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A Comparative Study of Indigenous techniques of water
conservation in Alluvial Ganga Plains and Vindhyan Plateau regions
of Rural Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh, India Dr. Anupama
Dubey1
Abstract:
In the study area, indigenous water conservation systems of
Alluvial Ganga Plain and Plateau region of Mirzapur District
(India) have been studied. The Conservation techniques have been
bifurcated into three categories to assess the regional variation.
Data which is obtained is totally primary survey based. To assess
the regional variations, two way ANNOVA is being applied. Farmers
have used various water structural and non mechanical conservation
techniques such as Ponds, Talai, Check Dams, Vegetative Barriers,
Grass control for erosion, Stone Barriers, Earthen Bunds and
Diversion Channel to conserve and manage the water. Results
indicate very high percentage of participation ratio of
conservation technique. This indicates that farmers have very high
belief in indigenous practices. Key Words: water conservation,
mechanical and non- Mechanical techniques, regional variation.
Introduction: Water is essential for all life and used in many
different ways, it is also a part of the larger ecosystem in which
the reproduction of the bio diversity depends. Fresh water scarcity
is not limited to the arid climate regions only, but in areas with
good supply the access of safe water is becoming critical problem.
Lack of water is caused by low water storage capacity, low
infiltration, larger inter annual and annual fluctuations of
precipitation (due to monsoonal rains) and high evaporation demand
(Sivanappan, 2006). Due to low water availability the productivity
of crops also decreases leading to low food production which is
urgent need of increasing population in present scenario especially
in developing countries. In Dr. Anupama Dubey1: Faculty at
Institute of Public Enterprise and PhD from Delhi School of
Economics, Delhi University.
developing countries like India and China population is
increasing at an alarming stage but proportion of food production
does not match with increasing population. However, in recent
years, adaptation of incompatible technologies on some soil
environments are noticed limitations that have put most arable
lands into perpetual degradation (Anon, 1999). Thus, farming
activities are adversely affected due to diminishing productive
capacities of the soils (Lal, 1995). Consequently, crop returns
often deplete sharply and reflected in prohibitive food dearth and
starvation among human population (Olawoye, 2000). Over the
centuries, intensive systems of soil and water conservation have
been developed and practiced by local farmers to combat the problem
of water scarcity especially in those areas where agriculture is
the primary activity.
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Therefore, assessment of indigenous technique of water
conservation is of paramount importance. In view of this need, the
present study was conducted in order to understand applicability of
indigenous techniques of water conservation in alluvial Ganga plain
and Vindhyan Plateau region. Conservation farming techniques such
as hillside terraces, stone-lines and bunds, trash-lines, sand-bag
lines, earth-contour bunds, crop rotation, rice-bran mulch,
vegetation-barriers and organic manuring utilize natural ecological
processes to conserve moisture, improve soil structure, curtail
soil erosion and enhance soil fertility (Morgan, 1986). Safe
disposal of runoff water involves practices such as the physical
manipulation of soils, which includes land shaping, construction of
contour-bunds, terraces, waterways and ridges as measures to
improve water infiltration and conservation (Ray, 2006). Mirzapur
district presents a greater complexity than any other plain
district in Uttar Pradesh. Mirzapur district has been categorized
into two physiographic divisions as Alluvial Ganga plain in
northern part and Vindhyan plateau in southern portion of the
district. Therefore, there is variation in the allocation of water
resource also. The water requirements of Alluvial Ganga plain is
fulfilled mainly by ground water due to easy availability and
infrastructural structural support to consume the ground water on
the other hand blocks belonging to Vindhyan plateau largely depends
on surface water consumption. After 1960s, due to initiatives of
Central and State Government major dams and canals were established
at larger scale in the district, which transform the major barren
land of Vindhyan plateau into revenue villages. Main reason behind
that was increasing irrigation intensity of crops due to
availability of surface water during monsoon and non- monsoon
season. But
analysis of data depicts that consumption of ground water is
reaching at alarming stage in the blocks of Alluvial Ganga plains.
This is also increasing the cost of ground water in the district.
