A Chronology of the Algerian War of Independence May 8, 1945. While France celebrates VE Day, Muslim protesters in Sétif organize to demand Algerian independence.

A Chronology of the Algerian War of Independence

• May 8, 1945. While France celebrates VE Day, Muslim protesters in Sétif organize to demand Algerian independence. What begins as a march becomes a massacre: the protesters murder more than 100 European settlers, or pieds-noirs, and French armed forces retaliate by killing (according to various estimates) between 1,000 and 45,000 Muslims.

• November 1, 1954. Emboldened by the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu, the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) launches armed revolts throughout Algeria and issues a proclamation calling for a sovereign Algerian state. The French are unimpressed but deploy troops to monitor the situation.

• August 1955. The FLN begins targeting civilians, inciting a mob that kills more than 120 people in Philippeville. Between 1,200 and 12,000 Muslims are killed in retaliation by French troops and by pied-noir “vigilante committees.” Jacques Soustelle, then governor-general of French Algeria, resolves not to compromise with the revolutionaries.

• September 30, 1956. The FLN attempts to draw international attention to the conflict by targeting urban areas. The Battle of Algiers begins when three women plant bombs in public venues. Algiers erupts into violence.

• May 1958. A mob of pieds-noirs, angered by the French government’s failure to suppress the revolution, storms the offices of the governor-general in Algiers. With the support of French army officers, they clamor for Charles de Gaulle to be installed as the leader of France. The French National Assembly approves. De Gaulle is greeted in Algeria by Muslims and Europeans alike.

• September 1959. Increasingly convinced that French control of Algeria is untenable, de Gaulle pronounces that “self-determination” is necessary for Algeria. Pied-noir extremists are aghast. The FLN is wary of de Gaulle’s declaration.

• April 1961. A few prominent generals in the French army in Algeria, clinging to a hope of preserving Algérie française, attempt to overthrow de Gaulle. This “generals’ putsch” is unsuccessful.

• May 1961. The first round of negotiations between the French government and the FLN commences in Evian, but is not productive.

• March 1962. After a second round of negotiations in Evian, the French government declares a cease-fire.

• March–June 1962. Despairing pieds-noirs in the Organisation de l’Armée Secrète (OAS) mount terrorist attacks against civilians (Muslim and French). The FLN and the OAS ultimately conclude a truce.

• July 1, 1962. A referendum is held in Algeria to approve the Evian Agreements, which call for an Algérie algérienne. Six million Algerians cast their ballots for independence.

Immigration:France and Britain

• 2011: How did France become a multi-racial country and how did race relations develop there in the 1980s?

• 2010: Which country managed race relations better, Britain or France? Argue your case, referring to both.

• 2009: To what extent did race become a major issue in Britain and/or France?

• 2007: What problems and opportunities did cultural diversity present to British society between 1960 and 1990?

• 2006: How did race relations become a major issue in Britain and/or France in the period, 1945-1990?

Playing the race card

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMa1Zht0934

Acts

• 1947 British Nationality Act: all people in the British Commonwealth were citizens

• 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act: only people with work permits could come to Britain

• 1965 Race Relations Act: outlawed discrimination in employment and housing in order to look after the immigrants already living in the UK

• http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/immigration-patterns-and-characteristics-of-non-uk-born-population-groups-in-england-and-wales/non-uk-born-census-populations-1951---2011---full-infographic.html

1946-48

• At the end of the Second World War there were work shortages in Europe and labour shortages in Britain. The government began looking for immigrants.

• Some 157,000 Poles were the first groups to be allowed to settle in the UK, partly because of ties made during the war years. They were joined by Italians but it was not enough to meet the need.

• Many men from the West Indies had fought for the "mother country" but returned to civilian life with few opportunities.

• Their sense of patriotism, coupled with the need to find work, steered them towards the UK.

• Despite an apparent official reluctance to allow immigration from the fast-disappearing empire, the government could not recruit enough people from Europe and turned to these men.

• On 22 June 1948, the Empire Windrush docked at Tilbury in London, delivering hundreds of men from the West Indies.

• Many had returned to rejoin the RAF. Others had been encouraged by adverts for work.

• The day marked what would become a massive change to British society - the start of mass immigration to the UK and the arrival of different cultures.

