This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
A Cognitive Processing Model ofInformation Source Use and
Stereotyping: African-AmericanStereotypes in South Korea
Alexis Tan, Francis Dalisay, Yunying Zhang, Eun-Jeong Han,and Mariyah M. Merchant
This study proposes a cognitive processing model to explain that stereotypes
are the result of a two-way interaction between receiver evaluation of the
valence of accessed information from the media, and receiver evaluation of
the realism and believability of the information. This model is applied to ana-
lyze American media use and stereotyping of African-Americans among 378
high school students in South Korea. Findings partially support the proposed
model: positive media portrayals perceived to be real and believable result
in positive stereotyping, while negative media portrayals perceived to be real
and believable result in negative stereotyping. Respondents perceived that
messages disseminated by the American media were somewhat realistic and
believable, and that American media portray African-Americans negatively.
Research suggests that the media can form and reinforce stereotypes of African-
Americans in the United States (e.g., Appiah, 2002; Dixon, 2006; Oliver, 1999;
Rada, 2000; Tan, Fujioka, & Tan, 2000). Supporting the U.S. findings, a recent study
Alexis Tan (Ph.D., University of Wisconsin-Madison) is a professor in the Edward R. Murrow Collegeof Communication and University Faculty Diversity Fellow at Washington State University. His researchinterests include communication and prejudice.
Francis Dalisay (Ph.D., Washington State University) is a term assistant professor in the School ofCommunication at Cleveland State University. His research interests include the socio-cultural impacts ofmass and interpersonal communication, particularly within intercultural/international contexts.
Yunying Zhang (Ph.D., Washington State University) is an assistant professor in the Department ofCommunication at Austin Peay State University. Her research interests include stereotypes, media effectsand campaign effects, and new technology.
Eun-Jeong Han (M.A., University of South Alabama) is a doctoral candidate in Communication atWashington State University. Her research interests include diversity in organizations, globalization andracial/ethnic minority issues, and critical cultural study.
Mariyah M. Merchant (M.B.A., M.S., and M.S., University of Houston Clearlake) is a doctoral candidateat Washington State University. Her Research interests include international student’s experience in aU.S. university environment, student research, best methods of data reporting and universities outcomeimprovement.
Finally, regression analysis of survey results does not establish causal direction.
Therefore, this study’s conclusion that media use leads to stereotyping should be
tested in more rigorous designs, such as in experiments.
References
Appiah, O. (2002). Black and White viewers’ perception and recall of occupational characterson television. Journal of Communication, 52(4), 776–793.
Ashmore, R. D., & Del Boca, F. K. (1981). Conceptual approaches to stereotypes and stereo-typing. In D. L. Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior(pp. 1–35). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tan et al./AFRICAN-AMERICAN STEREOTYPES IN SOUTH KOREA 585
Austin, E. W., & Freeman, C. (1997). Effects of media, parents and peers on African-Americanadolescents’ efficacy toward the media and the future. Howard Journal of Communications,8(3), 275–290.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory of mass communications. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman(Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 121–153). Hillsdale,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Busselle, R. W. (2001). Television exposure, perceived realism, and exemplar accessibility inthe social judgment process. Media Psychology, 3(1), 43–67.
Cappella, J. N., Lerman, C., Romantan, A., & Baruh, L. (2005). News about genetics andsmoking: Priming, family smoking history, and news story believability on inferences ofgenetic susceptibility to tobacco addiction. Communication Research, 32(4), 478–502.
Cha, J. (1992). Korean adults and college students’ attitudes toward foreigners. Report ofresearch granted by the Ministry of Education of Korea in 1986.
Cha, J., & Choi, I. (1992). College students’ attitude toward foreigners. Psychological Science,1(1), 1–23.
Cohen, P., Cohen, J., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2002). Applied multiple regression/correlationfor the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent ofpsychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24(4), 349–354.
Dalisay, F., & Tan, A. (2009). Assimilation and contrast effects in the priming of AsianAmerican and African American stereotypes through TV exposure. Journalism and MassCommunication Quarterly, 86(1), 7–22.
