanyakutonhoramopfekairi.
P4:Ukabatakudaikao,it’sveryheavy.
P3:Mm.Sakandizvozvozvese.
P4: Aa ndozvataishuvira izvi. Kwete kuti usina kuzvara ofanana newakazvara. Aandarambaini.
P3:{LG}
P4:AamyLord.{LG}Izvizve-,ihwani,twothree,four.
P3:Mm.
P4:{NS}Ndinotenda,ndinotendamwanangu.
P3:Muchitendeiko.
P4:Aakwete,kutendaikokotino,Mwariagoropofadzamwanangu.
P3:{LG}
P4:Eenokutihaungoitiwega.MwarindounotungamirirakutiitaizvindiMwari.
P3:Eendizvozvo.
P4:SakaisuseratichitiwoMwariakutungamirire.
P3:Mhm.
P4: Ehe, kuti urambe uchiita izvozvo. Takanzwa neprogramme dzako. Ndodai,ndodai, ndodai. Ndikati aamy Lord zvunhu zvakanaka. Ee ini ndangozoona avovosvika.{NS}(())
P3:Mm.
P4:Ee.Mwariunongorongazvunhuzvake.Inihandigonikukukondirorayivanangu.Ini kuti ndikuti ita izvi ndigokugona, asi Mwari ndounoti kuti zvunhu zvosezviumbike.Handiti?
P3:Mm.
P4: Kuti zvunhu zvese zviumbike, pane forosi riripo. Ndoda kumbotaura hanguipapa pamusoro pekuti forosi. Mukuru uripo. Nokuti pane zvakasetwa naMwarizvatinongoona. Kuti, kuti unzi first born pazouya second born zvichingoindazvakadai. Kusvikamumwe ozonzi iwe ndiwe nhamba nine urongwa rwaMwarikaurwu.KwetehweduasiurongwahwaMwarihunengehuchingovapo.
P3:Mm.
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P4: Saka we don’t want to, to lose that opportunity of respecting God. Eendakambotauranavakomanaava.Ndikati imimizvomotokoniwamanjendechekutiifyoudon’twanttorespecthanzvadzidzenyuidzi,Godwillneverrespectyou.
P3:Mm.
P4:Because va-masikirwe amakaitwa imi gwara iroro anoratidza kutiMwari unechokuita nemi. Mukaparadzana matorasika. Nokuti Mwari une creation, unechokuita. Seramuchionamuna -- na-- ava vachi,muchizama kuti vabatane kudai.Oncetheyareseparated.(interrupted)
P13:Ndonhinganikira,ndotorahanguzvemachirandivape?
P3:Mm,mm.
P13:Haa?
P3:Ee.
P13:Horaiti.
P4:Oncetheyareseparatedyouareinfordisaster.
P3:Mm.
P4:Ee, inthesameway, {NS}Thesepeople,especially vakomanaavaeevavaundertheinfluenceofvakadzi.
P3:Mm.
P4: Ee. Saka the influence yavakadzi ivavo it doesn’t work kuita unite the family.Those vakadzi ivava vavo, they were vakau-, vakada. Takavachengete,takavachengeteravarume.
P3:Mm.
P4: Handiti? Tiri vaviri isu takavachengetera varume. Ndoku, wo-, wo-takuchengetera murume, iwewo wakachengeterwawo. {NS} Iwe baba namaikovakatichengeteramukadzi.
P3:Mm.
P4:Saka(())Asiiwemukadzichiregakutiizvihazviitwikumushakomurume.
P3:Mm.
P4:Youdenyusthatchanceyokutitivetinoraramawo.
P3:Izvondatongozvionawopanonhasi,kunohangu.Kweduukovanhuvanongoita.Vakati ndoda kuitira vabereki vangu unongoti horaiti. Zvokuti aiwa hazviitwi aa.Zvokutimunhuanoshingakutihandiiti,hauitirivaberekivakochunhu,hauitiaa.
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P4:Hauiti.--ndakashamisikanazvoini.Tichangobvako.
P3:Mm.
P4:Kutotipingizhakutiaa,ku.{CG}--kutotipingizhakurambakanachii.
P3: Izvozvi handiti munoziva kuti haana kundiona? Haana kundiona. Haanakutombouyakuzo.
P4:Wakaramba?
P3:Hanzimaivanguvauyasakandirikuonamaivangu.Haanakuuyakuzondiona.
P4:Wakaramba?
P3:Mm,kanakufonakanakudii.Handizivikutiakarambahere.Sakandangobva.
P4:Hoona--?
P3:--ndiyewandandinaye.
P4:Sakawaramba?
P3:Ithinkaramba.--angaachitihanziaindakunoonamaivakeadii.Ndangoonakutianenge aramba. Because azofona achiti kuna -- hanzi chiuya. -- akati regandimboperekedza mai -- vari kudzokera. Anga akutoti chiuya. {NS} Haa -- haa,anotohwisatsitsiuyo.
P4: Aiwa, nyaya iripo ndeyokuti ini ndinongomu, ini chatoi, ini zvanda, zvata,zvatatichirongananamai.Hapenokutiwasiyawarongaseikukunanauku?
P3:Aandangovatengerazvandangowanawo.
P4:Ee.
P3:Ndavatengerachikafunenemuriwo.(phoneringing)
P4:Sakainichandandichifunga.
P3:Mm.
P4:Ndechokuti{NS}(phone)eeiye--, iye--ngaambovhiringidzwanaiye--achinziunofanakundiroora.
P3:Mm.
P4:(())Sakaikozvinoizviwondinoonakuti{NS}nyayadzokuroorwakwake.Eeiye--ndichaitasezvandakaita--.Vakatema--nebhotoropanoapa.Handitimozviziva?
P3:Mm.
P4:Vakaitazvavanoita.Ndikatiaachiitaizvamunoda.
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P3:Mm.
P4:Sakaikozvinoizvindirikudakuti,ndinosvodaachangoroora.
P3:{LG}
P4:Wemustkeeponprayingnokutivachangoroorana.
P3:Mm.
P4:Ee,kutindiwithdrawe--kutidzokakunokumusha.Ndiwithdrawe--kutihuyaikunokumusha.
P3:Haiwangavagare. Iye--handitihaagariko?Anongo,vanongotogaravega.Regaiangowanapokugaraachiverenga--.
P4:Ini,ini,inininyayairipopanoapa--.
P3:Mm.
P4:Tinotitikahanditiikozvinondagaisanhasi.
P3:Mm.
P4:Ndopackerzvimugorogodizviviri.
P3:Mm.
P4:Handiti?
P3:Mm.
P4:Ndotanhamurivoapondovapa.
P3:Mm.
P4: Then ndomukira kumashop ndovatumidzira kaa ndine dhora. Kaa pasi,tikashaiwadhorarokuvatumidzira.
P3:Mm.
P4:Rokupadhiraivhahazvisviki.Ndovapavogara.Ndozvavanoraramanazvo.
P3:Mm.Sanhasindakavatengerachigrocerychetwentydollarsndikavatengeranhasitendollarsmuriwo.Bhinzine-nematemba.Sakavangavachitihaazvinombochovhasitereki.Dzimwebhinzindatouyanadzokunonamatembandauyanazvo.
P4:Ee.Sakandoimwenyayayatatichitombozamakutaurana-,tichitauranamaiava.{NS}
P3:Mm.
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P4:Tikatihaaikozvinoit’stooearlykutitirambe.Tititi--hatidi.
P3:Mm.
P4: -- uyu wakarambana nomukadzi wake. Varambana nomukadzi wake ukozvikanetsa.Akauyakunoakagara.
P13:Haandofungandapedza--.
P4:Tikatiisuwedon’tencourage.
P13:Mazvinzwa?
P3:Mm.
P13:Mhaiwee!
P4:Isusuwedon’tencouragekutiiwe--,iwemuroorautodzokerakumushakwako.
P3:Mm.Mhaifoniyangundodakutibatteryndichengetedze.Ndodakudzima.
P13:Hoo.
P3:Mm.
P4:Ndikatiiwekuuyakwawakaitapanowakafambirei?Wakauyanorudo.
P3:Mm.
P4:Zvinozvawakauyanorudorwaperahere?{LG}Ivo--ndikatirwaperahere?Kanarwaperadzokerahako.Zvikahiharuna.
P3:{LG}
P4:Ndikatikanarwusinakuperachigara.
P3:Mm.
P4: Ee, iye -- ndokuzoti after a week ndokuzotevera pano apa. {LG} Nokutindakamuudza inindikati iwe,wakauyapanoapahaunakufambirazvimwezvinhuwakauyanorudo.Rwaperahere?Kanarwaperadzokera.
P3:{LG}
P4:Zvikanziharuna.Ndikatichigara.{LG}Tichitaurirana.Sakandoimwenyayairipopano apa yandai yandandichitaura hangu yandandichida kuti ivo -- ikozvino varipano.Ikozvinovakuwiriranana--chaizvo.
P3:{LG}
P4:Asikutivachengetedzemaikutivazivekutimaivanoda.
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P3:Chiitaimhai.Ndodakudzimafoniyangu.Mangwanandingatambura.
P13:Yanguinofutakusvikakwaidzahaitani,hainhingihainetsi.