Besides this, major constraint with the utilization of surface
water with dams and canals are the maintenance and management of
these conservation techniques. Therfore, conservation of water
through indigenous techniques emerged as a basic. Thus, water
resource management is very essential not only for sustainability
of resource but also for the economic development of the district
as major population is still demarcated as rural population and
depends mainly on agricultural and other primary activities for
their livelihood. Methodology: This study is largely based on
primary survey and for that Questionnaire survey, participatory
rural appraisal, and interview methods were the major techniques to
collect the primary information. The primary survey was conducted
during study period (2011-13). A sample size of 20 per cent of
total villages is taken to cover the whole area of the study area.
For instance, if a block consist of 100 villages then primary
survey is being conducted in more then 20 villages to cover the
whole area. Simple random sampling method was adopted to select
households for the structured questionnaire survey. Brief
introduction was given to the respondent during the field visits
with a prior assurance that the information would be used for
research purpose only. Detailed information regarding salient
features of indigenous techniques, cost involve in the construction
and maintenance of indigenous techniques, problems related with the
techniques, were collected using the structured questionnaire.
Statistical Package for Social Sciences 16 (SPSS) software was used
to analyse the data. Two way ANOVA analysis were applied to
analysis the significance difference of indigenous practices in
two
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physiographic zones. All the analysis was done at 0.05 or 5 per
cent level of significance. Results and Discussion: Various water
conservation practices were used to conserve the water in the field
area. Among them most common practices used for conservation is
Ponds, Talai, Check Dams, Vegetative Barriers, Grass control for
erosion, Stone Barriers, Earthen Bunds and Diversion Channel.
Different techniques are practised in the study area depending upon
the physiographic conditions. Permanent Check Dams A check dam is a
small, temporary or permanent dam constructed across a drainage
ditch, swale, or channel to lower the speed of concentrated flows
for a certain design range of storm events. The participation ratio
of respondent is maximum in Marihan (92.5 per cent) followed by
Lalganj (87.5 per cent) and Halliya (84.0 per cent). These blocks
are situated in southern part such as Marihan, Lalganj, and Rajgarh
of Mirzapur district which are covered by Vindhyan ranges. The
participation ratio of Pahari block is (15 per cent) followed by
Chhoinway (30 per cent) and high in Jamalpur (56 per cent) blocks
of Alluvial Ganga Plain. The catchment area of check dams ranges
from 2.65 km2 in Chhoinway to 8.28 km2 in Lalganj. Construction of
check dams is maximum in Lalganj of Vindhyan plateau. Main reason
behind that is its geomorphic features, climatic conditions and
most importantly the coordination between the government and
villagers of these blocks.
Figure 1: Check Dams in the Villages of Marihan blocks
Additionally, they also provide water for other purposes such as
bathing, washing clothes, and drinking water for animals. Being
shallow structures, with the accumulated water body distributed
over a large space, water logging does not take place. Sometimes
silt deposited provides fertile soil for the fields. Temporary
Check Dams (Bandhis) Temporary check dams are old aged indigenous
water conservation technique used in the study area. Temporary
checks dams are also called Bandhi in the study area because
farmers construct a bund across the slope to conserve the rain
water or water coming from a particular tributary. It is also
observed in the study area that most of the structures are non
technical, which results in breaching of Bandhis every year. The
participation ratio of Bandhis is average in the blocks of western
part of Alluvial Ganga such as in Narainpur (77.1) and Jamalpur
plains (64.5) in comparison to eastern part of Alluvial Ganga
plain. Bandhis are major conservation techniques in Vindhyan
plateau region by the villagers. Due to favourable geomorphic
features its easy to tap the rain water on the slopy
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surface for conservation and further use it for irrigational and
other uses. Due to geomorphic feature surface runoff is high in
Vindhyan plateau region due to availability of slopes in this area
and due to this reason construction of Bandhis is a common practise
in the blocks of Vindhyan regions. There is variation in the height
and width of the Bandhis depending upon the availability of
resource and financial support among the villagers of concerned
area. The type of catchment area is partially hilly and plain in
these blocks. The catchment area of Bandhis ranges from 2.80 -3.50
km2 Chhoinway block to maximum 7.45-8.28 km2 in Lalganj blocks. The
peak flow discharge is also less in Pahari blocks 29.94 m/s and
maximum 68.54 m/s in Hallia block. Bandhis are mostly practised in
Marihan (85 per cent), Rajarh (80 per cent) and Lalganj (68 per
cent) blocks of Vindhyan plateau.