Dates, J., & Stroman, C. (2001). Portrayals of families of color on television. In J. Bryantand J. A. Bryant (Eds.), Television and the American family (pp. 207–225). Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
DeFleur, M. L., & DeFleur, M. H. (2003). Learning to hate Americans: How US media shapenegative attitudes among teenagers in twelve countries. Spokane, WA: Marquette.
Dixon, T. L. (2006). Psychological reactions to crime news portrayals of black criminals:Understanding the moderating roles of prior news viewing and stereotype endorsement.Communication Monographs, 73(2), 162–187.
Dixon, T. L., & Linz, D. (2000). Overrepresentation and underrepresentation of African Amer-icans and Latinos as lawbreakers on television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2),131–154.
Dominick, J. R., & Greenberg, B. S. (1972). Attitude towards violence: The interaction of televi-sion exposure, family attitudes, and social class. In G. A. Comstock & E. A. Rubinstein (Eds.),Television and social behavior (Vol. 3). Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Elasmar, M. G. (2003). An alternative paradigm for conceptualizing and labeling the processof influence of imported television programs. In M. E. Elasmar (Ed.), The impact of in-ternational television: A paradigm shift (pp. 157–169). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates.
Entman, R. M. (1994). Representation and reality in the portrayal of blacks on networktelevision news. Journalism Quarterly, 71(3), 509–520.
Fiske, S. T. (1980). Attention and weight in person perception: The impact of negative andextreme behavior: Impression and recall order effects in behavior-based impression forma-tion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(10), 1758–1768.
Friedman, T. L. (2006). The world is flat: A brief history of twenty-first century. New York:Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
Fujioka, Y. (1999). Television portrayals and African-American stereotypes: Examination oftelevision effects when direct contact is lacking. Journalism and Mass CommunicationQuarterly, 76(1), 52–74.
Fyock, J., & Stangor, C. (1994). The role of memory biases in stereotype maintenance. BritishJournal of Social Psychology, 33, 331–344.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., Signorielli, N., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Growing up withtelevision: Cultivation processes. In J. Bryant and D. Zillman (Eds.), Media effects: Advancesin theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 43–67). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
586 Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media/December 2010
Gerdes, L. I. (Ed.) (2006). Globalization. San Diego, California: Greenhaven Press.Gibbons, J. A., Lukowski, A. F., & Walker, W. R. (2005). Exposure increases the believability of
unbelievable news headlines via elaborate cognitive processing. Media Psychology, 7(3),273–300.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: Activation and application ofstereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 509–517.
Greenberg, B. S., Mastro, D., & Brand, J. E. (2002). Minorities and the mass media: Televisioninto the 21st century. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theoryand research (2nd ed., pp. 333–351). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ha, J. W., & Yang, E. K. (2002). The regionalization of television and Korean cultural wave inEast Asia. Journal of Broadcasting Research, winter, 67–103.
Han, H. (2007). Social issues and changes of employment policy in the response to the increaseof foreign workers in Korea. Conference paper presented to the International Conferenceon Government Innovation and Human Resources Development, Seoul, Korea.
Hart, W., Albarracin, D., Eagly, A., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M., & Merrill, L. (2009). Feelingvalidated versus being correct: A meta-analysis of selective exposure to information. Psy-chological Bulletin, 135(4), 555–588.
Hwang, J., Kim, Y., Lee, M., Choi, H., & Lee, D. (2007). The examination of multi-ethnicity,multiculturalism in Korean society. Research Reports, 19, 1–23.
Internet World Stats (2008). Retrieved Oct. 30, 2008, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/Jang, T. (2001). Korean college students’ preferences of particular race, and ethnicity. Con-
temporary Critical Studies, 14(1), 99–113.Kim, H., & Oh, S. (1999). The stereotypes, affects, and attitudes of college students and citizens
toward North Koreans: A comparison with those toward other foreigners. PsychologicalScience, 8(1), 1–22.
