A Comparison of the Verbal Transformation Effect in Normal ...

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Retrospective Theses and Dissertations

1976

A Comparison of the Verbal Transformation Effect in Normal and A Comparison of the Verbal Transformation Effect in Normal and

Learning Disabled Children Learning Disabled Children

Ellen E. Kissel University of Central Florida

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A COMPARISON OF THE VERBAL TRANSFORMATION EFFECT I N NORMAL AND LEARNING DISABLED CHILDREN

Ellen E. Kissel B.A., Florida Technological University, 1974

THES I S

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts: Communication

in the Graduate Studies .Program of the Col 1 ege of Social Sciences Florida Technological University

Or1 aado, Fl ori da 1976

Acknowl edgements -.. - . I.. . - *.! ... % . -,- $. .2;;>:.., :

,~= . fy+. :~25 :2

8p ;,.; , .*. . - . ...-

I would l i ke t o express my thanks t o Gateway and

Delaney Schools f o r a1 lowing me t o draw subjects from t he i r

1 anguage-del ayed c l asses.

Thanks go a l s o t o those members of the universi ty who

he1 ped me accompl ish this t a sk , my comni t t e e members, Dr. David Barr,

Dr. Davld Ingram and Dr. A1 bert Pryor.

I would a l s o l i k e t o thank Maggie Richardson f o r typing and

preparing t h i s manuscript.

to Dr. Thomas A. Mu1 1 tn for h is guidance as

educator and f r f end, and t o my parents,

Dr. and Ws. B. C. Kissel, f o r their

consTan7; encouragement and support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

L I S T OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i

INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 I

Cognt tive Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Neurophysl'ol ogical Imp1 ications . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Phonetic Consi deratlons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Perceptual Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Learning D l sorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Neurological Aspects o f Learning Disabil i t i es . . . . . 11 Auditory Processing D i s o r d e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Materfal s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Statistical Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Physlol ogical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Classroom Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Implications for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . 28

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . . . . o . a . . w . . . . e . * 29

APPENDIX A . Number o f Transformations and Di f fe rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Words Per Subject 31

. . . . . . . APPENDIX B Directions Given to All Subjects 33

REFERENCES . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

Analysis of Yari ance o f Verbal Transformations in Normal s and Learning Disabl ed Groups to Three Test Words . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . 20

Incidence: of Yerbal Transformationi. According to Test Group and Chronologfcal Age . . . . 21 An Analysis o f the Number of Different Words Verbal i zed by Normal and Learning Disabl ed -Groups to each of Three Test Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Introductfon and Rationale

Locke (1894) se t down a principle for perception i n which

conttnued stimulation w i t h an unchanging pattern will lead t o

illusory changes, o r under some conditions t o pebceptual fadf ng and

disappearance. T h i s principle applies t o auditory stimul i as we1 1

a s t o visual stimuli (blarren and Warren, 1966). If a person

, repeats a word over and over, he will generally experience a lapse

of meanlng called semantic o r verbal satiation. Mhen a person

repeats a word aloud such as "ace" w i t h o u t pausing, the stimulus

shoul d be acoustical ly equivalent t o "say1' repeated.

Warren and Gregory (1958) concluded i n their preliminary

studies that passive 1 istening t o repeated words produces both

phonetic and semantic labil i ty whereas repeating words t o one's

sel f produces only semantic effects w i t h o u t i l l usory change t o

other phonemes. Warren (1961a) termed his auditory i 11 usion,

based on 1 istening t o recorded repetition, "the verbal transformation

effectu. The "verbal transformation effect" i s a means of studying

factors under1 ylng perceptual organization of speech sounds (Warren,

1971). It is suggested t h a t verbal transformations reflect

skilled reorganizational mechanisms employed during connected

discourse as an a id to comprehension (Warren, 1968).

Verbal transformations are i l 7 usory effects which occur while one

is 1 i s t en ing t o recorded repe t i t ions of c l e a r l y pronounced s i n g l e

words (Warren, 1966a). Warren presented singl e utterances (words

and non-sense syll ables) two times per second f o r a period of three

minutes. Subjects were instructed t o c a l l out the word they heard

i n i t i a l l y , and then t o ca l l out each change as i t occurred, Warren

(1966a) concluded from these s tudies t h a t verbal ;ransfonnations .

occur w i t h a l l syl lab les and words, t h a t they usually involve

considerable d i s to r t ion of c l ea r auditory stimuli , t h a t they vary

g rea t ly w i t h individuals , and t h a t they usually invoke more than

four d i f f e r e n t responses. . .