P3:Yanguinonetsamotoiyo.
P4:Taridzaiuko.
P13:Iii.
P4:(())
P13:Handitiapapanemushongawemapeteherenhainhai--?
P4:Aachitsvetaicheropamunotsveta.
P4: Hamufani kumboti, nokutika kana tichitaura kudai toitira kuti tive newiderknowledgeyokutiiyekanaachiachiindakumushakwake.
P13:Zvatoperawani.Zvatopera.
P4:Nokutiiyekanaachiindakumushakwakeunotindoindakumushaukooindazvekumusha. Une misha mitatu. Saka unofana kuziva musha uno kuti wakamira sei.Sakandonyayayandodakuti.Nyayairipondeyokutiinindakatakataurirananamaizvandandichitaurazviya.Vangavasimunozvatambotaurapaya.
P13:Aatorambatichingodzokorora?Ndodzizivanyayadzese.
P4:Vana,takatihazvigoni.
P13:Kudzokororakonetsa,hai.
P4:Kutititivanaavavadzoke.Ndakaandatingavadzoke.
P3:Mm.
P4: Mai vakati kwete. Munenge makutoputsa musha. Isu ngatitumidzire zvunhuzvichidii,zvichiindako.Kanavatihatichinatotumidzira.
P13:Inimwanauyuangaachitaurakutihanzi-
P4:Hinoisutetisinamanjemariyokuzofona.
P13:Aiwamirainditaureini--.
P4:Eechitaurai.
P13:Uyuwakasvikakuhazvanziakaonakuti--haanachunhu.Sakaimisiyanaina--.Haasatiawanazvunhuzvokwanapaari.Sakasiyanaina--.
P3:Aanhingikiri.
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P13:Ee.
P3:Mariyakeinongotorwanomukadzi.
P13:Eendonyayairipo.Hapanakanachimwe.
P4:Mariinotorwanomukadzika?
P3:Mm.Nezuromutownpatakamusiya. -- inihandinamariyokuzouya.Angaanga,kudaangaanziugonditorafutiundimirire.Becauseiniakanditizazve.
P13:Achishandiswa.
P3:Angaanditizaakatindokuti--undimiriremutown.--inihandinamariyokuzouyakumba. Ndikati aa oo two dollars iyi. Ndobva ndatomuti aa -- chitora. Ndakandakainda ndichinotenga grocery rana--. Ndikati -- tora fanta umo. Akachenamuromo kudai. Ndikati tora fanta umo hanzvadzi umwe. Ndobva atora fanta. Aamaitabasa.Ndokuzouyakumba.
P13:Haa.
P3:Akazofonakumaeight.Ndandatiaachiregaitotsvagahuku--zvaatihanzindouyakumafour. Kana kuuya. Kuda akarambidzwa. Kuzoti naeight ava kufona zvikanzimazodii huku? Tikati aa tazotenga muriwo nematemba tikadya. Aa horaiti. Ndirikuuyamanjemanje.Ndokuzouyaakazosvikandavata.
P13:Heya.
P3:Achitovhunzakuti--vawanamachirahere?Vakavatakupi?
P13:Hinokudero?Arikutamburawo--uyo.
P3:Mangwananindobvandatiinindakuinda.Aitoakatonditaridzawobhukureroorarakeachitindozvandakaitaizvi.Ndokutima,ndikatiaainindirikutodzokeranhasi.Ndodakumboindanekumbandichinoona vanamaindobvandatodzokera. Zvikanziaa regai ndikuperekedzei kuinda kuMbare. Anga asina mari yekombi. Saka inindatobhadharira --. Ndandati ndokutsvagirai murivo kuMbare wozodzoka.Ndabhadhara kombi kuinda kuMbare kusvika. Tasvika kuMbare ndobva ndati aaiwe handina kumbokuona wakadhakwa. Ndongosikuona wakadhakwa. Chii chirikuitika? Asi hauna mari? Oo two dollars iyi unodii, ugodhakwa. Handichazivikukuona wakadhakwa. Aa otoseka. Ndobva andikwidza. Ndobva ati haa horaitibhabhai bhabhai. Ndoona munhu adzoka napahwindo. --, ini handitorina mariyekombiyekudzokerakumba.
P13:Unengeasina.
P3:Ndikamupatwodollars.Aatsk.
P13:Unohwisaurombo--.
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P3:Ndoshayakutichiiko.Anoshandireiko?
P13:Ichitorwanomunhuwozvake?
P3:Ndamupatwodollars.
P13:Unorwadza.
P4:Aiwa.
P3:Mm.Asiuyoangaachiti,becauseazofona.Pandandichitoperekedzwana--angaachitofonaachitihanziuchirikupi?Zvikanzina--aa--varikudzokeranhasi.Ndodakumbovaperekedza.Sakavaavakutauriranakutitozosanganakumaten.Sakaanodiikumupamariyekombi?Munhuanoshandaanoshaiwamariyekombi?
P13:Uuu.
P3: Asi anomuti huya. Unouya nei? Aa hamenowo kuti chii chiri kuitika pavanhuivava.
P13:Hamehaainizva--wenyuaa.
P3:Hamenowo.
P13:Handimukwanisi.
P3: Saka ini ndandichi, handina kutombozoshaudha --. Ndakangoti aa regaindimusiye.
P13: Ini --mwanawangu. {CG}Kuti ndimu . . .Makuriro aakaita --munomumbaumuachitambudzika.
P4:Eewemustprayfor--.
P3:Mm,haa.
P4:Wemustprayfor--.Wemustprayfor--.
P13:Nokutipapindapfumvuyakaomapamusoropa--iyeye.
P4:Becauseiweuneshuwakutivatetevangatieemariyangundodaeighthundred.{LG}Ndakasekaini.
P3:Kokuzotikuuyamumbamangwanani.--varikuuyanguvai?Hanzitikatiaavarikuuyakumafive.Ndandativana--tisanganekuMbarekumafive.
P4:Iye--?
P3:Hanzindobvaatihoraitindakuenda.--handetinoita.Achizivakuti--varikuuya.Handimuzivi.
P13:Varikudzokaehe.
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P3: Ndokuinda ndokutoinda. Ndamutown ndakazoona -- akauya ku kuRoadport.Akanditambira.
P13:Heya.
P3:Zvikanziaaatoinda.Hanzimaivakevauya.
P13:Haa.
P3: Kana kufona kuti vatete kana kuti chii, kana kuti chii. Ini ndikati aa ini ndinezvunhuzvangukumbakwanguhandi.Aitindodakuonakutivanodyei.
P13:Unotamburamunhu.
P3: Takadya sadza nemurivo nezuro. Ndaitoda kutenga huku. Ndandatopa vana--mari yehuku ndikazoti aa -- chisarai nesix dollars yacho mozodii mozotengasomething.
P13:Unotamburandiyani?Kurwarauko.
P3:Ndikatindinouyakumbakomunhukutindizodya.
P13:Aahezvo.
P3:Inikwangundinotodya.Chikafuchachochakatowandisa.
P4:Iweplusuchitorasha.{LG}
P3:Ndinotorashakumbakwanguwotondishai tsvinyiranezvine.Todakuonakutivanodyeikanavauyakumbakwehazvanziyavo.
P13:Heya.
P3: Ndakasiya ndatenga grocery ndikatenga zvandakatenga. Ndobva nda- tadyandobvandabva.Nechingwa.Vana--vatomwatiinhasi.{LG}
P4:{LG}Vamwatiinhasi?
P3:Vamwatiinechingwa.
P4:Ndofungazvafara.
P3:Aandakavatengeratwoloavesndikatengazvandakakwanisakutenga.
P13:Haiwawo.Kuswereraizvozvo?
P3:Nhasindavatengerabhinzidzakadai,nematemba.
P4:Dzakawanda?
P3:Ee,zvokutimuriwohavambotamburi.Ndobvandavasiiraimwemari.
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P13:Aa.
P3: Saka vari vari right. Kwakutadza kana kuti, paafona pacho achitindichambotenge,ndichambo.
P13:HaaregaiamboitazvakezvomuHarare--.
P3:Ndobvaakatandokutosiyananaye.
P13:Achanzwisisa.
P3:Ndikatiaauyuanodakutitiiteshaisanopanoapa.
P13:Mm,achanzwisisa.
P3:Ndikatiini,inikumbakwanguhandishaiwichikafuchokutindingatouyawobvawavigachikafuuchi.
P13:Haanhai(())chaunotamburira.
P3:Huyakwangundikupechikafukanauchichida.{LG}
P13:Aahezvo.
P4:--,inipanenyayayandinodakutinditaureapa.
P13:Haai.
P4:Yakasimbasababa.
P3:Mm.
P4:Eepanenyayayokutitakaindauko.
P3:Mm.
P4:Ichinzivatetevanodaeighthundredkutiagozoperekwa.Hinopanohapaperekwimunhukausingawiriraninana.Ndodakutindikuudzendiwevatete.
P3:Mm.
P4:Kanausingawiriraninanatete.
P13:Aahezvo.
P4:Panohauperekwi.
P3:{LG}Munorambamuroora.Isutadiihedu?Kudaisutonetsa.{LG}
P4:Aaaa.