Figure 2: Bandhis in the Village of Sikhar block
Ponds A Pond is a body of standing water, either natural or
man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. Ponds are used as a
major source of water conservation technique since long time in
Mirzapur district. Village adopts some design criteria on the basis
of their long experience, such as determination of the capacity,
size and shape of
embankments, provisions of emergency spillway and provision for
seepage control, a core wall of soil is placed in the center of
earthen embankment. Participation ratio is almost equal in the
villages of each block in Mirzapur district. Its maximum in Rajgarh
(80 per cent) and Lalganj (80 per cent) and minimum in Majhwa (63.6
per cent) block. Participation ratio is more than 60 per cent in
rest of the blocks.
Figure 3: Ponds in the Villages of Jamalpur block
Talai A Talai is an old age indigenous water harvesting
structure found almost in all villages of study area. Talai is
basically a very low height earthen embankment at a suitable nala
or natural drainage line, where natural depression exists. The
earth required for building the embankment is taken out from the
existing depression. In the study area, these are generally
constructed for creating water points for cattle, for domestic
requirements and it also adds to the recharging of ground water.
Average catchment area of Talai ranges from 0.25-0.50 hectare. The
average cost in the construction of Talai ranges from 25-35
thousand in Alluvial Ganga Plain and 35- 50 thousand in Vindhyan
plateau. Because the digging cost of labour is Rs.120/day@5 square
feet in Alluvial Ganga plain and Rs.
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150/day @ Rs. 5 square feet in Vindhyan plateau. Participation
ratio of Talai is average in the village of Alluvial Ganga and more
in Vindhyan plateau due to existence of natural depressions in
Vindhyan plateau. In Vindhyan plateau participation ratio ranges
maximum in Rajgarh (73.3 per cent) to minimum in Marihan (70.0 per
cent) where as in Alluvial Ganga plain participation ratio ranges
maximum in Jamalpur (64.0 per cent) to minimum in Kon block (43.8
per cent). Talai are more available in Vindhyan plateau because
more depressions are found in Vindhyan plateau. Besides this,
surface runoff is also more in Vindhyan plateau.
Figure 4: Talai in the Village of Kon block Temporary Mechanical
Technique Temporary mechanical techniques are those which are
constructed for shorter duration mainly for one season and require
maintenance in the next season. These techniques require
maintenance at regular intervals once they are being constructed,
for instance contour furrows, diversion channels and earthen field
bunds etc. Stone barriers are more practiced where stones are
easily available. Temporary check dams are practiced more or less
in other districts of the state except the stone barriers. Stone
barriers are practiced only in Mirzapur and Sonbhadra district of
state.
4.3.2.1 Earthen Field Bunds The earthen field bund is one of the
most commonly adopted indigenous technologies for in-situ moisture
conservation. A plan of the area proposed to be bunded is
necessary, showing existing watercourses, gullies, boundaries of
individual fields, field bunds, common village paths, and other
features. This practice is known as Medhandi or Medh in Mirzapur
district. In the study area, with relatively smaller slopes (
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Figure 5: Eartern Field Bunds in the Village of Sikhar Contour
Furrows Contour furrows irrigation save the irrigation water,
reduce erosion, and mean better crops on sloping fields. Contour
furrows are the most common conservation technique to retain the
moisture in the field bunds is average in Alluvial Ganga plains.
The participation ratio of contour furrows is very high in both
Alluvial Ganga plains and Vindhyan plateau. Participation ratio of
contour furrows are more than 90 per cent in the villages of
Hallia, Lalganj, Marihan, Narainpur, Sikhar and Majhwa blocks of
district. The size of contour furrows also varies as shown in the
plates. The top width of contour furrows ranges from 1 to 2 feet,
base width from 4 to 6.5 feet and height ranges from 1.5 to 2.75
and in Alluvial Ganga plains top width of contour furrows ranges
from 1 feet, base width from 2 to 3.5 feet and height ranges from 1
to 1.75 feet. Due to which labour cost is also more in comparison
to Alluvial Ganga plains. Average labour cost to construct the
contour furrows varies from Rs/- 600 in Vidhyan plateau to Rs/- 480
in Alluvial Ganga plains. Number of hours to fill the water in one
hectare of land is also more (8-10) hours in comparison to Alluvial
Ganga plains.