An excerpt from part one of Playing The Race Card, focusing on racial discrimination newly migrant communities faced during the late 1950s.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwHPKaVw1SA

Arrival of newly migrant Afro-Caribbean and South Asian communities into the UK during the early 1960s.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVcWVjNOCFA

1950-71

• As mass immigration continued in the 1950s, so did the rise of racial violence and prejudice. Many areas including Birmingham, Nottingham and west London experienced rioting as white people feared the arrival of a black community.

• On one hand, these men and women had been offered work in a country they had been brought up to devote and honor. On the other, many were experiencing racial prejudice they had never expected.

• Legislation had allowed people from the Empire and Commonwealth unhindered rights to enter Britain because they carried a British passport. (British Nationality Act 1947)

• Under political pressure, the government legislated three times in less than a decade to make immigration for non-white people harder and harder. By 1972, legislation meant that a British passport holder born overseas could only settle in Britain if they, firstly, had a work permit and, secondly, could prove that a parent or grandparent had been born in the UK. (Commonwealth Immigration Acts 1962/1968 and 1971)

• In practice, this meant children born to white families in the remnants of Empire or the former colonies could enter Britain. Their black counterparts could not.

• While government was tightening the entry rules, racial tension meant it had to try to tackle prejudice and two race relations acts followed.

• In 1945, Britain's non-white residents numbered in the low thousands. By 1970 they numbered approximately 1.4 million - a third of these children born in the United Kingdom.

1972-79

• The government had greatly restricted immigration by the 1970s, but had not stopped it altogether. Some 83,000 immigrants from the Commonwealth settled in the UK between 1968 and 1975, largely through gaining work permits or obtaining permission to join relatives.

• The most significant immigration of the decade came in 1972 when the Ugandan dictator General Idi Amin expelled 80,000 African Asians from the country, families who had been encouraged to settle there during the days of Empire. Many held British passports and, amid a major crisis, the UK admitted 28,000 in two months.

• In 1976 the government established the Commission for Racial Equality, the statutory body charged with tackling racial discrimination.

• In 1978 Viv Anderson became the first black footballer to be selected for the full England team and went on to win 30 caps.

An excerpt from part two of Playing The Race Card, looking at the mass migration of Ugandan Indians into the UK during the early 1970s.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrY-vl8_Vak

• An excerpt from part two of Playing The Race Card, looking at UK immigration control policies during the 1970s and its impact on the lives of South Asian migrants.

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uo3fcooY6lU

1980s

• By the 1980s Britain's immigration policy had two prongs. Firstly, there were strict controls on entry.

• Secondly, the state said it would protect the rights of ethnic minorities. Critics suggested that the two prongs gave conflicting signals on the place of the immigrant communities - and their British-born children - in society. As manufacturing declined, work permits were harder to get unless you had specialist skills or professional trading.

• This meant that the largest immigrant groups were Americans (to banking and industry), Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans making use of family-ties entry rules, and South Asian men and women entering the medical professions.

• The riots of 1981 were largely sparked by racial issues. In Brixton, the spiritual home of Britain's afro-Caribbean community, youths rioted amid resentment that the police were targeting more and more young black men in the belief that it would stop street crime. Similar riots followed in Liverpool and the Midlands. The subsequent Scarman Report found that "racial disadvantage is a fact of current British life".

1987-2002

• On 11 June 1987, the face of British politics changed when four non-white politicians were elected at the same General Election. Today there are over 20 MPs from various ethnic minorities. Campaigners say that equal representation would require at least 55 black MPs in the House of Commons.

• The inquiry into the police's handling of the 1993 murder of black teenager Stephen Lawrence led directly to new anti-discrimination legislation passed in 2000.

• http://www.stephenlawrence.org.uk/about-us/stephens-story/• In the years following the fall of the Iron Curtain, a new movement of people began, some fleeing political

persecution, others seeking a better life in western Europe.• The growth of asylum seeker applications contributed to a new growth of immigration to the UK. Between 1998

and 2000, some 45,000 people arrived from Africa, 22,700 from the Indian sub-continent, 25,000 from Asia and almost 12,000 from the Americas. Some 125,000 people were allowed to settle in the UK in 2000.

• But the rise in asylum seeker arrivals has seen a rise in racial tensions.• In May 2002 the far-right British National Party won three local council seats, a year after racial tensions and

were blamed for riots in northern towns. The government's plans for a new nationality and immigration legislation, including a possible citizenship test, sparked new controversy.