P13:Aakanahaiwawo.
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P3:Isutotizwanavaroora.{LG}
P4:Kwetezvenhaiwe,inihandisikudakutimunhuaaaaperekwepano.
P3:Mm.
P4:Ndinomutiunotambirwanani?Inihandimutambiri,avahavamutambiri.
P3: Momuti taura na-- ndovanofanirwa kukutambira. Nokuti izvozvi ndakaindakuHararendikadzokaasinakukanakufonakanakudii.
P4:Ndati,ndati-.
P3:Taurira--kutindirikudakuuyakuzoperekwa.
P4:Kwete.
P13:Unongo,unongofona.Aa.
P4:Tereraunzwezvandataura.Ndatikunzekwako.
P3:Mm.
P4:Haaperekwipano.
P3:Ehezve.Haandashamisikakutihezvo,ndaindakuHarare,--akaroora.
P4:Aa--ndichamufonera.--ndotomundichamufonera.
P13:Hamhenozvenyu.
P4:Ndomutikunzekokutimapi,mataurirananana--.
P3:--vanofanirwakungevaripo.
P13:Haazvinorema.
P4:Hapa,kunzekokuti,aakunzekokuti.
P3:--ndovanofanirwakutotaura.
P4: Mukadzi wako unofana kuwirirana nana . . . kwete, kwete iwe. Handitangikutaura pamusoro pako. Ndongoti ee ndokumbira kuti iwe -- muroora uwiriranenanatete.
P13:Haa,haiwa.
P4:Ndokutizvunhuzvifambe.--,ee.
P13:Haazvonetsa.
P4:--hasbeencapitalised,hwani.--hasbeencapitalised.Hapenokutizvakamoneravanavanguvakomana.
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P13:Haa.
P3: Isu, isu kwatakaroorwa hatidaro isu. -- vakati --. Izvozvi vana baba namaivakauya. Vakatengerwa hembe, vakatengerwa, vakaindiswa kunoona mhuka,vakanzwiivakanzwii.--idaivanababaidaivana.Ndichingoita.Hapanachandaimbotinoini.Kanaonedayrandootinokanavanababavauya.Asiizvi.
P4:Kuswerazurondakangandina--.
P3:Ee.
P4:--.
P13:Mapensioneer?
P4:--vayavepamusoroava.Zvikanziaa.
P3:Vanokuzivaizve?
P4:Zvikanziaa,zvikanzi--.
P3:Mm.
P4:Haandigerekumboonazvakadaro.Makazvarapaya.
P13:Mapensioneeranonetsa.
P4:Hanzimakazvaramwanausingaiti.
P3:{LG}
P4:Hanziisutoshaiwakuti,hanzikutiumutipapi{NS}kutipakadii.Hanzihaapayapayahatitauriheduisu.Makatiitirabasapaya.{LG}
P3: Ini handitauri. Kana -- vangoti zvakati zvinoitwa. Ndobaba vemushandovanotaura.
P13:Aa.
P3: Maropofadzo anouya. Ipapa pahembe dzandakakutengerai vakandipa marivakati aa kana makuzoinda kumba mozotengerawo vanababa nokuti vanamaivakauyatikavatengera.Ndikatihoraiti,ndobvandatotengahembe.
P4:Sakahanditimunozviona?
P4:Maropofadzo anongouyawo nekuside. Hino kana uchitimunhuwese akashataiwendiwewakanaka.Aangaaite.
P13:Hamenowo.
P4:Isu,inichandinokumbiraini.Eezvandodakutaurapanoapandechokutiwemustpray.Prayerisveryimportant.
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Transcription3:Participant5and6
P6:Mauyanemabhukuachoeseherenhaimaiguru?
P5: (chewing) (.) Ndatora ese. Asi ndinofunga kuti makasara neamwe mabhuku,nebhukuremazitaemamembers.
P6:Kanandimimakasaranawo.Ndinorangarirakutimakazosaramuchiwekamaridzachona--.
P5:Aahoraiti,regaindigonotarisakanapandinodzokera.Kudandakakanganwa.
P6: Kana kuti chingoregai ndione kana ndisina. Regai ndiinde, ndiri kuuyamanjemanje.(.){NS}Aa{LG}aandariwana.Kutokanganwazvangukutindinindinaro.
P5: Yaa ini ndinogarisa mabhuku angu paone placeand ndanga ndiri shuwa kutindimimunawo.Garazviyamamembersavamangani?
P6:Regaitione,regaitione.{NS}MmmtichiverengatheseonesvakajoinaneSundaytavafifteen.
P5:Haavasikana,imikaimi.Ndiyaniaizvizivakutitingawandakudaro.
P6:Iivanhuvanozivakutimukandounobatsiraespeciallykanauchidakukwereta.
P5: Aa regai tione zvakanzi nemadzimai tigadzirise. Gara zviya vakatipa zvinhuzvakawandazvokugadzira.Regaitiionekutitingatanganechipi.
P6:Iingatitangeitasetamariyacho.Zviyatakawiriranamarii?
P5:Fivedollarspamwedzi.
P6:Koyefine?
P5:Dhora,dhorachete.Inindofungakutiishoma.
P6: Yaa I also think fine ishomasa. Yaa but zvinenge zvava kutoda kuvhota kutiiwedzerwe.
P5:Aaok,ok.Ayamamemberseseaya.Chinyoraimamemberseseayaaripanoapaayatigozivazvatinoita.
P6: Haa chingondipai bepa racho ndogozononyora ndava kumba. Zvunhu zvachozvakawandazvinodakuitwa.
P5:Aaok,herobeparachoiro.
P6:Takatidayririfreenderipikutitiitemusangano?
P5:Saturdaymangwananinaseveno’clock.
P6:Naseveno’clock?Okregaindinyore.
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P5:Ehenaseveno’clock.
P6:Chimwechiichinodakunyorwa?(sneezes)
P5:Mmpanevarumevayavanodakujoina.
P6:YaaIremembermadzimaiakaramba.
P5:Asizvehaavakatitombomiriranextmeetingtozodecider.
P6:Inihanguhandionichakaipakanavachibhadhara.Kanavachingobhadharamaridzavovakasiyaneinavamwevanhu?
P5: Vakadzi munovaziva imi. Havadi zvinhu zvinopindwa navarume. Vanodakutomboitazvamakuhwahavo.
P6: Vangaita sei nyangwe ndimiwo? Dzose itsvimborume, havana kana vakadzi.Sakavariright.
P5:YaaIthinkvazhinjivanodakutivajoine.
P6:Hopevanobvumirwakujoina.{CG}
P5:Kointerestyeanengeakweretatakaiisapamarii?
P6:Yakanzifivepercentformembers.Asivasirimamembersaatenpercent.(...)
P5:Ikezvinopanefiftydollarsinofanirakudzokamonthend.
P6:Aamiraitimbo,aamiraitimbopedzanezveinterest.
P5: Ok, takati kana member ikasadzosa within a month tinofanira kubhadhara,inofanirakubhadharatenpercentinterest.
P6:Eekanaangoregakubhadharabackanobvaabhadharayemanon-members.Sakamatififtydollarsndoinofanirakudzoswamonthend?{CG}
P5:Eendiyocheteinodzokamonthend.
P6:Ok.Ndivanaanivakaikwereta?
P5:Ii,ii--vanetwentydollars,--vanethirtydollars.
P6:Kouyanyayayeparty.
P5:ThisyeartakatitoitamunaNovember.Ndopanodavanhuvakawandakuitaparty.
P6:Committeeyokubikandiyoiyi.
P5: Last year vakagona asi vakanonoka kutipa lunch. Takaa tofa nezhara isu.Takatozoponanekuindakumashops.
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P6:Aavanhuvaidhishavaivavashoma.Ndopakaitaproblem.
P5:Haaimiimiimi,nyangwezvakadarovanhuvofanezharaherevauyakuparty?
P6:Thistimefivendovanhuvachaita.Kuchaitwanavanhufive.
P5:Haaok.Hopethistime zvinorongeka.Nokuti uumvasikana lasttime ndakabvandanezharachaiyochaiyo.Vanhuvakacomplainerzvisingaiti.
P6:Aahoraitihoraitihoraiti.Thistimezvichanaka.
P5: Kubank vakati vanoda vanhu three. Saka ini nemi then chairwoman ndiyewechithree.
P5:Aaok.Inindinengendirifreenechitatu.Sakatokwanisakuindanechitatu.
P6:HoraitindichatauranamaiLeotionekutitingaitachitatuchachohere.{CG}
P5:Mozondifoneramuchindiudzakanamatauranamai--vacho.
P6: Haa ok. This year ndofunga tikasiya mari yakati oo patinokandirana kuitiraJanuarydiseasevasikana.Vamwetinemafees.
P5:Aaee.Goreraperavanhuvakatamburazvisi,vachishayakwekukwereta.
P6:{LG}Nenivondakatambura.Feesdzangadzakandiwandirazvisingaiti.
P5:Sakatingasiyamariisokuonakwenyu?
P5:Uuumngatitiithirtydollarsndoyatosiya.
P6:Aainoitasezvohomweyeduineonethousandfivehundred.
P5:Vanhuvakasiya{NS}aa,threehundred,threehundredndoinoitakwetethirty.