Numerous researchers (Locke, 1894; Bryan and Harter, 1897;

Lashley, 1951; Brain, 1962; Taylor and Henning, 1963; Feder and

Bever, 1965; Fay, 1966; Fenelon and Blyden, 1968; Huey, 1968; Warren,

Obusek, Farmer and Warren, 1969; Green, 1971; Obusek, 1971;

Warren and Warren, 1971; Harper, 1972; Naiser, 1972; Warren, 1972a;

Warren, 1972b; Mi 1 cox, Neisser and Roberts, 1972 ; Warren and Obusek,

1972; Obusek and Warren, 1973a; Warren and Ackroff, 1974) have

invest igated t h e re1 ationships between verbal transformations and

cogni t ive f a c t o r s , neurophysiologi cal fac tors (Bryan and Harter, 1899;

Brain, 1962; Paul, 1964; Feder and Bever, 1965; Warren and Warren,

1966; Savin and Bever, 1970; Obusek, 1971; Harper, 1972; Nalser,

1972 ; Warren and Obusek, 1972; Obusek and Warren, 1973a; Warren and

Ackroff, 1974), phonetics (Miller and Kick1 ider, 1950; Warren,

1961a; Evans arid Kitson, 1967; Evans, Longdon, Newan, and Pay, 1967;

Chase, 1971; Clegg, 1971; Lass and Golden, 1971; Warren, 197%;

Warren, 1972c; Lass and Gasperini, 1973; Lass, West, and Taft,

1973; Obusek and Warren, 1973b; Warren, 1973a; Narren 1973b;

Go1 denstein and Lacher, 1974; Warren, 1974a), and speech perception

(Broadbent, 1958; Warren and Gregory, 1958; Hirsh? 1959; Ladefoged,

1959; Ladefoged and Broadbent, 1960; Axel rod and Thompson, 1962;

Chrtstovich, 1962; Norman, Taylor, and Henning , 1963; Amster, 1964;

Barnett, 1964; Garrett, 1965; Natsoul as, 1965; Garrett, Bever, and

Fodor, 1966; Warren and Warren, 1966; Evans and Wilson, 1968; Bever,

Lackner, and Klrk, 1969; .Warren, Obusek, Farmer, and blarren, 1969;

Warren and Narren, 1970; Warren and Obusek, 1971; Ben-Zeev, 1972;

ChapTn, Smith, and Abrahamson, 1972; Tekiele and Lass, 1972;

Warren, Obusek, and Ackroff, 1972; Berl i n , Lower-Be1 1, Cul len, and

Thompson, 1973; Lass, S i l v i s , and Seattle, 1974; Warren, 1974b;

Warren and Sherman, 1974).

Cogni tSve Factors

Mfller (1962) maintains that the repeated verbal stimuli used

-in verbal transformation research is quite different from the

presentation of stimuli found i n normal speech. Hence, drawing

general concl usions regarding verbal transformations and perceptual

o r cogni t tve organization under these special conditions is risky.

M i e r suggested that the verbal transformation effect will a t

least evidence some of the complex organizational mechanisms which

under1 i e speech perception and cogni t l on .

Warren (1970) expl owd the effects o f "identification" o r

"reaction" ttme i n verbal transfoimations on perceptual o r cognitive

synthesis of speech. He maintained that the comparison of

identiftcation ttmes for targets w i t h i n speech cap be used t o

elucidate the temporal course of speech perception and the units

employed i n perceptual processi.ng. I t appears that synthesis of

speech into syllables must precede analysis i n t o the component items.

In this study he concluded that 1) detection o f phonemes probably

does not involve access to an echo-box short-term for search

directed towards the trace of speech sounds corresponding t o the

target phoneme, 2) i t does not correspond t o a teasing apart of

joined features so that the sensory i n p u t correspondi ng t o these

components can be i dentift ed.

Inversely, Mamen and Obusek (1971) studied cognitive and

perceptual factors i n regard to "phonetic restorations" which i s the

omission of speech counds i n context. Warren and Obusek proposed that

phonemic restorations offer promise as a method for investigation of

the effect o f -verbal context upon perception and for probing the

mechanisms used for temporal integration o f speech. Their

research indicated that phonemic restorations seem to involve

ski1 1 ed storage of auditory information, w i t h final perceptual

synthesis dependent upon prior and subsequent context,

Neurophysiol ogical Imp1 ications

There have. been only a few studies regarding the neuro-

physiol ogical imp1 ications of verbal transformation. Paul

(1964) s t u d fed levels of cortical i n h i b i t i o n and illusory changes of

distinct speech upon repetition. Perl (1970) studied verbal '

transformation effects and their appl9 cation t o cerebral

dominance studies. I t was predicted that right-ear presentation

of a word stimulus would produce more reported change than

left-ear presentation, and vice-versa for a tone tape. I t was

fdund that the two types of stimuli used i n this experiment, words

and tones, seem to interact differently w i t h the two hemispheres.

Presumably, the parameters of the effect are different f o r words

and tones. Perl relates ear effects i n dichotic listening t o the

length o f the perceived stimuli. He suggests that verbal material

presented to the l e f t ear passes t o the r i g h t hemisphere before

being sent back across the comnisures t o the lef t hemishpere,

whereas verbal material from the r i g h t ear only has to cross once

t o reach the l e f t temporal cortex.