Figure 6: Contour Furrows in the Villages of Hallia block Stone
Barriers The rough stone or slab barrier is an effective, adaptable
and low cost indigenous technique of water conservation on
moderately sloping plateau region of Vindhyan plateau region.
Replicabilty of these indigenous techniques depends upon the easy
availability of stones in these area. Usually, these are installed
on boundary bunds or partition bunds. As per the primary survey,
participation ratio of stone bund is almost nil in the eastern
blocks of Alluvial Ganga plains such as Kon, Majhwa, Sikhar and
Chhionway and less ranging from 63.30 per cent in Rajgarh to 34.30
per cent in Narainpur block. Use of stone barrier is highest in
Lalganj block (88.6 per cent) and moderate in the villages of
Marihan (72.5 per cent) and Rajgarh block (63.3 per cent) of
Vindhyan Plateau
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Figure 7: Stone Barriers in the Village of (Hallia Block)
Diversion Channel Diversion drains are provided on the top of
the arable area to intercept the uncontrolled flow of runoff water
from non arable area and to safely divert the excess rainwater
towards the natural or anthropogenic water courses. The design of
the cross section and types of drains are mainly based on the
experience (Plate 4.8). As per the primary survey, 35 to 90 per
cent sample villages in Alluvial Ganga plain and 76 to 85 per cent
sample villages in Vindhyan plateau consist of diversion
channel.
(b) Figure 8: Diversion Channel in the Village
of Narainpur Block
Non Mechanical Technique Non mechanical techniques of
conservation depend entirely on the region a specific area. The
local grasses and certain specific crops are used not only to
control the erosion but these are also economically profitable as
theses grasses are used as the fodder(chara) for the cattle as well
as are used to cover the top of the houses of villagers. These
practices are common since long time and practiced in other
districts of the state. Vegetative Barrier Trees, grass and other
plant species are natural soil-binders and provide the best natural
solution against erosion. Plants have mainly two functions viz.
hydrological and mechanical. Hydrological effects of plants are
many such as interception (rain drops strike the leaves first
before striking the ground soil), storage (leaves and stems hold
water for some time before it eventually reaches the ground),
infiltration (stems and shoots roughen and loosen the ground,
enabling water to infiltrate more easily) etc. Mechanical function
of plant is to reinforce the soil by binding the loose soil
particles with its fibrous root system (Choudhury and Tapobrata,
2010). Arhar, Lemon, Karundha, Bamboo and Sagwan are the main
plants which are used as a vegetative barrier to control and
conserve water in the area. As per the primary survey, the
participation ratio of Alluvial Ganga plains ranges minimum 28 per
cent in Nagar City Block to maximum 87.5 in Alluvial Ganga plain
and minimum 52.5 per cent in Marihan to maximum 64 per cent in
Halliya block of Vindhyan plateau.
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Figure 9: Vegetative Barrier in Village of
the Pahari Block Grass Establishment for Controlling Erosion in
Sample Villages Ground cover is considered as the most suitable
solution for erosion protection. Grasses are functional plants
because they germinate and establish readily from seed, grow
rapidly, and form a good ground cover with a fibrous root mass.
These characteristics make grasses invaluable for turf and erosion
control. Grasses are divided into bunch and sod formers. Bunch
grasses are spread by seed. The sod-forming grasses spread by both
seed and above or underground stems to form a continuous ground
cover. In Mirzapur district, local grasses named as Sarpat, Kusha,
and Kasha are cultivated on the slopes to control the surface
runoff. As per the primary survey, good percentage of respondents
participation was found in Alluvial Ganga Plains as it was 25-81
per cent sample villages of Alluvial Ganga plains and in 47-68 per
cent sample villages of Vindhyan plateau local grasses are
practiced to control erosion. Maximum participation ratio of grass
establishment is in sample villages of Majhwa block (81. per cent)
and minimum in Marihan block (47.5 per cent).
Figure 10: Grass Establishment in the Village of Pahari block
4.4 Analysis of Conservation Techniques through Two Way ANOVA To
assess the variation in the use of conservation techniques Two way
Annova has been used. Main questions in this regard is below
mentioned Whether there is a significant
difference in the participation ratios in Alluvial Ganga plain
and Vindhyan plateau region?