P6:Aahoraiti,horaiti,horaiti.
P5: Saka ndizvo zvese handiti zvatatichifanirwa kugadzirisa? Regai ndimboonamubhukuracho.
P6:Yaaregaindioneworangubhukurinoiri.(...){NS}{CG}Haachikosorovasikanachikosorochanetsa.
P5:Yaa.MungatangakukosoraikezvinokuzotiApril,panoperaJunemuneemanzwakwazvo.
P6:Haahamheno,hamheno,hamheno.({NS}YaaIthinkndozvese.Eeimichisainaiapa.
P5:Aahoraitiregaindisaine.{NS}Ndonyoradateranhasi?
P6:(...)Yaadateranhasi.
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P5:Aahoraitivasikana,iniregaindiinde.Aiwa,imimofanirwakusainawohanditi?
P6: Ee regai ndisaine apapa. Ndichauya kuzotenga muriwo mangwana kumbakwenyu.Ndakanzwakutimunemuriwousingaiti.
P5:Mangwana,mozouyanechinamangwanahandipo.
P6: Horaiti ndokuonai nechina chacho. Asi ii vasikana matondiomesera.Ndandichidamuriwozvisingaitindisatindadzokerakuchikoropaholidaypanoapa.{LG}AamakazvinzwaherekutiNyaradzoirikuuyane,irikuuyaneChina?
P5:Eendakazvinzwazvichitaurwa.Haainihaa.
P6:Zvirinanitijoinevasikana.
P5:Haashuwa.VeNyaradzovanengevanobatsirasitereki.Makaonakutiparufurwa-- vakaita zvinoyemurika chaizvo chaizvo? Ndiyani aimboziva kuti vanhu vanofaraparufuveduwee?
P6:Ndakazviona.That’swhyndichidakujoinaNyaradzo.
P5:InihangundakaitaluckyndakajoiniswaNyaradzonemwanawangu.{CG}
P6:Aahoraiti.Ndibaba--kanivakakujoinisai?
P5:Ehee,atovanetwoyearsachiitamapayments.
P6:Iivasikanaaatatova,tisutegatasarasaka.Regaitingojoinawoveduwee.
P5: Haa shuwa joinai. Pamusha pakaita nhamo hapadi kuti vanhuvazonyanyotambura. Nyaradzo inopa even bhazi rinouya nevanhu verufu kanamunhu afira kutaundi. Saka zviri nani chaizvo chaizvo. Ndakaatenda mafuneralsakawanda eNyaradzo. Haa haushori veduwee vasikana. Hautomboshori zvachose.Vanhuvanozivazvavarikuita,zvavanengevachiitaivava.
P6:Aahoraiti,tongozonzwakwamuri.
P5: Haa horaiti zvakanakai. Ko dhibhamoziva kuti ririkoMondayhere kana kutiririkorimwezuva?
P6: Uuum dhibha aa regai ndione. Regai nditarise pachibhuku chedhibha.Ndirikuuya.{NS}
P5:{CG}{NS}(...)
P6:Yaandariwana.DhibhaiMonday.
P5:Aahoraitimaitabasavasikana.Tongozonzwakwamuri.Aapanezvandandichidakumbokuvhunzaifuti.Iindakanzwakutimaimbodzidzisavanhukusonakaimi.
P6:Iivasikanazvazvemakore.Aandakazvipedzisiraninety.Nineteenninetychaiyo.
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P5: Aa ndandichida kungodzidziswa zvishoma shoma zvokusona ma, zvokutindingoonakugadzirisahembe.Nokutiiivazukuruvanguvawandisa.Vavavaviriavavarikunetsakuchengeta.Vanobvarurazvisingamboiti.
P6:Aahoraiti.Mamuchidakudzidziswazvariini?
P5:Aacheropamunengemakasununguka.Inindakasunungukaanytime.
P6: Yaa zvotoda ndatombodzidzira futi nokuti uum haa vasikana ava makore,makorechaiwochaiwo.
P5: Hii veduwee musadaro kani. Vazukuru vangu vangafamba neshuku chaiyochaiyo.Haandatamburanokutengamabhurugwanehembeini.
P6: Aa mirai tione, mirai tione. Mm maybe Svondo nokuti ndikabva kuchechindendiri free zvangu. Saka kana muchikwanisa kuuya svondo tokwanisakuzogadzirisazvedu.
P5: Haa horaiti vasikana, mungaita basa ii. (claps hands) Ndanzwa vasikana.Zvizukuruzvanguzvinobvaruraizvozvozvisingaiti.
P6:Hoosakamurikugaranavazukuruvenyumazuvano?
P5: Haa mai vacho ndakati vamboinda kunotsvaga basa avo. Chimwanazvechakakurumidza kuita vana sakahii ndakangoona kuti akagara agozovei panyika?Hazvimbobatsirikana.
P6:Aamakatogona.Varumevamazuvanovanotsvinya,kutsvinyakudaro.
P5:Takatozozvizivakutianemukadziwakenhumbuyatovapofivemonthssakaheyi.Iyewo mwana wangu ndomuudza kuti chisiyana nemurume womunhu haadi.Kutoindashuwakunopuwaimwemimba.Haandakangotida,ndakadarodzii.Sakandakangoonakutiiihapanazvandingatomboita.Kutotoravazukuruoindaonotsvagachikoro. Hanzvadzi yakati inomubhadharira kana akagona, college. Saka aa kanaangopasawomathsdzachohanzvadziyakatiinobhadharacollege.Sakaiitotongorwakutiakanyoragorerino,collegeozoindanextyear.
P6: Aa zvotova nani kana achizowana anobhadharira. Nokuti ii vamwe havadizvokubhadhariravanhuvanengevambotambisanguvayavoseizvozvo.
P5:Sakandouyanei?Ndouyanemachineyachoherekanakutitozoshandisayenyu?
P6:Aazvirinanikuuyanemachineyenyubecause inindendichiita,imimuchiitawo.Saka tinokurumidza kupedza kana. Ndandichifunga kuti tikangoita one day, then,tikaswererathenmokwanisakuzonozviita.
P5: Haa vasikana vasikana, vasikana, maita henyu zvokwadi. Hopehandizokudisappointiyi. Nokuti hiish zvokusona zvinotondinetsa chaizvo chaizvo.Vakangonditengeramushiniwakangogaramumba.Sakaiivanonzwanokutaurakutidzidziraikusona,dzidziraikusona.Sakaiishzvonetsa.
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P6: Aa ndakambovadzidzisa madzimai akawanda emuno mese umu. Ndinindakavadzidzisakusona.
P5: Aa ndakazvinzwazve nembiri. Ndakakunzwai nembiri ndosaka ndatouyakwamuri.Ndakakunzwainembiriyokugonakusona.
P6: Yaa. Gov, gov, government yaimbobatsira sitereki. Imagine kuti vakangotoravanhuvakatihuyaimusone,huyaimudzidze,huyaimudzidziswekusona.Saka iishndakaandakawandirwazvisingatomboiti.
P5: Hoo? Haa ndakazvinzwazve kuti vazhinji ndimi maka, ndimi makavadzidzisakusona.(...)Aavasikana,regaindionekutindodiipanoapa.Panechimwechachirimunjeredzangu.Chiiko?Mmfoninhambadzanguhanditimunadzo?
P5:Yaandinadzo,ndinadzo.Imidzangumunadzowohere?
P5:Eehaandinadzo,ndinadzo.Iitongozosanganapatino,patinoindakwaGutu.Thentozoronga from there. Asi kusona vasikana ndiri kutouya handitomboitizvokutamba.
P6:{LG}Aahoraiti,horaiti,tongozoonamauya.
P5:Komumundamakakohwazvakadiikogorerino?
P6:Iigorerinozvaivananivasikana.Mvurayakatombonayazvokutimapanioseayaatakaatakaitawinterhaatakatowanazvakatiwandei.
P5:Hoo,aandoonamakatosumudzanengaranizveapa.
P6: Ee aa takatosumudza nengarani.Plus tikawedzera chelastyearhaa tinofamba,tinombochovha.
P5:Nokuti iimakazvinzwakutiparadiozvirikunzigorerinokunenzara isingaiti?Sakahiimusatombotengesazvenyu.Nzarayachoirikohaitomboiti.Varikutoplannerkutengachibagekunedzimwenyika.
P6: Yaa ndakazvinzwa zvangu paradio kuti vari kuplanner kutenga chibage. Iizvakaoma vasikana. Hamheno. Vazhinji vakanonoka kurima vakashaiwa zvachosekanachokugochavakachishaiwa.
P5: {LG} Zvakaoma. Ini ndakatozopona nechokugadheni asi haa kukohwa chaikohandina. Ndingada kukureverai nhema. Handina kana kutombokohwa zvachose.Chemu, chemugadheni ndochandakatongoita, takatongogocha nokudya kusvikachapera. Saka hii tisu vamwewo vachatotenga gore rino. Imi muno, kanamuchingozotengesamototifungawo.
P6: Yaa, hamheno. {LG} Handi, aa handisati ndataura nababa. Kana ndikatauranababatikanzwakutivanefungwadzipindichakuudzai.AsihaaIthinktinotengesanokutiiichatiwandeiendeisutirivashomakaisu.