Phonetic Considerations -- -

In the f i r s t detailed phonetic analysis of the verbal

transformation effect, Barnett (1964) concl uded that the

art1 cul ation posi tions of both vowel s and consonants were

relatively lab i le and subject t o frequent illusory changes.

Cl egg (1971), using 18 separate repeating syll abl es foll owed by the

vowel /i/ concluded that the syllables share the features of -

voicing, nasality and afriction, but not of duration and place

of articul ation. It was found that the small est organizational

groupings seemed to be meaningful words for the aged, Engl i s h I

phoneme sequences for young adults, and individual phonemes for

children. This study suggested that verbal transformations

ref1 ect ski1 led reorganizational mechanisms employed during

connected conversational speech as an aid to comprehension.

More specifically, Warren (1968) noted that from ages six to ten,

nonsense words are frequently reported having speech sound

sequences not found in English; such as the initial /sr/ blend.

Young adults (18 to 25) however, seem to organize t'n terms of

phoneme cl usters as perceptual units. These young adults

report nonsense words, but cluster phonemes according to the

rules of English. Adults over 60 years of age generally imply

meaningful Engl i s h words in their verbal transformations. 1- rren

(1968) found that the number of phonemic changes decreased with

increasing age and concl uded that perceptual reorganization

involved finer and finer distinction with advancing age.

Perceptual Factors

Other research i n verbal t ransformat ions and age groups .

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s illusion i s based upon mechanisms employed f o r

comprehension o f spee.ch. Warren and Warren ( 1 966) showed t h a t

v i r t u a l l y no i l l u s o r y changes were experienced a t the age o f f i v e .

By t h e age o f s ix , almost h a l f o f t h e subjects heard i l l u s o r y

changes a t a r a t e cons is ten t w i t h o l d e r ch i ld ren . A t e ight , a l l

subjects heard the i l l u s o r y changes. The average number o f verbal

t ransformat ions f o r a1 1 subjects was 34 dur ing the . three minute

presentat ion.

Un l i ke t h e phonemic aspects o f verbal transformations,

i n d i v i d u a l s aged 18 t o 25 repor ted i d e n t i c a l average changes (31)

t o t he 8 t o 10 year o l d group. The 62 t o 86 year o l d group was

found t o have f a r fewer, 1 ess than s i x such changes (Warren, 1961 ) . Warren observed t h a t t he e f f e c t s o f aging on verbal transformation

suggests that : (1 ) t h i s il l u s t i o n r e f l e c t s reorganizat ional

processes normal ly leading t o t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f e r r o r s i n speech

perception; and (2) t h e age d i f f e rences observed f o r verbal t rans-

formations m i r r o r changes i n processing s t ra teg ies over our l i f e

span i n keeping w i t h changes i n f unc t i ona l capaci ty.

B ra in (1962) p o i n t s o u t t h a t "meaning o f a word which

appears e a r l i e r i n a sentence may depend upon the words which fo l low

it." Chis tov ich (1962) noted i n her s tud ies t h a t i t i s no t on ly

meaning t h a t depends on con tex t b u t t h a t subjects who attempted t o

repear; speech as quickly as possible manifested many errors i n

phonemes. She maintained that these errors reflect the temporal

course of speech identification.

Warren suggested that these i l l usory changes ref1 ect reorgani - zations which occur normally when part of a continued message i s

i

not confirmed by context. W i t h repeated words there can be no

stabi 1 i r i n g grammatical and semantic environment provided by

surrounding words (Warren, 1970). Hence, the repeated word i s

subject to successive reorganizations. Warren (1 966b) states that

these ski 1 led reorganizational processes could not appear u n t i 1

language sk i l l s had attained a .certain level i n children. The

author indicated that the normal child aeneral Jy achieves this level

by the age of six or seven.

When studying the inverse of verbal transformation, phonemic

restoration, i t i s easier t o understand why this i l l u s i o n , verbal

transformation, takes place. In phonemic restoration, the context

i s clear, b u t a portion of the verbal stimulus i s absent. In these

studies a portion of a clear statement i s replaced by an extraneous

sound. I t appears i n these studies, that the delay i n perceptual

organization accompanying phonemic restoration causes the earl i e r

portion of the sentence to appear as sirnul taneous w i t h the extraneous

sound. In essence, closure i s performed automatical ly. Warren

and Obusek (1971) discovered that i f the extraneous sounds replacing

the missing phoneme are el iminated, phonemic restorations are

inhibited. Here, the authors maintain that the processes underlying

verbal transformations and phonemic restorations are re1 ated and

supplementary . Verbal transformations seem to represent a

mechanism employed normal ly for correcting errors in initial

perceptual organization and for solving ambiguities.

Phonemic restorations ,verbal transformations, and much of ve, - -

and non-verbal auditory perception, require the abil i ty to dis-

ti ngui sh between different temporal arrangements of the same sounds

(Warren, 1968).

