A Beautiful Noise: A History of Contemporary Worship Music in Modern America

A Beautiful Noise: A History of Contemporary Worship Music in Modern America 
 
A  Beautiful  Noise:  A  History  of  Contemporary  Worship  Music  in  Modern  America  
by  
 
 
Dissertation  submitted  in  partial  fulfillment  of   the  requirements  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy    
in  the  Graduate  Program  in  Religion  in  the  Graduate  School   of  Duke  University  
  2015  
ABSTRACT  
A  Beautiful  Noise:  A  History  of  Contemporary  Worship  Music  in  Modern  America  
by  
 
 
An  abstract  of  a  dissertation  submitted  in  partial  fulfillment  of     the  requirements  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy    
in  the  Graduate  Program  in  Religion  in  the  Graduate  School     of  Duke  University  
  2015  
iv  
Abstract How  did  rock  and  roll,  the  best  music  for  worshipping  the  devil,  become  the  
finest  music  for  worshipping  God?  This  study  narrates  the  import  of  rock  music  into  
church  sanctuaries  across  America  via  the  rise  of  contemporary  worship  music  (CWM).  
While  white  evangelicals  derided  rock  n’  roll  as  the  “devil’s  music”  in  the  1950s,  it  
slowly  made  its  way  into  their  churches  and  beyond  over  the  next  fifty  years,  emerging  
as  a  multi-­million  dollar  industry  by  the  twenty-­first  century.  
This  study  is  a  cultural  history  of  CWM,  chronicling  the  rise  of  rock  music  in  the  
worship  life  of  American  Christians.  Pulling  from  several  different  primary  and  
secondary  sources,  I  argue  that  three  main  motivations  fueled  the  rise  of  CWM  in  
America:  the  desire  to  reach  the  lost,  to  commune  in  emotional  intimacy  with  God,  and  to  
grow  the  flock.  These  three  motivations  evolved  among  different  actors  and  movements  
at  different  times.  In  the  1970s,  the  Jesus  People  movement  anchored  in  Southern  
California,  adopted  the  music  of  the  counterculture  to  attract  hippies  to  church.  In  the  
early  1980s,  the  Vineyard  Fellowship  combined  rock  forms  with  lyrics  that  spoke  of  God  
in  the  second  person  in  order  to  facilitate  intimate  worship  with  the  divine.  In  the  late  
1980s,  the  church  growth  movement  embraced  CWM  as  a  tool  to  attract  disaffected  baby  
boomers  back  to  church.  By  the  1990s,  these  three  motivations  had  begun  to  energize  an  
 
 
 
 
 
1.3  Positionality  .....................................................................................................................  22  
1.4  Conclusion  .......................................................................................................................  25  
2.  The  Afro-­Pentecostal  Roots  of  Black  Gospel:  A  Historical  Parallel  to  Contemporary   Worship  Music  .............................................................................................................................  27  
2.1  A  Short  History  of  Black  Gospel  Music  Origins  ........................................................  29  
2.2  Parallels  Between  Black  Gospel  and  Contemporary  Worship  Music  .....................  47  
2.2.1  Parallels  in  Genre  Development  ..............................................................................  47  
2.2.2  Suitability:  The  Sacred/Secular  Divide  ...................................................................  57  
2.3  Pentecostal  Influence  on  Contemporary  Worship  Music  .........................................  65  
2.3.1  Participation  ...............................................................................................................  67  
2.4  Conclusion  .......................................................................................................................  86  
3.2  Music  ..............................................................................................................................  102  
3.3  Impact  .............................................................................................................................  112  
4.  Translators: The Jesus People, Calvary Chapel, and Maranatha! Music  ....................  117  
4.1  Christian  Rock  on  the  Eve  of  the  Jesus  People  .........................................................  122  
4.2  The  Jesus  People  ...........................................................................................................  130  
4.2.1  Apocalypticism  ........................................................................................................  136  
4.3  Calvary  Chapel  ..............................................................................................................  153  
4.3.2  Calvary  Chapel  and  Pentecostalism  .....................................................................  161  
4.3.3  Music  at  Calvary  Chapel  ........................................................................................  165  
4.4  Maranatha!  Music  .........................................................................................................  176  
4.4.3  Constructing  Authenticity  ......................................................................................  192  
4.4.5  Musical  Work  ...........................................................................................................  213  
5.  Intimacy:  The  Music  of  the  Vineyard  Fellowship  ............................................................  223  
5.1  Growing  the  Vineyard  .................................................................................................  224  
5.1.1  John  Wimber  .............................................................................................................  226  
5.1.3  The  Birth  of  the  Vineyard  Fellowship  ..................................................................  234  
5.2  Music  of  the  Vineyard  ..................................................................................................  237  
5.2.1  The  Vineyard's  Model  of  Worship  ........................................................................  248  
5.2.2  Routinizing  the  Vineyard  Sound  ...........................................................................  254  
5.3  The  Impact  of  Vineyard  Music  ...................................................................................  262  
6.  Science:  Growing  Churches  with  Music  ............................................................................  265  
6.1  The  Church  Growth  Movement  .................................................................................  266  
6.2  Willow  Creek  .................................................................................................................  278  
6.2.2  Music  at  Willow  Creek  ............................................................................................  284  
6.3  Other  Seeker  Services  ...................................................................................................  295  
6.3.1  Calvary  Church  ........................................................................................................  295  
6.3.2  Saddleback  Church  ..................................................................................................  298  
6.4  Conclusion  .....................................................................................................................  308  
7.1  New  Technology:  Overhead  Projection  ....................................................................  316  
7.2  Industrialization  ............................................................................................................  321  
7.3  The  Rise  of  the  Megachurch  ........................................................................................  330  
7.4  The  Rise  of  the  Worship  Music  Star  ...........................................................................  335  
 