Whether there is significant difference in the participation
ratios among three conservation techniques?
Do region and the type of conservation techniques being used
have combined effect on the participation ratios?
The above questions can be answered satisfactorily by using the
Factorial ANOVA. As per the mean of permanent mechanical techniques
in Alluvial Ganga plains is lower (41.63) in comparison to mean of
permanent mechanical techniques in Vindhyan plateau (76.82). Mean
of participation ratio of temporary techniques of Vindhyan plateau
is also higher (84.17) than mean of participation ratio of Alluvial
Ganga Plain (58.06). The mean participation of non mechanical
techniques of Alluvial Ganga plain is higher (64.26)
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than Vindhyan plateau (58.53) (Table ....Thus, on an average
participation ratio of conservation technique is more than 60 per
cent in Mirzapur district. On an average mean of Temporary
mechanical technique is higher than the Permanent mechanical
techniques due to topographic differences. But mean of non
mechanical technique is also above than 60 per cent. Thus,
indigenous conservation techniques are playing a dominant role in
the management of water resource in the district. Besides this,
Table 3 depicts there is significant difference between the
conservation techniques and regions. Thus, it could be stated that
difference in conservation techniques is due to difference in the
topography of the study area. Figure 11(a) depicts that permanent
mechanical techniques are more used in Vindhyan plateau and non
mechanical techniques are used less and its just opposite in case
of Alluvial Ganga plains. So far as, comparison of techniques is
being represented in Figure 11 which supports the above stated
mentioned statement. The Figure 11 (a) and (b) show the
relationship and interaction of region and conservation techniques.
The combination these diagrams and above table suggest that overall
more people participate in the conservation techniques in Vindhyan
region than Alluvial Ganga plain. However, conservation techniques
differ in two regions. As seen in this diagram, less number of
respondents participated in permanent conservation techniques in
Alluvial Ganga plain than vindhayan plateau. Ganga plain than
Vindhyan plateau. regions or not and whether there is significant
difference in the participation ratios among three conservation
techniques. Results indicate that participation ratio of In
Alluvial Ganga plain, people participate more in non-mechanical
techniques than permanent mechanical techniques and temporary
mechanical To analysis the results in a better way two way ANOVA
was applied to analyze that there is a significant difference in
the participation
ratios in Alluvial Ganga plain and Vindhyan plateau permanent
techniques is less in Alluvial techniques. In Vindhyan Plateau
region, more people using mechanical techniques than non-mechanical
techniques. Conclusion: Thus, in the study area mainly two types of
conservation techniques are practised Mechanical and Non Mechanical
techniques. Mechanical is further sub divided into permanent and
temporary mechanical techniques. Apart from that dams are also
major device of water management in the study area. Various water
conservation practices were used to conserve the water in the field
area. Among them most common practices used for conservation is
Ponds, Talai, Check Dams, Vegetative Barriers, Grass control for
erosion, Stone Barriers, Earthen Bunds and Diversion Channel. Dams
are the modern techniques to manage the water resource at macro
level. Different techniques are being practised in the study area
depending upon the physiographic conditions. People participation
ratio of non mechanical techniques are more in Alluvial Ganga
plains than the people participation ratio of permanent mechanical
techniques and temporary mechanical techniques. On the other hand,
the people participation ratio of permanent mechanical techniques
and temporary mechanical techniques are higher in Vindhyan plateau.
Among the permanent mechanical techniques Bandhis are more
practised in Marihan, Rajgarh and Lalganj blocks. Another major
source of permanent mechanical techniques are practised in both
regions in same proportion. Catchment area of ponds differs as per
region wise. Temporary mechanical techniques such as contour
Furrows are practised in both the regions besides minor variation
in their structural change. Earthen field bunds are also commonly
practised in both the region but its applicability is more in
Lalganj,
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Marihan and Rajgarh blocks of Vindhyan blocks.