• Fifty years after the start of mass immigration to the UK, questions are still being asked about whether or not the UK can become a multi-ethnic society at ease with itself - or whether there is still a long road to be travelled.

Key concepts: Britain

• Cultural Diversity: different cultures can exist within one country

• 1988 Education Act stated that teaching of religion in schools must take into account of all religions practised in Britain. Each August Britains cultural diversity is celebrated during Notting Hill Carnival in London-led by members of the Caribbean population, many of whom lived in the area since the 1950s and attracts 2million people.

Key concept: France

• Assimilation: bringing the people of different races and cultures to accept the ways and traditions of their adopted country

• Racism

• Identity

Race Relation in France: Timeline• 1945-1970s: Thirty ‘Glorious Years’ of prosperity

• 1972: French National Front founded by Jean-Marie Le Pen

• 1973 & 1978: Oil Crises (unemployment 10%-mainly affected unskilled) The Organisation of Arab Petroleum countries limited oil shipments

to countries that supported Israel.

Zero Immigration policy

◦ 1972: Ant-Racist Law: to protect immigrants living in France

◦ 1974: A halt on further immigration from non EEC countries-claimed it was temporary

◦ 1977: Announcement to reduce existing immigrant population. Financial incentive offered to encourage immigrants to leave voluntarily-failed

● 1980: Bombing of synagogue in Paris

Demolition of African workers hostel

◦ 1981: Mitterrand becomes President

◦ 1983: Increased vote for French National Front in Dreux

March against racism/March of Beurs from Marseille to Paris

◦ 1984: SOS Racisme founded

◦ 1986: Chirac’s victory in general election-promises tougher immigration laws

◦ 1989: Headscarf Affair

National Front Victory in Dreux by-election

◦ 1990: Le Pen anti-Semitic remarks on TV

Gayssot Law-made it illegal to claim that the Holocaust had not taken place after remarks by Le Pen who said he was not convinced 6 million Jews had died

100,000 rejected asylum seekers living in France illegally

Why immigrants came to France?

• Two main reasons: Economic and Political

• The French population fell due to the two world wars and a falling birth rate.

• Workers needed for post war reconstruction and economic boom

• 1947-new law allowed inhabitants of North African colonies to move freely to France

• To move away from dictatorships e.g. Portugal

Factors that influenced race relations 1980s

• Changes in pattern of immigration

• Worsening economic conditions

• Housing and social conditions in working class areas

• Rise of the National Front

• Government policies

• http://www.htai.ie/podcasts/htai_conf10.mp3

Race Relations in France

• Immigration from WW2 to 1980

Following WW2, the French had a relaxed immigration policy. Heavy population losses during the two world wards and the demands of a growing economy meant that workers were needed. Large numbers of Italians and Spanish came to live and work but by the 195os North Africans also began to feature. In 1947, the French government had granted free access to France to all inhabitants of their North African colonies in an attempt to appease their demands for independence. Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, the Maghreb region, had all gained their independence by 1962 but continued to enjoy unrestricted access to France afterwards. Young Africans were attracted to France by the prospect of a life of prosperity which for most was not possible in their homelands. An upsurge in immigration from the Maghreb region followed.

Social Problems and Race Relations

• As in many countries, the realities for immigrants did not match the dream of prosperity. North Africans, known as Maghrebins, ended up living in run-down inner city areas or in shantytowns called bidonvilles on the outskirts of major cities. In the late 1950s, the French government built housing projects to house immigrants and the French people. They were soon beset by social problems. Their inhabitants were mostly low-paid construction workers who, after the economic downturn of the 1970s, suffered from high levels of unemployment. The cites were also noted for their poor facilities and inadequate transport services. In this environment crime grew. The French tabloid press highlighted these crimes, creating negative stereotypes. Poor relations between the police and the youth from the cites followed, leading to a number of riots during the 1980s in urban centres such as Marseille and Lyon.

Government policy and the National Front

• The onset of recession led to new government policies. In 1974, a ban on non-EEC immigration was introduced. This was followed by a repatriation assistance package in which the government tried but failed to get Maghrébins to return home. North Africans continued to settle in France despite the new laws. Many sought asylum status. In many cases, these asylum seekers stayed on illegally when their applications were refused. The right wing National Front had been created by Jean Marie Le Pen in 1972 but it was in the 1980s that they became a force in French politics. Le Pen’s controversial policies and statements were widely regarded as anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim. He won support from those who considered the ruling Socialist party of Francois Mitterand to be too soft on immigration. In 1986, Le Pen won a surprisingly high 14.4% of the vote in the presidential election.