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P5:Aahoraiti.Musatombondikanganwavasikanaveduwee.Ndinganetsekazvachosechosenevazukuruvanguvakawandaivava.Imihenyumurivashoma.(...)
P5: Pfuurai muchitanha magwavha kana muchimada mumuti umo kugadheni.Anonakachaizvoarikoawoemukatimuchena.
P6:Hoozviyamunemagwavha.Aandaitofungakutiakaperaini.Enyuanosvikatimeinoachiriko?Haamugere,makagarikaimi.
P5: Haa anosvika time ino achiriko but haa kunzwisa mudumbu.Haumbozonyanyomadya.Unongozotizvishomashomawotoregazvako.
P6: Aa horaiti regai nditovigira vazukuru vangu. Vanomadawo magwavhazvisingaiti. Vanowana chinovanyaradza. Kuchikoro uko hii, akapera asatiatomboibva even. Unotonyara kuti somunhu waticha woswera uchirega vanavachipinda muorchard vachingodya magwavha pamadiro here. Unozoita sousiriresponsible. {LG} Ha shuwa unozoita sousiri responsible. Vanhu vese vanengevangokutarisakutindovayavanevanavanodyamagwavhamambishi.{LG}Yaaregaitiindetinotanha.
P5:Miraindimbovharamadoor,ndivharemadoor.Mbudzidzachodzonetsa.(...)Aahoraitihandeihedu.
P6:Mm,ok.{NS}(...)Haahoraiti,horaiti,ndirikuuya.Ndabaiwa.
P5:Mabaiwa,masosokahi?
P5:Haatsinechaidzochaidzo,itsine.
P6: Aa sorry, sorry, sorry. Ndofanirwa kutopakura ipapa. Aa kukanganwa.Ndofanirwa kunogamuchira baba vari kudzoka nhasi. Saka ii, imi chingopfuurainomugadhenimuchingonhonganhongawo.Iniregaindimbodzokerandirongedzerekutindiindekubusstop.
P5:Aahoraiti,pariright.Tokuonai,tozokuonai.Mongozondifonera.
P6:Aahoraiti,zvakanaka.
P5:Aamaitabasa.Ndozokuonai,bhabhai.
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Transcription4:Participant7and8
(Thereisbackgroundnoisefromcutlery,potsandplatesthroughouttherecording)
P7:Unokwanisakuitamalinesokutiapaneapa,thenukuneuku.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:(...)Tichamunetsaakareakatihandizvigoni.
P8:{LG}Kutihaaakakuudzaikutihaa.
P7:Kutihaazvinhuzvenyuizvihaiwahandizvigoni.
P8:(())
P7:Oranotangakutihanzihazviiti.
P8:Yaa.{LG}
P7:Kutihazviiti.(())
P8:Hoo{LG}kutyamumvuri.
P7:Mm.{NS}Mmndazozvimbirwazvino.
P8:Zvaa-
P7:Sakaiyiregandindinoifotokopa.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:Iwillmakeacopy.Ndinindaivandakunyoraizvi.
P8:Hoo.Aandoyamakashandisapamakauya?
P7:Ee.
P8:Hoo.Maorriginalsayamakamaona?
P7:Ithinkso,yah.Handitizvangazvirimufile?
P8:Eemufileso.
P7:Mm.{NS}Izviyoucankeepizvi.Maybepaweekendwewillseekutitinga-
P8:Totsvakazvipi?{NS}
P7:Mhamhandovaivairatidzakubhoikanakutihanzimurikudelayer.
P8:{LG}Haa.
P7:Hanzizvinhuzvenyuzvamamiramvurainonayamanjemanje.
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P8:{LG}
P7:--anodzokerakuchikoro.
P8:Haa,ivova-
{BC}
P7:(talkstoanotherperson)
P7:Usaudzavanhu.{LG}
P8:Yaa.
P7:Kusvikazvanyatsoita.
P8:Yaa.
P7:Kanawakuzoita,inonzichii,homewarmingorwhatever.
P8:Housewarming.
P7:Housewarming,thenwozotaura.Koiyiwangawaionaiyi?
P8:Yaa.
(childplaying)
P8:Mapictures?
P7:Ndoplanyayo.
P8:Horaiti.(childtalking)Yaa,it’sverybig.{LG}
P7:Manjendozvirikudakudelayershopmanje.
(Childtalking)
P8:Shop?
P7:Mm.
P8:Hoo.
P7:Becausezveseonetime.{LG}
P8:Hazvizobudi.
P7:Hazvibudi.
P8:{LG}Horaiti.
P7:Sakapictureiyi,ndouku.
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P8:Horaiti.
P7:Sakaichichakabudikirandeichi.
P8:Ok.
P7: Saka somewhere pano apa haa chongova chiimba chakangoita chiimba chisinanebasarose.
P8:Mhm.
P7:Thensomewherekunoukukunechiimbachakadai.Ichihachisichiimbaassuch.Chongova-
P8:Hamheno.
P7:Ndechemazen’e.
P8:Horaiti.
P7: But iyi imba chaiyo chaiyo. Iyi inotova netoilet neone room. Tione mamwemapictureachookufront.
P8:Ndikokauku?
P7:Sakagarageiri.Thenapapashadeapa.Ndoshade.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:Toiletndeiyi,bathroom.Iyiibedroominofanirakuvaiyi.Iyiit’sanotherbedroomiyi.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:Anotherbedroomiyi,libraryiyi.
P8:Ok.
P7:Mmloungeiyi,dining.
P8:Ok.
P7:Aaaichihanzichinonziscuscullery.
P8:Scullery.{LG}
P7:Ichichiripakonaichi.
P8:Horaiti.Sakaunobvamukicheni?
P7: Mm, then kicheni iyi. So it’s like aa pane entrance apa kauchibva ku, ukundokufrontuku.
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P8:Ndokufront.
P7:Parkingiyi.
P8:Thenentrance?
P7: Wopinda mulounge thenpane exit apa inotopinda mudining. Then chiscullerychacho.Thenanotherexitukukanauchidakuindakubedroom.
P8:Horaiti.Hookuseriuku?
P7:Ndokuseri.Mabedroom{CG}onetwothreefour.Sakaapahapanamapictureethisonebutndoothebiggest.
P8:Ndothemainbedroom?
P7:Yaa.{NS}Butinetoiletnebathroom.This,thispartiyiinongovatoiletnebathroombut its big, inotori- {LG} Yaa, so kufront uku ndoo, so hwindo iri ndorokupindamulounge.
P8:Ok.
P7:Ayamahwindotwoawa.
P8:Ndoaya?
P7:Yaa.Hazvisitoscalebecausethisloungeisactuallybiggerthanthesetwo.
P8:Horaiti.{LG}
P7:Drawingyachohainakuitwa.
P8:Mait’sjustrough.
P7: Mm. So its mm. I don’t know kana uchiri kuremember patanga tichiuya.(inaudible)Paripopatapfuurapanecurveso.
P8:Mhm.
P7:Ndobvatazotistraight.Paapanepapane-
P8:Chihump?
P7:Mm,likeaboutfourkilometresfromhereuchidzokakuno.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:ThenaafromherekusvikakuYupiit’sten.
P8:Ten.
P7:Sakaunengewabvisafour.
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P8:Fourkilometres?{LG}Yaabutyakanaka.
(childtalking)
P7:(())Pathisone.
P8:Library?
P7:Library.Somuri,currentownerangaarilawyer.
P8:Hoook.
P7:Sakandosakamabhukuakawanda.
P8:Mabhuku.{LG}
P7: So masherefu hanzi ndiri kusiya aripo. (.) So ndoiyi of which I think maybekudharararirigarage,garage.
P7:Ndobvaavhuragaragekwakuisalibrary.
P8:Ndokuisalibrary.Yaazvogonakudaro.
P7:(...)Andalsondofungaakaiitaofficebecauseukanyatsotarisa,inedoor.Apapanesvigreenapaidoor.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:Soyoucanhavedoorrinobvakunzeuchitopindamudining.
P8:Hoohoraiti.Kugadziragadzirawohapanaanokubvunza.
P7:Yaapaneidziit’slikewhateveryouwant.Hapanaanokubvunza.
P8:Yaa{LG}
P7:Sakaukadakutitamoverapatobvatataisagaragefuti.{LG}
P8:Zvinongoita.
P7:Zvinongoitabutaahapananeedbecause-
P8:Yaa.
P7:Icoveredparking,theniyindoolockup.
P8:Yaaiyiinespacemanje.
P7:Mmbecausestanditsonethousandsquaremetres.
P8:Onethousand?
P7:Mm.
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P8:Horaiti.
P7:Idon’tknowyanamai--kudama.Uchikombeyaneyanamai--yokuMtPleasant.(talkstoanotherperson)Zvakangodakufananahanditi?
P8:Zvakadakufanana?
P7:Yaa.
P8:Haasoit’sbig.{LG}
P7:Yaabecauselikekuseriukuit’sopenspace.
P8:Yaa.
P7: Imba imba yakaiswa pakati. So there is a lot of space kufront, a lot of spacekuback.
P8:Aakutoitagadheni,abigone.(talkstoanotherperson)
P7:Yaaimbairipakatipedzimwe.