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Table 1: Percentage of Participation ratio of Water Conservation
Practices in Mirzapur District
Physiographic Divisions Alluvial Ganga Plains Vindhyan Plateau
Region Blocks Kon
(n=16)
Majhwa (n=11)
Sikhar (n=20)
Chhoinway
(n=50)
Jamalpur
(n=25)
Pahari (n=20)
Halliya (n=25)
Rajgarh (n=30)
Lalganj (n=35)
Narianpur (n=35)
Marihan
(n=40)
Nagar (City) (n=28)
Permanent Mechanical Technique Check Dams(Paccka) 0.0 0.0 0.0
30.0 56.0 15.0 84.0 70.0 85.7 74.3 92.5 0.0 Check Dams(Kaccha) 0.0
0.0 0.0 36.0 64.0 70.0 68.0 80.0 74.3 77.1 85.0 0.0 Ponds 68.8 63.6
70.0 62.0 76.0 65.0 72.0 80.0 80.0 71.4 75.0 38.0 Talai 43.8 45.5
55.0 56.0 64.0 50.0 68.0 73.3 71.4 62.9 70.0 18.0 Temporary
Mechanical Technique Earthen Field Bund 56.3 72.7 60.0 46.0 84.0
55.0 84.0 80.0 91.4 65.7 95.0 30.0 Contour Furrows 87.5 90.9 95.0
88.0 88.0 70.0 92.0 90.0 94.3 91.4 90.0 65.0 Stone Barrier 0.0 0.0
0.0 2.0 52.0 5.0 84.0 63.3 88.6 34.3 72.5 0.0 Diversion Channel
87.5 90.9 90.0 84.0 84.0 65.0 76.0 80.0 85.7 82.9 80.0 35.0 Non
Mechanical Technique Vegetative Barrier 87.5 81.8 80.0 70.0 64.0
55.0 64.0 56.7 62.9 57.1 52.5 28.0 Grass Establishment for
Erosional Control
75.0 81.8 70.0 72.0 64.0 60.0 68.0 56.7 60.0 57.1 47.5 25.0
Source: Calculated by the author, based on Primary Survey
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Table 2: Pair wise Compariso
Region Conservation Technique Mean Std. Deviation N Alluvial
Ganga Plain
Permanent Mechanical Techniques
41.6375 28.75455 32
Temporary Mechanical Techniques
58.0656 33.04479 32
Non-Mechanical Techniques 64.2687 17.71439 16 Total 52.7350
30.01433 80
Vindhyan Plateau Permanent Mechanical Techniques
76.8250 7.28830 16
Temporary Mechanical Techniques
84.1750 8.61839 16
Non-Mechanical Techniques 58.5375 6.60713 8 Total 76.1075
12.12726 40
Total Permanent Mechanical Techniques
53.3667 29.03973 48
Temporary Mechanical Techniques
66.7688 29.97741 48
Non-Mechanical Techniques 62.3583 15.01848 24 Total 60.5258
27.72479 120
Source: Calculated by the author, based on Primary Survey
Figure 11(a): Calculated Marginal Mean of Participation
Ratio
Figure 11 (b): Calculated Marginal Mean of Participation
Ratio
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Table 3 : Pair wise Comparisons
Source Type III Sum of Squares
Df Mean Square
F Sig.
Corrected Model 25065.210a 5 5013.04 8.606 .000 Intercept
392211.842 1 392211.84 673.317 .000 Region 8233.436 1 8233.436
14.134 .000 Conservation Technique 3258.371 2 1629.186 2.797 .065
Region * Conservation Technique 6086.388 2 3043.194 5.224 .007
Error 66405.780 114 582.507 Total 531076.170 120 Corrected Total
91470.990 119
* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level Stone
barriers are common conservation techniques in the blocks of
Vindhyan plateau. Other measures such as diversion channels are
practised with high intensity in both the regions. Local grasses
and other vegetative species are also practised as non mechanical
techniques of water conservation. All the conservation techniques
have their own positive and negative points but as mentioned
earlier water conservation is the back bone of the rural economy in
Mirzapur district. As mentioned earlier 86 per cent of the
population is still categorised under rural population depending on
the agricultural and other primary and secondary activities.
Acknowledgement: Author is very thankful to the Prof. R.B.Singh
(Head) and Dr. Subhash Anand (Associate Professor)Department of
Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi for
Providing facilities. Authors are also thankful to the respondents,
farmers and government officials for their support and information
during field survey.
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Olawoye H U (2000) Soil conservation and food production:
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Ray H H (2006) Cultural soil conservation techniques practiced
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