Anti-immigration Law

• In 1986, Jacques Chirac’s centre right party RPR took power. Chirac, wishing to undercut support for the National Front, adopted tougher laws on immigration. This included the tightening up of asylum laws and placing more focus on expelling illegal immigrants. A new code of nationality was introduced, making it harder for children of immigrants to claim French citizenship. There was also a new emphasis on assimilating immigrants into the French culture and way of life

Anti-Racist Movements and the Aftermath

• In response to the growth of the National Front, several anti-racist groups have emerged. The most significant has been SOS-Racisme, which was founded by members of the Socialist party in 1984.

• It is a moderate group which has attracted mainstream support through various methods such as holding pop concerts and by taking legal action against employers considered to be discriminatory.

• One of the most notable protests of the 1980’s France was the sol called March of the Beurs which took place in 1984.

• The Beurs were the children of North African immigrants but most were born and educated in France. More confident than their parents, they resented being labelled as immigrants.

• Following a spate of racist attacks, they undertook a ten week march to Paris to highlight their identity and cause. The march received much positive attention but achieved no concrete reforms.

• In 1998, the Black, Blanc, Beur world cup winning football team was hailed as an example of a new unity in France but, in reality, racial tensions continue to exist.

• This can be seen in the race riots of 2005 and in strong, support for the National Front.

• On the other hand, those who claim that France can and should integrate the Maghrébins more fully into French society are encouraged by a 2006 Pew survey showing that 42% of French Muslims viewed themselves as French first and Muslims second, compared to only 6% of British Muslims who saw themselves as British first.

What were government policies on integration and assimilation?

• The French looked on themselves as a united nation. They expected immigrants to integrate into French society.

• They believed that the job of the state school system was to ensure that the republican ideal was taught.

• The French were opposed to multiculturalism, which would recognise all cultures.

• By the 1980s some French people felt that it was less likely that immigrants could be integrated into French society.

• This mostly centred on Islam, which many saw as differeing so much from the French way of life that it would not be possible to integrate into

• These attitudes differed from what immigrants felt themselves. Three quarters of second generation Muslims said they identified more closely with the lifestyle and culture of the French than with that of their own parents.

What were the government policies on immigration?

• President Francois Mitterrand had to drop his idea of giving voting rights to immigrants in local elections because of rising tensions about immigrants

• Mitterrand and the Socialists imposed stricter laws on immigrants:

- More illegal immigrants were expelled

- It was more difficult for families to be reunited

◦ Immigration became a key issue in the 1986 general election. A right- wing government led by PM Jacques Chirac, brought in tougher immigration laws.

◦ They also made political alliances with the National Front to win local elections.

◦ They proposed a new nationality law, which said children born in France to foreign parents could no longer automatically become French Citizens at 18. This law was eventually passed in 1993.

Why did the National Front gain popularity in France during the 1980s

• Formed 1972• Slogan 1979: ‘One million unemployed, one million immigrants too many. French

first’• 1981 only 0.2% vote• 1983 17% vote in Dreux-Slogan ‘Two million unemployed, two million immigrants

too many. French first’• 1984 12% European elections• 1986 35 deputies to National Assembly• 1989 61% of vote in Dreux by-election. Used the Headscraf Affair to increase votes• Dreux immigrant population-1954 (1.4%), 1975 (15%), 1982 (21%)• http://

news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/europe/2002/french_elections_2002/le_pen_gallery/img8.stm

• One of the Principal reasons for the growth of the National Front was the increased presence of immigrants of North African origin in France during this period. From the 1960’s onwards, the number of immigrants from the Maghreb region had grown steadily and by the 1980’s they outnumbered European immigrants. • Unlike immigrants from Portugal or Italy, the Maghrébins

stood out because of their ethnicity and religion. Some French people felt threatened by this, seeing the Maghrébins as a threat to their culture and way of life.• They argued that France’s treasured separation of

Church and State was threatened by the immigrants’ Muslim beliefs. In some cases, the objections were simply based on racist attitudes.