Learni ng Di sorders

Tarnopol (1 971 ) maintains that learning disabilities consti-

tute the most pervasive medical problem of children in the United

States. Depending upon how 1 earning disabi 1 i ties are defined,

it appears that this difficulty affects between 5 to 20 percent

of the nonretarded child population. Usually children with

1 earning disabi 1 i ties appear normal unti 1 they enter school . Research indicates that learning disabil ities appear to be

associated with minimal brain dysfunction (Tarnopol, 1971 ) . Compared wi th the bl ind, deaf, cerebral pal sied, severely emotional ly

disturbed, and mental ly retarded, the nature of these dysfunctions

in learning disabilities tends to be subtle. Overall, the term

learning disabilities is used to distinguish the problems of those

children who* are not mental ly retarded but who have difficul ty

1 earning due to mild central nervous system dysfunctions.

Terminology and the identification of these children was t-he

concern of the Task Force Dysfunction i n children. This

comi t t ee was composed of nine physici ans , two psycho1 ogi st-

educators, . .:and an agency executive. The resul ts were pub1 i shed i

by the National Insti tute of Neurological Diseases and B l indness

(now the National 1nsti tute of Neurological Disease and Stroke).

Thirty-seven different terms had been found which designated this

condi ticn, including dyslexia, perceptual defici t , hyperkinetic

behavior syndrome, organic brain damage, minimal cerebral palsy,

and 1 earning disabil i t i e s (Clements, 1966). From this array, the

Task Force selected the term minimal brain dysfunction and fssued

the following statement:

" I . Brain dysfunction can manifest i t se l f i n varying degrees of severity and can involve any or a1 1 of the more specified areas, <g., motor, sensory,- or intellectual . T h i s dysfunction can compromise the affected child i n learning and behavior. -

2. The t e n minimal brain dysfunction will be reserved for the child whose symptomology appears i n one or more of the specific areas of brain function, b u t i n mild, or sub- cl inical form, without reducing overall intell ectual functioning to the subnormal ranges. (Note: The evalu- ation of the intellectual functioning of the "culturally disadvantaged" chi 1 d , though perhaps related, represents an equal ly complex, b u t different problem." (Tarnopol, 1971).

Unfortunately the problem of terminology has not been settled.

Physicians tend t o prefer a tern such as minimal brain dysfunction,

which points to the medical nature of the problem. Educators tend

to prefer a term such as l earning disabil i ty, educational handicap,

or perceptual dlsorder, which indicates that the problem i s

educational i n nature. Parents, on the other hand often decry

terms which incl ude such words a s brain, neurological , cerebral,

or even handicap or dysfunction. They tend to prefer neutral

terms such as learning problem (Tarnopol , 1971).

Neurological Aspects o f Learning Disabilities

In the past it was assumed that a child would 1 earn adequately

if he had adequate hearing and vision and al l of h is mental capacities.

B u t unll'ke the gross functional disabilities of brain-injured

adul ts, the neurological 7 earning disabilities i n chi 1 dren are not

necessarily the result of brain injury; some may be genetic, many

are the result of just an "imperfection o f nature", some are due,

perhaps, t o a maturatfon delay; and some no doubt may be the result

of actual brain i n jury (Calvachini and Trout, 1971).

Dysfunctions i n the brain causing learning disabil i t ies are

not necessarily due t o damage yet may be developmental o r hereditary

i n nature (Mykl ebust and Johnson, 1962). For educational purposes,

designatfons of these damages seem unweildy as i t is easier t o

interpret them as behavioral manifestations instead of t o the degree

of involvement i n the brain. Johnson and Myklebust (1967)

maintain that initial ly these manifestations are most often

behavioral , not neurological and that the more observable symptoms

are psychological i n nature.

In assessing the CPI teria f o s as

different from other handicapped children, it is assumed t h a t

those chi 1 dren having a psychoneurol ogi cal 1 ea ty

have, as a group, adequate motor abi 1 i ty, average t o high E& 1

intell i gence, adequate hearing and vis ion , and adequate emotional

adjustment together w i t h the deficiency i n 1 earning (Johnson and

Mykl ebust, 1967) ; however, specf f ics remain t o be cl arifi ed. For

fnstance, a child w i t h learning disabilities might also have minor - .

i \ - . .. =. - 73.

motor djsabil i t i es coupied. wi tn $i &wee of emotional disturbance.

The defici t i n learning m u s t also be qualified and quantified.

The most commonly recognized deficits i n learning are those that

pertain to academic success, The deficiencies i n ability t o

comprehend the spoken word, t o read, t o write, and t o do arithmetic

have, therefore, received the most attention. In addi t ion to these

forms of verbal learning there are also nonverbal forms of learning

such a s social perception (Johnson and Myklebust, 1967).