(childplaying)
P8:Yaapanedzimwe.
P7:Hamhenopanoapatikakwanisakunhingikira.Aaamprobablyhazviiti.Sopatirindepanoapa.(())Sakaiyoiripakanzi(())
P8:Hoo,ndopairi?
P7:Ndopairi.Miratione.
P8:Roadyatabvanayonhasindeipi?
P7: Iyi. Saka hatina kuzosvika kuroundabout. Tasvika somewhere pane malightsndobvatakonandokutenderera.
P8:Ok,hooiyi?
P7:Mmbuttabvatakadai.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:Thencitycentre.Socitycentreirisomewhereapa.SakatapindamunaSikhumani.
P8:Soirisomewhere?
P7: Yaaa somewhere. Mira tione. It’s one, one two two four Yazeni street. (childplaying) Kune, kunemafacility okuti youcan seenhingikiri.Mira tione. (. . .) {NS}Ndakaibvisakani?
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(Childrentalking)
P7: I don’t know wherever kwayainda. Ndokupiko ikoko? (( )) So patiri it’ssomewhere.SopatirikuindapaT.
P8:Hoo,ok.
P7:Butndopaneimbaidzi.(childtalking){NS}Itshouldbethis,iyi.
P8:Horaiti,thisone.
P7: So chishade chiya chachichionekwa ndeichi.Then pane chimwe chiimba chirisomewhere.(childrentalking)
P8:Ok.Sakaapait’slikepanokwipano.
P7:YaapanetrainIthink.Ndofungaibhazi,ibhazihaisitrain.
P8:Butstill?
P7:Butpanestation,trainstationiyi.Hooyaaiyindotrain.Awamabhaziaya.
P8:Mabhazi.
P7:Patrainstationndeapa.Butmabhaziakaitaserawakambokwirandoaya.
P8:Ee,pabusstop.
P7:Butalsoumu,munopfuuramakombi.
P8:Hoo.
P7:Plusipotionende,somewhereaaitshouldbesomewherehere.(childrentalking)Ukukunemakombi.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:Youcouldwalk.
P8:{LG}
P7:Butipapaaripomakombi.Kombiyakachipisa.
P8:{LG}(childtalking)
P7: There should be a way of yokuti unopinda into the street. Handichazivi kutizvoitwasei.Yokutiunopindaintothestreetuchitoona.
P8:Hoook.
P7:Sondozvichatsikirirashop.
P8:{LG}Aa.
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P7:Idon’tknow.
P8:{CG}Tombomirambijana.
P7:Butaaamparizvinopanodiwaiyoyomapipingyemagetsithenveranda.(childrentalking)
P8:Yaa.
P7: Saka veranda if we are not plastering rokwanisa kuitwa or vanoda kuplasternechepamusoropeveranda?
P8:Yaabecausevaitizvinozonetsakutiuzofambapamusoropemazen’e.
P7: Hoo uchiplaster nhingikiri, ok. (children talking) I think vakatanga nearc iyovaigadzire.Thenfromtheretheycangooutside.
P8:Kutivotanganeoutside?
P7:Becausendandichifungakunhingikira.Kunebasaherekumasideskuplaster?
P8:Kumasideshakuna.
P7:Likeukunouku.
P8:Hakuna.
P7: Because ukainda maGutu muya umuka, mune mamwe mashop asinakutomboplastwamasides.
P8:Ehe,sokumbokusiyakwakadaro.
P7: Kungosiya kwakadaro because kuri kuti vanhu vazovaka mashop avo next toeachother.
P8:Ee.Handitindovakatiudzakuti,vaitichii,thirty.
P7:Mm.Sovanongoitakufront,maybenokuback.Evenkubackkwacho.{LG}Maybekufrontthenvoindamukati.Kufrontkuitirakutivaiseveranda.
P8:Yaa.Aamkokofloorkuisamatiles?Handizivi.
P7:Yaa,ndozvandaifunga.
P8:Ndisingazivikutizvinozo.Hoo?
P7:Aabuthaungaisimatilesakaitaseayaka.
P8:Yaa.{LG}Haa.(childrentalking)
P7:Kunedustrokutimunhuakaakaakapindamushopabvapanzeyoucheckseekutiatsikaakadai.{LG}
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P8:Plusitseasykubecausekungokorobhachete.
P7:Yaa.(talkstochildren)Idon’tknowkutianoitamaprizeakadiiku--.
P8:Ndandisinakumbochecker.
P7: (talks to someone else) (children talking) Ndisingazivi kuti kana kuri kutiwatorafromhere,angavigikaherekanakuti?(someonetalking)Anengeari,anengearipackedin,becausekunoukuakachipa.
P8:Hoo?Soitmaybecheaperkuisa.
P7:Likeaalikeatoodaayo.Theycouldbeevenfiftyrandpersquaremetre.
P8:Horaiti,fiftyrand.{LG}Aa.
P7:Persquaremetre,ofwhich iyo shop ichii?Aboutnine, ten times aanine,maybeninemetres.
P8:Ninemetres?
P7:Sothat’sninetimeseight,sotimesfiftyrand.Threehundredrands.
P8:Threehundredrands.Thirtydollars.{LG}(childrentalking)
P7:Akachipazvisingamboiti.
P8:Aasoit’scheaperthankuisafloor.
P7:Yaazvotoricheaper.
P8:Yaa.
P7: Maybe you can check kuti ikoko anoita marii. Or we can, we can go kuma,kuhardware. We see around, we write down maprizes. Paunoinda ukowozonokombeya.
P8:Ee.
P7:Kuonakutizvakamirasei.Uchitarisawotypekutiakasimba.Nokutikuneamweanenge ari thin. Okuti akangokanganiswa kutsveta,munhu aka even ukadonhedzabhodhorokudairinotocrackerso.
P8:Hoo.Ndisingazivikutivanoisamatiles?
P7:ZvimwezvunhuIguesszvirieasy.Haunakuudzwanamaikutitakatsvakamufacewa--tikatiatigadzirireceilingakapushirapushira.
P8:{LG}
P7:Ndobvandazopendaininindakapendabathroomreupstairs.
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P8:Perfect.
P7:Inindotoriprofessional.{LG}
P8:IniIthinkukangoisa,ukangovalikeseriousnezvaurikuitazvinonyatsobuda.
P7:Yaazvinobuda,exactly.
{BC}
P7:Yaapapropertyiyoinodakupendwa.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:SoIdon’tknow.Maybekunana,tirimunaaniJune?
P8:June.
P7:AroundendofJulyorAugust,earlyAugust.
P8:EarlyAugust.(talkstosomeone){LG}
P7:Haungambopeyifornhingirikiri.
P8:For-
P7:Becausevanhuvaunengeuchipayervachoka,anengeachiitirakutiapedzeaindekunenext.
P8:Ehe.
P7:Awanemariyake.WhilstiweukazviitirayoucansayItakemytime.
P8:Wotoratimeyakozvishomanezvishomauchinyatsoonakutizvabudahere.(talkstosomeoneelse)
P7:Itcanbedone.(childrentalking)Ndakapendaiyindokupendairiupstairs.
P8:Hoo?
P7: Saka ya kumwe ndiri kunzwira usimbe. (talks to someone else) (childrentalking)Butvanoitavachohavamboisimask.
P8:Hoo?
P7:Vachovaunotsvakaukatihuyaimundipendere.Vanongouyavachi-{BR}(talkstosomeone else) (children talking) Mmm so maybe ukadiiko? Oh you have to paynhingikiri.Inonzichii?Councilfees.
P8:Councilfees?
P7:Ehe,mutero.
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P8:Horaiti,yaacouncilfees.
P7:Paipayermudharaitwasfifty.Ndoreceiptyatakakusiiraimweso.
P8:Horaiti.
P7:Ndakaionamufolderrakosomewhere.
P8:Ehe.
P7:Somaybeyoujusttakethatreceiptwoindafor.
P8:Horaitindono,fiftypagore?
P7: I think so. So you can pay fees idzodzo. Then aa yaa aam maybe uyo anoitamapipingakaitapipingyakeakapedza,thenuyootangakuplaster.
P8:Handiti?Mr--.
P7:Maybetaikwanisakutsvakayokutiakaplasterpafrontnokuisaveranda.
P8:Plasterkufront?
P7:Mm.
P8:Aabutmatitopendakahanditi?
P7:YaIthinkso.
P8:Hoosakait’sliketoregedzakupendathewhole?
P7:Yajustleavetheoutside.
P8:Vongopendakumberi.
P7:Mm.
P8:Pane,yapanepandakamboonapakapendwa.Itwasnice.(childrentalking)(...)
P7:MmmbecauseIthinkitshouldbeok.Idon’trememberkapane-
P8:SakapanengepodakungoplastwaIthink.
P7:Yaa,kutopuku.
P8:Yaa.
P7:Idon’tknowkutiverandaropindapapi.Probablyjustaboveairventshanditi?
P8:Yaait’sjustaboveairvents.
P7:Becausemaairventsanengearimuzasikanakutianengeari,ohmaairventsaripamusoro.
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P8:Aripamusoro.
P7:Soverandashouldbejust,justabovedoorkudai.