Lang, A. (2000). The limited capacity model of mediated message processing. Journal ofCommunication, 50(1), 46–70.
Lang, A., & Friestad, M. (1993). Emotion, hemispheric specialization and visual and verbalmemory for television messages. Communication Research, 20(5), 647–670.
Madon, S., Guyll, M., Aboufadel, K., Montiel, E., Smith, A., Palumbo, P., & Jussim, J. (2001).Ethnic and national stereotypes: The Princeton trilogy revisited and revised. Personality andSocial Psychology Bulletin, 27(8), 996–1010.
Mastro, D. E., & Kopacz, M. A. (2007). Media representations of race, prototypicality, andpolicy reasoning: An application of self-categorization theory. Journal of Broadcasting andElectronic Media, 50(2), 305–322.
Messaris, P., & Woo, J. (1991). Image vs. reality in Korean-Americans’ responses to massmediated depictions of the United States. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 8(1),74–90.
Oliver, M. B. (1999). Caucasian viewers’ memory of Black and White criminal suspects in thenews. Journal of Communication, 49(3), 46–60.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49(1), 65–85.
Pew. (2009). Retrieved July 23, 2009, from http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportIDD264
Rada, J. A. (2000). A new piece of the puzzle: Examining effects of television portrayals ofAfrican Americans. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(4), 704–715.
Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes, and values. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Rubin, A. M., & Perse, E. M. (1987). Audience activity and soap opera involvement: A uses
and effects investigation. Human Communication Research, 14(2), 246–268.Schiappa, E., Gregg, P., & Hewes, D. (2005). The parasocial contact hypothesis. Communica-
tion Monographs, 72(1), 92–115.Schneider, D. J. (2004). The psychology of stereotyping. New York: The Guilford Press.Shim, D. (2006). Hybridity and the rise of Korean popular culture in Asia. Media, Culture, and
Society, 28(1), 25–44.Smith, T. W. (1991). Ethnic images in the United States. The Polling Report, 7(1), 1–5.
Tan et al./AFRICAN-AMERICAN STEREOTYPES IN SOUTH KOREA 587
Snyder, M., & Miene, P. (1994). On the function of stereotypes and prejudices. In M. P. Zanna& J. M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario Symposium (pp. 33–54).Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stangor, C., & Schaller, M. (1996). Stereotypes as individual and collective representations. InC. N. Macrae, C. Stangor, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and stereotyping (pp. 3–37).New York: The Guilford Press.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance ofAfrican Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Social stereotypes and social groups. In J. C. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.),Intergroup behavior (pp. 144–167). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Tan, A., Fujioka, Y., & Tan, G. (2000). Television use, stereotypes of African Americans andopinions on affirmative action: An affective model of policy reasoning. CommunicationMonographs, 67(4), 362–371.
Tan, A., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., & Dalisay, F. (2007). Stereotypes of Americans and use ofAmerican and Chinese information sources by Chinese high school students. Presented atMidwest Association for Public Opinion Research (MAPOR), Chicago, IL, November 2007.
Tan, A., Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., & Dalisay, F. (2009). Stereotypes of African-Americans andmedia use among Chinese high school students. Howard Journal of Communications, 20(3),260–275.
The Ministry of Justice (2008). Retrieved July 31, 2009 from http://www.immigration.go.kr/Valentino, N. A. (1999). Crime news and the priming of racial attitudes during evaluations of
the president. Public Opinion Quarterly, 63(3), 293–320.van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.World Bank (2008). Retrieved July 1, 2009, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATA
STATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdfYim, H. (2002). Cultural identity and cultural policy in South Korea. The International Journal
of Cultural Policy, 8(1), 37–48.Yoon, T.-J. (1997). Mass media and the reproduction of the international order: Presentation
of American culture by American television programs aired in Korea, 1970–1989. Unpub-lished thesis, the University of Minnesota.
Copyright of Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media is the property of Broadcast Education Association
and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright
holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.