• The changing economic environment had a major impact on people’s attitudes towards foreigners. As unemployment increased following oil crises of the 70’s, people’s views hardened. Many in the working class began to see immigrants as rivals for work. • The National Front tapped into this sentiment by

accusing immigrants of stealing French jobs. • The relaxed immigration policies of the governing

Socialist party was criticised severely by the National Front. Their argument for more restrictive policies appealed to French people. This was shown in the defeat of the Socilaists in the 1986 elections

• Crime and the reporting of crime also played a major role in anti-immigrant feeling in France. The socially deprived cites, where many immigrants lived, were natural breeding grounds for anti-social behaviour.

• French tabloids often reported these crimes in a sensationalist manner in order to sell newspapers. This only served to drive more people into the hands of the National Front.

• Finally, the leader of the National Front, Jean Marie Le Pem can be seen as an instrumental figure for building up the profile of his party. Le Pen is a deeply controversial character. He has been accused of being anti-Muslim and anti-Semitic.

• However, many of his policies struck a chord with a section of the French public. In particular, his calls for the preservation of traditional French culture and a tougher stance on crime won him many followers.

What happened in the city of Dreux?

• Dreux is a small city of France, about 60 miles west of Paris. It grew from being a large town in 1954 (17,000 people) to a small industrial city by 1975 (33,000 people)

• Dreux experienced changes similar to other cities in France

• Industrial change: Older traditional industries, such as show manufacturing, declined and new industries came to Dreux. These new industries depended on unskilled immigrant labour from Italy, Spain, Portugal, Morocco and Algeria.

• Poorly laid-out public housing schemes were built on the edge of the city. Dreux’s chaotic growth created a city segregated by age, social class,a nd regional and national origin.

What was the ‘Headscarf Affair’ of 1989 and what was its impact?

• In 1989, three Muslim girls were suspended from a state school in creil (north of Paris) for wearing headscraves.

• The girls wore the scarves believing they were following the Islamic teaching that they should cover their heads in public.

• The principal said that they were breaking French laws on secularism, under which church and state are separated and which excluded wearing religious symbols or garments.

• Asnti-racist organisations appealed their suspension to the Minister of Education, and he overturned the suspensions.

• This led to a huge controversy in France. The controversy helped the National Front to win a by-election in Dreux in 1989 with the slogan ‘No to the headscarf, no to mosques’

• This forced the Socialist government to introduce measures which they said would integrate immigrants into French society.

• Controversy continued during the 1990s, when there were clashes between school authorities and girls wearing headscarves.

Two sides of the ‘headscarf affair’

For the headscarves• Some said the girls were being

discriminated against because of their religion

• They said Catholics were allowed to crucifes

• 350,000 girls from Muslim families attended school without causing any trouble

• Excluding these girls from school would make them more Islamic

Against the headscarves• Religious symbols should not be worn

in state schools• Some said Muslims should follow the

French way of life• Wearing the scarves was an

expression of Muslim fundamentalism and it should not be encouraged

• Wearing scarves was a sign that women were under the control of their husbands and it should not b allowed

What role did anti-racist organisations play in France in the 1980s

• SOS Racisme was founded in 1984 in direct response to the rise of the National Front. It attracted supported from young French people and it used well-known entertainers to publicise its caise

• It promoted racial harmony and protected minority groups against the spread of racism. It was closely lined to the Socialist Party

• SOS Racisme appealed the decision by the principal in the ‘headscarf affair’ to the Minister of Education and brought the attention of the media to it.

• France-Plus was also lined to the Socialist Party. It drew its support from young Maghrébis. It tried to increase their involvement in politics and encouraged political partied to offer Maghrébis places on their election lists.

• Marches such as the March against Racism from Marseille to Paris in 1983, were also used to highlight issues which affected immigrants

• After the desecration of a Jewish cemetery in 1990, over 50 demonstrations against racism were held around France, including a march by 200,000 people in Paris

• These organisations failed to counter the spread of the national front and racial tensions continued to cause problems in France

http://www.smh.com.au/sport/soccer/nicolas-anelka-cops-fivematch-ban-for-antisemitic-salute-20140228-33n0c.html

Les Beurs

• https://www.facinghistory.org/civic-dilemmas

1995 Film-La Haine

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6tdBm2Gn-M

• Shows relations between French police and young immigrants or children of immigrants

• It is about three young friends and their struggle to live in the banlieues of Paris