Several indices of the extent of the efficiency have been

used w i t h varying degrees o f success. Johnson and Myklebust

(1967) assert that the comnon index has been whether the chiyd ., . . . I 8 , ,. . .- " , , - 8

- - . . - , , , . < , , , , ,I ! - . - - .+ . > - 7 - - - . r -> ; ,>, s . . - ;::,,. , ;;-,;;::-{,.;L\: ::;.:i#;,-Ti-..;: , . fa-,:- 2L,,. :". , ; ' - - ' - .. -, ..-, ! i ' . , , , .J 8 ....-

,:+; .' .:,*..\ ,, : *-: : ,, .< .- ,>.: . . ,7 1- . . .. . -- ., '. ' : 7%> '. - ...., , ,. , $ -- ,,--+; ::,+*~,,:~<~ ..,::, ?:=;:.. ,-: .. , *--i > - " - ' I .,...,=,,;, 1 , ' . '- . , ,. ,, - . ' --A .%>

.,. . , ,

:-?;,?;.;ls one::gear or ,more "bhfow t h e f evbf bf ei6ectdncy. I t must be'

remembered that for the majority of children the mental and 41'Y ;."qp.*c WV-T $f&pygpg??

chronological ages are essentially equtva ent. Those below 90 IQ

are usual ly excl uded, however, some children w i t h learning

disabtltties are far above average i n intelligence any may not fall

below the level o f expectancy when metal age is used as an indtcation

o f the learning level that should be attained. Therefore, Johnson

and Myklebust (1967) state t h a t the most satfsfactory ratio, the

most accurate manifestation of re1 ationships between attaf nment

and level of learning i s expected, is obtained when achievement i s

related t o mental age, termed the Learning Quotient, (10).

The deficit i n 1 earning can either be verbal or nonverbal i n

nature. Because disabil i t ies predominantly verbal i n nature

are more comnonly observed and because measures of these functions

are more firmly established, they are considered f i r s t and i n

greater detail. The three primary areas i n which these functions

are obse.rved are through the i n p u t and o u t p u t processes invol ving

tntergration (Johnson and Mykl ebust, 1967).

The i n p u t system col 1 ects and transmits environmental

information, both external and internal, t o the integrative system.

O f the five senses which collect environmental informatlon, three

are of prime importance i n learning: vision, hearing, and somesthesis,

the cataneous and proprioceptive sensation. The ou tpu t system.

i s responsi b l e for observable behavior, that is, muscle movement

and the functioning o f the autonomic nervous system. The o u t p u t

system i s responsive t o the integrative and i n p u t systems..

Feedback through the three primary sensory modalities give the

integrative system control over its end product. These relationshtps

are fundamental t o learning. The presumption i s t h a t learning

i s systemattc and sequenttal and that the order of events i s for

o u t p u t t o follow, not t o precede i n p u t . Johnson and Myklebust

(1967) maintain that t h i s principle of learning i n tems of i n p u t

and o u t p u t is stated primarily i n tems of i n i t i a l learning

processes because, after a level of competence has been attained,

words may be learned through usage.

Another consequential manner i n which l earning disabi l i ties

can be considered i s by the sensory modalities through which a

given type o f learning occurs and through which the learning

processes mf ght be deficient.

The integrative system i s the most complex and exists a t all

levels of the central nervous system, including the spinal cord,

brainstem, and the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex i s

the most complex level of the integrative system and the s i te of

higher cortical functions such as thought processes. The

integrative system deals w i t h recognition, selection, integration,

storage, and use of information. I t i s responsible for perception,

cognition, memory, intellect, formulation of motor activity, and

awareness (Johnson and Mykl ebust , 1967).

A number of investigators have reviewed the neurophysiological

correlates of learning. Galambos and Morgan (1960) have sumnarized

the data and p o i n t o u t that before conditioning, what is t o become

the cond.itioned stimulus causes a variable evoked response i n afferent

sensory tracts and a1 so i n 1 imbic structures. These responses,

1 i ke their cortical counterparts, become 1 arger, more complex, and

more stable i n learning. The new cortical activity i s matched by

novel events i n 1 imbic and reticular structures that are all

probably simi 1 ar i n kind. Thus, 1 imbic, retjcul a r and cortical !

structures are al l involved i n learning.

Auditory Processins Disorders

In recognizing auditory perceptual disorders, a mu1 ti tude

of factors must be consi dered; f i gure-ground segregation, auditory

short-term storage, reversi bl e figures such as f i gure-ground reversal

and changes i n orientation, perceptual changes such as pitch,

1 ntensi t y , duration, and complex tones, 1 oudness perception

considering frequency, dura t ion , and summation, tonal i t ies

such as timbre, vol ume and densi ty , audl tory patterns perception,

auditory space perception such as sound 1 ocal ization (binaural

Intensf ty differences and binaural time differences) distance

judgements of sounds and inversion of auditory space (Chapin, 1972).

fried1 ander (1970) states t h a t auditory 1 anguage disabi 1 i t i es are

more w i del y d i s t r i buted among chi 1 dren than are vi sual

disabil i t ies.