P8:Haabutiyeaa.
P7:{LG}
P8:Iyeaitihanziabovemaairventssoakatoita.
P7:Butanofana kuva pamusoro because purpose yawo ndeyekutimhepo ipfuure.Sakaakaindamuzasimeverandathenmhepoinodii?{LG}
P8:Becauseapaaitihanzindaka,becauseanengearimuzasimemeuyu.
P7:Mm.
P8:Akaindapamusoroanengeavapa,anengeavamuseriumu.
P7:Mhm.Wellbut zvebasaherekutiveranda radii.Becauseukatarisakaspaceaka,ndopanengepanemaairvents.
P8:Hoo.
P7:Chidikiichochiichi.(childrentalking)Asaindaapa.Anofanakuuyaapa.SoIdon’tknowkutimatandaeeroofaivapamusoropemaairventshanditi?
P8:Eeangaaripamusoro.
P7:So,thenyobvayangoindanechejustabove.Butkaspacekachokadikisa.
P8: Ee kadikisa. (children playing) Aa haisi nyaya yokuti takazoita uyuyu hatinakuzoitaaccordingtoplanparoof?
P7:AaIdon’tthinkso.
P8:Kutindozvakaaffectaherekanakuti?
P7:Handitindospaceyataitaurayaivaiyihereiyi?Kubvapaneceilingapandospaceyataitaura.
P8:Ehe.
P7:Soinganyanyoaffectachii?
P8:Itwassupposedtobetwo-point.
P7:No,onepoint,onepoint.
P8:Aayangairithreemetres.
P7:Onepointtwoiyi.
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P8:Aiwa.
P7:Mm.
P8:Itwassupposedtobethree,threemetresisutikaita-
P7:Hookusvikaapa?(phonerings)
P8:Twopointsix,ehe.
P7:Hoook.Soit’stwopointsixapa.Hoook.
P8:Saka.(childrentalking)
P7:Hookutithat’swhy.
P8:Ndisingazivikuti-
P7:Yaabutmaairventshaafanikuindamuzasimeverandaka.
P8:Yaa.
P7: Because akauya apa haa. {LG} Aiwa. (children talking) Hoo hatina kuzosvikakuthreemetresuku?
P8:Mm.
P7:Twopointsix.
P8:Yaabutdziriright,dziriright.
P7:Becauselookingat,Idon’tknowpawaifambamukatiwaikwanisakubataapa?
P8:Aano.
P7:Hazviitibecauseevenifyoulookapa.{NS}Uyuakanyoranorth,ndiyonorthhereiyi?
P8:(childrentalking)North,aaahaisiyo.
P7:Becauseit’s,ukatarisamamiriroakaitashopatthemoment,eastuku.
P8:Mhm.
P7:West,wellit’salmostthough.
P8:It’salmost.
P7:Almost{LG}It’snotexactlybut.
P8:But.
P7:Aaregaitigareuko.
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P8:Yaa.
(Childtalking)
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Transcription5:Participant9and10
P9:Urirightheremwanangu?
P10:Haandirirightzvangu,makadiibaba?
P9:Kuriseikuuniversitykwakouko?
P10:Aakuribhoo.Aatiripaholiday.
P9:Hoo aa. {LG} zviyamunovhura riini? Unengewavamugore ripi pamunovhuraimi?
P10:Aathirdyearbutaa,ndengendirikuattachmentpatinovhura.
P9:Attachmentforhowlong?
P10:{LG}Aatirikuindagoreresekuattachment.
P9:Gorerese?Haaaaa,wadzidzamufana.
P10:Aa,yaa.{LG}Yayaya.
P9:Sakaunengeuchipeyiwahere iwe?Todamarika isu.Todakumbomwawodoroisu.
P10:Aarightnowkwandakawanahavabhadhariavo.
P9:(...)Kowakadiikutsvagakunobhadharwaiwe?Ungangoshandiramaharahere.Mukoreunohausiwekushandiramaharakaunouyu.
P10: Aa Zimbabwe yacho munongoiziva. Ndotongotenda Mwari kuti ndakawanabasaini.Zvonetsa.
P9:Haamabasaanonetsa.Mabasaari kunetsamwanangu.Ari kunetsa chaizvo.Atleastwakawanabasa.Ndozvakatokoshaizvozvo.
P10: Aa zvinotoda uchiziva someone. Kana uchiziva someone hazvimbonetsi.Unotowanaattachmentkwaunengeuchitobhadharwathewholeyear.
P10: Shuwa here? Aa aa sorry hako. Asi haa chikuru ieducation. Handiti urikuzowanadegreerako,wozozviwaniramariyako.Sakahapanachakamboipa.{NS}
P9: Aa shuwa shuwa. Regai tingoshingirira tipedze. Ini ndakatoita lucky. Vamwetakasvika pakuvhara vasina kuwana attachment yacho ikoko kusingabhadharwiikoko.
P9:Hezvo,hezvo,hezvo,ingazvakaoma.
P10: Aa plus pane vamwe vakatopedza gore vachishaiwa attachment. Zvunhuzvachozvakaoma.Makambanimazhinjiarikuvharakamunoumu.
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P9:Hezvo,hezvo.Aaatleastwakaitaluckyiwe.Garazviyawakatiunoitahowmanyyears?
P10:Aafouryears.Degreerachorinoperainfouryears.
P9:Ok.Komabasaariseiedegreeraurikuita?
P10:Aakuhealthsectorkuririghthako.Pondinongopedzait’seasykutiuwanebasa.Sakaii,zvotomborinani.
P9:Haaatleastzvirinani.Mostpeoplevanongopedzamadegreevarikutambudzikazvisingatomboiti.Iwekanauriguaranteedbasazvotovanani.
P10:Yaahaamabasaachoarikunetsaasi isukweduuum.Kuhealthsectorkuchirinani.
P9:Ndinemunin’ina,mwanawemunin’inawanguuyuakapedzakuNUSTlastyearnazvinoarikungotsvagabasa.Haazvunhuzvachozvakatoomazvisingaiti,aa.(clapshands) Unoshaya kuti vana vari kumboindirei kuchikoromazuvano kanamabasaachoachinetsakudai.
P10:Akaiteikomunin’ina,mwanawemunin’inawenyu?
P9:Mmm,haandichambozivahere.Akaitamm,hanzichiiko?Financialmanagement,financialintelligencehere,hamhenoikokouko.
P10:Haaukokunonetsaasianengeawanabasaanengeagaramumari.
P9:Hoo,haaok.Hamhenozvazvo.
P10: Haa vazhinji vaka, unenge wagara mumari, haiwa. {LG} Saka makawanaanokubatsiraiherenhaibaba?
P9: Yaa but vapfana vacho vanenge vane, anenge matsotsi ayo. Handisikutombovaonazvakanakaini.
P10:Hindava?
P9: Ndakavati tisangane tironge kuti totanga kuchera foundation riini butvanongondipamaexcuses.
P10:Hamugonikutsvagavamwehere?
P9:Haa,haa.(clearsthroat)ndozvandangandichitofungakuitaizvozviizvinokutiiibasarachoririkusaramumashurezvisingamboiti.
P10:Aakanamuchidandokwanisakukutsvagiraitwovokutimushandenavo.Zvirikwamuri.
P9: Ok. Vakura zvakadii nokuti handidi ku zvokunetswa. Vapfanha vechidikivanonetsakaava.
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P10:Umwearitwenty-twoumwetwenty-five.
P9:Haaok.Vanonetsakushandanavovapfanhavachoava.Hanzindingaitedhakabhoyi age yangu ino iyi. {LG} Havatozivi kuti unenge watombowana kabasa asivanonetsazvisingamboiti.
P10:{LG}
P9:Manje havazivi kutimazuvano ukatowana chero basa zvaro youarebetteroffthankutongogarakumbauchishayazvokuita.
P10:Aashuwa.Inipandakatangaprojectiyoyindakatoonasokutizvakatondibatsiraespeciallyndiripaholidaykudai.
P9:Haabutbringthemtomorrowthenwewilltalk.Handiti?
P10:Ok,horaiti.Aakucouncilvanodabuildinglicenceyenyu.Sakatoitasei?
P9:Ok,ok.Sakandokupaherekanakutitoitasei?
P10:Haiwa,vanotodakukuonaiimifacetofacesakatinotofanakuindatose.
P9: Hoo aa ok. Wozondiudza kana wava ready tinoinda. Handina kana problem.Licenceyanguigenuinesakahapanazvandombotya.
P10:NdirikufungakutitiindeMonday.
P9:Haahoraiti.Sakatosangananguvaipabusstop?
P10:Aakonineirisei?
P9: Haa yakanaka. Ok. Ha ndendamuka. Mazuvano kuri kudziyaka uku. Sakandokuonapabusstopnaninehanditi?Tokwirananinehanditi?
P10:Eeaananine.Panezvimweherezvamurikudakanakutitongozoonanaipapo?
P9:Yaa,sakatozorongazvepeggingriini?Zvirikwamuri.Inindinongovaavailable.
P10:Aandozokuudzaipatinoindakucouncilbutit’smostprobablyonMonday.
P9:Haahoraitihoraiti.Pakanaka,pakanaka.Tongozoona.