Statement of the Problem

Much research has been performed dealing w i t h verbal

transformation i n normal children and adults and normative data

has been establ ished for these populations. No 'research i n

-verbal transformation involving the learning disabled (LD) child

has been reported. The LD child has been found t o have disorders

involving phonetic, cognitive, neuro-physiological , and perceptual

problems. I t would seem that more information regarding verbal

transformations and the LD chlld may give more understanding of

these chi 1 drens ' behavioral problems, soci a1 re1 ations, 1 anguage

devel oprnent, and may have imp7 ications toward their general

educational management.

The purpose of this study was to determine the verbal

transformation abi l i t ies of LD children who manifested disabilities

especial ly pertaining t o auditory processing and 1 anguage

acquisition and abi 1 ity. An attempt was made t o determine

differences in verbal transformations of normal and LD individual s

and t o consider how such differences, if any, may have imp1 ications

for the overall management of this type o f child.

Method01 ogy

Subjects

Two groups of 10 male school children were used as subjects.

All subjects had SRTs of no poorer than 25dB for 'each ear. The

f i r s t group consisted of 10 children ranging i n age from six t o

twelve who manifested auditory processing disorders b u t were not

on any medication. The second group (control) consisted o f normal

six to twelve year old students who d i d not manifest any specific

auditory processing problems. The students from the f i r s t group -

were selected from two schools special izing i n the -education o f

learning disabled children.

Material s

A female speaker recorded three words of varying length and

compl exf ty, one nonsense and two real words : tress, see, and

seashore. Each word was then re-recorded approximately twice each

second for three minutes. A 15 second leader tape was spliced on

t o the three recordings so as t o allow lead times before

presentations. A1 7 stimul i were presented while the subject was

seated i n a sound treated booth (IAC 1200). All stimulus materials

were presented binaurally a t 40dB sensation level (re. SRT).

Stimuli was played from the recorder through a diagnostic and

cl inical audiometer (Grayson-Stadl e r Model 1702-A).

Procedure

Each stimulus tape consisted of a recording of a single word

repeated approxtmatley twice a second for a peridti of three minutes.

Each subject was required to call ou t the f i r s t word they heard t o

substantiate that they were i n fact recognizing the one word being

repeated on the tape. Then the subject was instructed t o call o u t

anything the voice seemed to be saying (Appendix B). Credit for

a transformation was given when 1 ) the subject called ou t any word

which differed from the original word and 2) when the subject called

o u t the original word after having called o u t a different word

imediately before. The subjects responses were tape-recorded

SO that different verbal organizations and the exact number of

transformations could be tabulated and stored for further analysis.

A rest break o f f i v e minutes was given after each presentation.

Stat ist ical Treatment

A two by three factorial analysis of variance was used to

analyze the effects of group (LD and normal ) and word (tress, sea

and seashore) on two dependent measures, These were (1) the number

of verbal transformations per stimulus and (2) the number of different

words called out.

A table of means was used -to compare the number of transform-

ations verbalized as a whole between d i f f e r e n t age groups i n both the

LD and control groups.

Results

A two by three factorial analysis of variance was used to

compute the number of transformations for each stimulus (Appendix A)

of each subject in the learning disabled group as opposed to the

number of transformations per stimulus of each subject i n the control

group. The analysis of variance is summarized i n Table 1.

Table 1

Analysis of Variance of Verbal Transformations in Normals and Learning Disabled Groups

to Three Test bfords

Source of Vari atlon SS d f MS

Between Subjects 2908 19 153.1

A (groups)

Subjects w l thin groups

Within subjects

B (words)

B X subjects within groups 1768 18 98.2

The control group verbal ized a significantly larger number of

- transformations than did the learning disabled group ( p e .01). - his

supports the hypothesis that there would be a difference in the

reported number of transformations between the normal and LD

subjects. i

The vari ance between the two groups according to chronol ogi cal

age is indicated in Table 2.

Table 2

Incidence of verbal -Transfornations According to Test Group and Chronological Age

LD Normal

6.0 - 8.6 years

8.7 - 12.4 years

39 (for a1 1 three stimuli)

This table of means indicates that there is a substantial

dtfference in the performance of verbalizing transformations for the

two age groups as well as between the two subject groups. lhese

results indicate that LD children do not start transforming, as a

whole, until after the eight year-seven month age level. Warren

and Warren (1966) indicated in their studies that all normal

children transform by the age of eight.

The number o f d i f f e r e n t words verbal ized by each subject

(Appendtx A) was a lso noted and computed usi,ng a two by three

fac to r i a l analys is as presented i n Table 3.

Table 3

I

An Analysis o f the Number o f D i f f e ren t Words Verbal i zed by Normal and L. D. Groups t o

Each o f Three Test Words

Source o f Var ia t ion SS d f MS F

Between subjects 286 19

A (groups)

Subjects w i t h i n groups

Within subjects

B (words)

A X B 12 2 6

B X subjects w i t h i n groups 140 1.8 7.7

The r e s u l t s o f this analysis o f variance indicated t h a t there

was a s ign i f i can t d i f fe rence between the two groups. The normal

subjects verbal i zed s i g n i f i c a n t l y more different words than d id the

LD group (p <. 01 ) . This further supports the hypothesis that there

would be a difference in transformational perfonaance be- the

normal and LD groups.

As noted i n Table 3 , a significant F ratio was also obtained for

the number o f different words verbalized (pL.01). Evidently, the

length and complexity of the stimulus word given does affect the

- performance of transforming. Whether the stimulus was "real" o r

ltnonsense't appeared t o have no significance i n the ability t o

transform. The stimulus seashore produced the greatest number

of different words verbalized. The nonsense word tress gave the

second greatest number w i t h the real word - see g iv ing the least

number.

Outward behavior, other than transformations, was noted bo th

through written description of the subject du r ing testing and-

other verbal behavior was noted on tape recordings of each testing.

One of the most prevalent behaviors noted i n five of the six

LD children having dysnomia (word retrival problems) as their major

1 earning or 1 anguage disabi 1 i ty was that they continual ly repeated

the stimul us i n echo-1 i ke fashion rather than reporting changes they

may have heard. When questioned after each stimul us presentation

these chi 1 dren stated that the stimul us was difficult t o 1 isten t o

and that they were unable t o verbal ize any new word if they had

heard one. The sixth dysnomic child, dropped from the study due

t o his 1 ack of verbal ization, remained silent throughout a1 l three

stimulus presentations, however, he d i d relate, after the experiment,

that he d i d hear changes i n the words.

Each o f the above subjects repeated the stimulus i n varying

degrees of loudness, varying from loud continual repetftion t o barely

audtble whfsperl'ng of the stimulus pattern. Two of these five

dyrnomtc children d i d manage t o call o u t a transformation for one

of the three stimulus presentations ('Appendix A) The five who

had been echo1 a1 i c du r ing presentations were given one p o i n t credit

i n the category o f number of different words called ou t . Of

conslderable interest was the fact that a1 1 LD children displayed

r i g i d posture and several displayed body rocking and head-nodding

during stimulus presentations.

Discussion

I n reviewing the results of this experiment, i t i s evident that

these chi 1 dren w7 t h auditory processing disorders displ ayed

abnormal behavior regarding the appl ication of verbal responses t o

a verbal recepttve task Further research is needed t o ascertain

whether these chi 1 dren experience a breakdown o r retardation of

devel opment i n the receptive and/or expressive processes i n regard

to verbal transformations.

Overall, the normal subjects dtspl ayed significantly more

verbal transformations and rn~re~different words per stimul us than

d i d the LD subjects. There was no significant difference noted

i n the number of verbal transformations o r the number of words

called o u t between children i n the normal population i n the age

group of six years t o eight years-six months as compared w i t h those

children aged eight years-seven months t o twelve years. As seen

i n Table 2 , the younger normal group averaged 39 transformations for

a l l three stimuli as compared w i t h 37.4 transformations i n the older

group. The younger group called o u t 14 different words throughout

the experiment whereas the 01 der group call ed out 16.8 different

words. T h i s indicated that age i s not as an important factor i n

verbal transformation abi 1 i ty as i s normal cognitive ability.

In the LD group, the older subjects averaged 10 transformations

for a1 1 three stimul i compared w i t h ,016 transformations for a1 1

three stimul i i n the younger group. There was also a difference

found i n the number of words called o u t throughout the dura t ion

of the tes t between the two LD groups. The older group called o u t I

10.1 words whereas the younger group reported only two different

words. Warren and Warren (1966) noted that a1 1 normal children

verbalize transformations by the age of eight years. In the LD

group, however, transformations were no t uniformly noted u n t i 1

past the eight year-six month level. This could indicate a

delay i n processing growth and development o r perhaps t h a t the

child i s outgrowing his deficit o r that he is being effectively

trained. Any projection should be substantiated by further

research.

Physiol ogical Aspects

As -a whole, auditory processing disorders refer t o a group

of diverse problems i n which the auditory system is incapable of

providing the child w i t h acoustic information i n a normal manner

to the detriment o f his speech, language, and cognitive development.

The suditory system is viewed as being composed o f the neuro-

anatomical pathways extending from the end organ of hearing (cochlea)

to the auditory cortex (temporal lobe), and i n particular, Wernickeis

area a t the temporal cortex. Disruptions i n th is system may result

i n a variety of auditory disorders, incl uding reduced hearing

acuity, phonemic discrimination d i fficul t ies , d i s r u p t i o n s of the

temporal sequencing o f speech messages, and imperfect comprehension

o f spoken language related t o disturbances i n the auditory

association areas of the 1 anguage-dominan t hemisphere (Cl ements, 1966).