P10:Handitimatoolsenyueseakakwana?
P9: Yaa haa ndinazvo. Ndinazvo zvunhu zvangu zvakakwana. Hapana chandisina.Ndakavaka kakawanda, kwakawandisa. Saka haa ndongotoziva kuti ndofanirwakushandanezvunhuzvangusakazvakakwanazvese.
P10:Aa,thenndokuonaiMondaykanazvakadaro.
P9:Horaitimwanangu.Regandimboonandimborovahwanindisatindadzokera.
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P10:Aahoraiti,paribhoo.
P9:Ufarisemudhara,handiti?
P10:Kahwani.Aahoondandatokanganwa.Dzokai,dzokai,dzokai.Uummofanirwakumboonaka.Tofanirwakumbovhuramuone.
P9:Haahoraiti.Muchiimbacheduicho?Haaok.Vhuratipindemukati.
P10:Ok.{NS}
P9:Haahoo,haaok.Mmmok.Mmmhaahoraiti.Mabrickshowfar?
P10: Aa takatenga four thousand ari kudeliveriwa nhasi manheru zvese necementyacho.
P9:Haahoraiti,horaiti.Ithinkcementitaifortybags.
P10:Aandakatengafiftybagsdzirikuuyamanheruanoaya.
P9: Haa Ok ok. I will see kuti mameasurements acho akamira sei. Plan yavo iridifferent pane zvese zvanda dzandakaita asidon’tworry ndinogadzirisa. Tinogonakuverengaplanisu.Musatombondityirazvenyu,ndinogonasitereki.
P10:Haamunonyanyozvikudzawoimi.Tangaimaitabasatozokukudzaitirisukwetekurambamuchingozvikudza.
P9:Aaauchaonahakozvemwanangu,uchaona.
P10:Asikanapanezvamunengemusinganzwisisijustletmeknowhanditi?
P9:Ok,Iwill,Iwillbutdon’tworry.Tanga,tagaranarobasairi.
P10: Aa ndosaka ndakachuza imizve. Ndosaka ndakachuza imi. Pavanhu vesevandakapuwathreendakatochuzaimindichizivazvandiri.
P9:Handitibreakdownyaka,yemapaymentswakaionahanditika?
P10:Yaandakaionabutuumhamungatidzisiriwohere?
P9:Aapapipachomuzuku,mwanangu?Papipacho?Handitindakatokuitiraispecial.Ispecialkayandakatokuitirai.
P10:Iii,koplastering,plastering?
P9:Hiihii, zvinebasarakawanda. Ii chibvisaimmmmmmmm. {NS}mmmmmmmm.Chibvisaihoraiti,hundreddollars.
P10:Ii,kotikabvisaonefiftyinsteadzvinodii?
P9:Mhm,mhm,mhm,onetwenty-five.Chibvisaihenyuonetwenty-fivechete.
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P10:Onefiftykani.Handitifoodtinoproviderhere?
P9:Okas longas pane nyama then horaiti one fifty yacho. Asimunondipa nyamaeveryday.{LG}Todanyama,ndokutitiwanesimbarachorokushandaka.
P10:Aaokonefiftyasimunowanamatembachete.
P9:Hiimunengemandibaya.Ndingamwadororachoseikanandikadyamatemba?Horaitichibvisaonefiftyasimondipabasareroofingne,yaamondiparoofing.
P10: Aa ok inoita. Tozotaura nyaya yeroofing kana. Yaa tozotaura mumwe musiroofingyachotinozotaura.
P9:Horaitisakaimichirongaimuunzwezvesezvinofana,zvatinofanirakushandisazvachozvigarirekunohanditi.
P10:Aaok,ok.Aamadhiramhumunodamangani?
P9:Munemalitresmanganiimi?Munemalitresmangani?Aaaaa.
P10:Tinetwohundredlitresmaviri.Matwohundredlitresmaviri.
P9: Just bring ese ari two because toda mvura yakawanda zvisingaiti especiallypakutangaapa.Pafoundationpanotodamazimvuraasingaiti.Hamhenokutindiyaniachachera.
P9:Aahoraitihoraiti.Aa togadzirisa.Ndouyisa twohundred,matwohundredlitresmaviri.
P9:Horaiti,koanocheramvurayachondiyani?Makamuwanahere?
P10:Haeeee.
P9:Inocherwepimvurayacho?Kuboreholeherekanakutiinobvakukurwiziuko?
P10: Aa that’s the plan kuti icherwe kuborehole. Kana yazoshaikwawo tozoindakumugodhi.
P9: Ok asi kure hmmm. Ndomunzwira tsitsi. Hope munhu wacho haacomplainbecauseuum ,kuresazvisingamboitikukwaurikudakuti icherwemvura iyi.Haisikanafourhundredmetreshereuchisundabhara?Iizvakaoma.
P10:Aawewillsee.Kanaakazvitadzawototoitazvengoro.
P9:{LG}Ndinemunhuanokwanisakuitazvengorokanawakoaramba.Letmeknowchete.
P10: Aa horaiti. Hamheno kuda zvengoro zvingatoshanda. Asi anocherera anengeachingodikwafuti.Hamheno,tichangoona.
P9:Haahoraiti.SoaaIguessyouarereadytostarthanditi?
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P10:Yaaaslongasmuchi,aslongasmuchishandabasarenyuhaatoOtongoona.
P9: Yaa haa as long as imi muchibhadhara after every stage then tinopedzanokukasira.
P10: Ok aa we will try asi kana zvangonetsawo tinongoitawo zvikwereti zvachoizvozvo.
P9:Sakaiweurikuwatikusvikariiniiwewe?
P10:AamuumtwoSeptemberkanakutilateAugust.
P9:Haamuchirivekuno.Tinengetarovandimabythetimeyaunodzokeraiwe.
P10:Aahopefully.
P9: Mm. Haa ini kana ndatanga something ndotozozorora ndapedza. {LG}Ndozozorora ndapedza ini. Handitomboiti zvokutamba. Tinorova basazvisingatomboiti.
P10:Haabuttakeyourtime.Hatidizvokutimuresve.Takeyourtime.{LG}
P9:Haano,no,no. Ndonyatsoitagraft nemazvobut ndinondino, ndine speed futi.That’swhy vanhu vaunoona kuto vanhu vazhinji vachiuya vachinditora pano apabecauseuumvanozivakutimufaceanorovabasarake.(clearsthroat)
P10:Uumthenndozowanarimwebasakana,kanamukangemaitazvakanaka.Haandowana rimwe basa because ndoda kuti, pane zvatiri kuda futi kutimugadzirisesakatetichingozonzwakwamurihanditi?
P9:Haashuwashuwashuwa?Zvebasandozvatotodakutimariirambeichingopida.Mabasaachoarikunetsazvisingaiti.
P10: Asi munoziva henyu kuti makanyorerana pasi kuti tobhadhara kanatanyatsogutsikana neeverything zvamunenge maita. Kwete kuti tongokupai maritakanyarara.
P9:Haayaayaayaandozvizivamuzukuru,mwanangu.Haandozviziva,ndozvizivahaa.Kanamagutsikanainindikagutsikanawothenhaatobvatabhadharanazvedu.
P10: Aa saka chiverengai contract iyi. Inotsanangura everything chatakawirirana.Beparachoirisakanerimwerachoiri.Sakaimirenyuiri,ranguiri.Kanamaverengamosaina.Kanamasainathenmozondidzosera.
P9:Okhaaregandigozonoverengerakumba.Haawatindinganyanyoverengerakunohere?Zvodakuverengwazvakawandisa.Handitiwanyorachaizvochaizvohereiwe?Sakahaaregaindingonoverengerakumba.
P10:Butmusainemugodzokanaromangwanahanditi?
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P9: Haa horaiti ndodzoka naro, ndodzoka naro. Saka ndiyani anofana kutangakusaina? Ndiri kuona pane panoda kuiswa signature yakoka apa. Saka ndiyanianofanirwakusainafirstapa?
P10: Uum ini ndinofanirwa kusaina asi kana imi masa, saka ini ndosaina. Regaindisaine.Ndipei,ndipeindisaine.Kanandasainathen,ndipeioo.(penscribbling)Okinindasaina.Nedate regainditsvetedate ranhasi.Yaa, then imimozonosainakanamaverengamagutsikana.Handiti?
P9: Haa horaiti muzuku,mwanangu. Ndongogara ndichingokutimuzukuru nokutiukama hwacho hwakapindanaka. Vana baba vako vanonditi baba, iwe wakunditibaba futi saka haa ukama hwacho hwapindana. Ndokwanisa kuti muzukurukahanditi?{LG}
P10:Okuum,horaitiuum.Chiregaindibayeinihanditi.Asiasikunzekwekutikanamunezvamunodahenyukutititaure.
P9:Haahapachina.Regandimbotendererandichionahangukutipakamiraseithenndozo, tozotaura mangwana. (. . .) {NS} Haa ndaona haa pakanaka. Level yachoyakanaka.Isutongo,tozotauramangwanandokutizvinake.Thenfromtomorrowhaakurovabasa.Usatombondityirazvakokana.Horaiti bhabhai.wonofarisamudhara,horaiti.
P10:Okseeyoutomorrow.
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