Since al l o f the LD subjects chosen f o r this experiment displayed

auditory association d i f f i cul t i es resulting i n 1 anguage deficiencies,

we m i g h t assume that the basis of their problems lay i n the language

dominant hemisphere. This, however, should be tested further i n

each child.

In recognizing the chi1 d ' s auditory 1 earning o r 1 anguage

problem we m u s t also tes t t o ascertain whether the disorder i

of auditory receptive 1 anguage abil i ty , including audi tory

comprehension, auditory memory span, receptive aphasia, sensory

aphasia, o r auditory verbal agnosia, o r one of expressive

Yanguage abil i ty, including reauditorization difficulties, auditory-

motor integration problems o r formulation and syntax difficultins.

We can justify t h r o u g h extensive testing t h a t each of L.e LD st jects

manifest many o f these problems. Dysnomia was just one most often

noted.

Verbal transformations may be a key t o p i n p o i n t i n g the degree

of verbal flexibil i t y i n each child and may be of great service a s

a screening tool i n locating audi tory processing o r language

disordered chtl dren in a school or community population.

Cl assroom Management

Classroom management of the. LD child has been studied for years.

The resul ts of this study indicate that verbal transformations may

be employed as a diagnostic tool for the differential diagnosis

between LD and normal children, and may indicate a basis for

1 ocating dysnomic or other specific auditory processing disordered

children. It may also lend itself to indicating a new approach

for teaching verbal flexibility to this type of child.

Imp1 i cations for Further Research

The development of a neurophysiological model to explain the

results obtained in this investigation would be a primary follow-up

of this research. Phonemic restoration in learning disabled

individual s, as a1 1 uded to earl ier, would certainly warrant study.

Further research should also test the use of verbal transformations

as a screening tool to diagnose LD children and as a device to

ascertain whether chi1 dren who manifest specific auditory processing

and/or language disorders are ready to return to a normal classroom

situation fo1 lowing remediation.

Summary and Concl usion

Verbal transformations (YTs) are an i l l usory effect which

involves the subject reporting what he hears from an ongoing tape

consisting of one word being repeated continually twice per second.

VTs have been used t o ascertain differences i n auditory perceptual

abi 1 l'ties a t various chronological 1 eve1 s i n humans. Warren and

Warren (1966) found that VTs are first noted i n children a t the

age of five and that by the age of eight, al l normal children

report such transformations.

Other perceptual differences noted a t various levels of

development are: 1 ) the child below 10 years of age reports real

and nonsense words i n their transformations b u t they often use le t te r

combinations not found i n Engl i s h grammar, 2 ) between 12 and 18 years

the young adult reports real and nonsense words which do remain

i n the confines of English grammar, and 3) adults over the age of

60 report only real words i n their transformations. These studies

have examined auditory perceptual abil i t i es i n normal subjects but

t o this date no research has been reported involving subejcts w i t h

abnormal auditory perceptual or cognitive abil i ties.

T h i s study explored the effects o f verbal transformations on

male subjects w i t h auditory processing disorders which manifest

themselves in 1 anguage and 1 earning disabi 1 i ties. It was

hypothesized that there would be a difference between normal

subjects and auditory processing disordered subjects in their

abi 1 i ties to transform.

Ten 1 earning disabled (LD) children between ,six and twelve

years of age were subjected to three one and one half minute audio

tape presentations of three words (tress, see and seashore). The

number of verbal transformations uttered by the subjects were tape

recorded and compared wi th responses from a normal (control)

group matched by age and sex.

Results of this experiment showed that there was a significant

difference (p <. 01 ) between the two groups in the number of transformations reported and the number of different words called '

out during the experiment.. Significant difference. ( p < .01) was

a1 so found between the three stimulus words in the number of

different words called out. This indicates that length and

compl exi ty of the word stimul us effects perceptual performance.

It is hoped that verbal transformations could be used as a

screenf ng tool to detect auditory perceptual disorders in chi1 dren.

Verbal transformations may also be o f 'value in determining the

progress of chi 1 dren enrol 1 ed in special programs for learning

disabilities.

APPENDIX A

Number o f Transformations and D i f f e r e n t Words per Subject

LEARNING DISABLED NORMALS

To compute factorial ly, i t was necessary t o add a constant 0 5 to a l l scores.

APPENDIX B

Directions Given t o al l Subjects*

"You are going t o hear something on this tape that will be

said very fast . Call out the first word you hear as soon as

you can.

If the word changes, say the word was shoe, t o blue then you - -9

call out blue. - If - blue changes t o - snue, then call o u t snue as quickly as

you can.

You may hear changes o r i t may not change a t a l l .

Now, what are you golng t o do? 1) call out the first word,

and 2 ) call o u t any changes."

*Some of the LD children were unable to repeat these directions

and required several repetl tions of the directions.

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