 
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Acknowledgements As  they  say,  it  takes  a  village.  Or,  as  we  say  at  Duke—pulling  from  Coach  K—it  
takes  getting  the  right  people  on  your  bus.  If  you  get  the  right  people  on  your  bus,  then  
you’re  going  to  be  in  good  shape.  I  am  thankful  that  so  many  amazing  people  have  
decided  to  get  on  my  bus.  Without  their  help,  this  project  would  have  never  
materialized.    
I  would  first  like  to  thank  Grant  Wacker  for  taking  me  on  as  his  last  “official”  
student  (he  will  never  actually  stop  taking  on  students)  and  for  offering  me  the  chance  
to  learn  how  to  research  and  write  under  his  guidance.  I  count  Grant  not  only  as  an  
academic  mentor,  but  also  as  a  good  friend,  one  who  I  can  approach  for  counsel  on  
personal  and  professional  challenges  alike.  I  would  also  like  to  thank  all  of  my  other  
academic  mentors  who  have  helped  me  with  this  project:  my  committee  members—
Jeremy  Begbie,  Fitz  Brundage,  Mark  Chaves,  and  Laurie  Maffly-­Kipp—who  have  all  
taken  the  time  to  help  me  think  through  my  project  from  different  angles;  Kate  Bowler,  
who  has  not  only  made  me  a  better  writer  and  teacher,  but  also  has  remained  a  steadfast  
friend  and  colleague  through  the  gauntlet  of  graduate  school;  Lester  Ruth,  who  has  been  
a  wonderful  sounding  board  for  ideas  and  who  has  graciously  offered  his  guidance  on  
all  matters  of  Christian  worship;  Amy  Laura  Hall,  who  served  on  my  exam  committee  
 
 
xi  
encouraged  me  to  tell  the  story  of  rock  n’  roll  in  the  church;  and  Hans  Hillerbrand,  who  
fueled  my  curiosity  for  church  history  as  an  undergraduate  at  Duke  and  who  
encouraged  me  to  pursue  graduate  studies  in  the  field.  
I  am  thankful  for  both  the  financial  support  and  collegial  encouragement  I  
received  from  the  Louisville  Institute  through  a  Louisville  Institute  Dissertation  
Fellowship,  which  provided  funding  for  a  year  and  the  opportunity  to  attend  a  scholar’s  
weekend  conference  at  Louisville  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  in  Louisville,  
Kentucky.  There  I  was  greatly  encouraged  in  my  research  by  fellow  award  recipients  
and  the  Louisville  Institute  staff.  The  Louisville  Dissertation  Fellowship  helped  make  
this  entire  project  a  reality.  
I  am  indebted  to  my  current  and  former  fellow  graduate  students  at  Duke  (and  
UNC)  as  well,  who  continually  offered  encouragement,  support,  and  feedback  that  
sharpened  my  work:  Heather  Vacek,  Dan  Rhodes,  Andrew  Coates,  Sonia  Hazard,  
Adrienne  Krone,  Jamie  Brummitt,  Brenden  Pietsch,  Shennan  Nieuwsma,  Josh  Busman,  
Ben  Dillon,  Tanner  Capps,  Ken  Woo,  Aaron  Griffith,  David  Taylor,  Laura  Levens,  Nick  
Liao,  Michelle  Wolff,  Justin  Ashworth,  Liz  DeGaynor,  Silas  Morgan,  and  Scott  Muir.  
Thanks  to  many  in  the  “Wackerite”  clan  (former  students  of  Grant  Wacker)  for  their  
encouragement,  support,  and  example  as  scholars:  Angela  Tarango,  Seth  Dowland,  
 
 
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Our  church  family  at  Christ  Community  Church  in  Chapel  Hill,  NC  has  been  
steadfast  in  their  support  for  this  project,  as  well  as  a  communal  sounding  board  for  
sifting  through  many  aspects  of  my  study.  Thanks  also  to  close  friends  who  provided  
care,  paid  attention  to  my  research  dilemmas,  and  encouraged  me  to  press  on  when  the  
going  got  rough:  David  Williams,  Stuart  Pierce,  Isaac  Chan,  Michael  Albert,  Chris  
Merrick,  Byron  Peters,  Brenden  Miller,  David  Staples,  Paul  Windley,  Charles  Jardin,  
Gretchen  Logterman,  Naaman  Wood,  and  Bruce  Benedict.  
Finally,  I  would  like  to  thank  my  family—the  Reagan,  Dietz,  and  Currin  clans—
for  their  tireless  support  of  my  work,  even  when  it  meant  late  nights,  early  mornings,  
and  missed  family  events.  I  would  especially  like  to  thank  my  parents,  Walker  and  Janet,  
who  taught  me  how  to  persevere  in  the  face  of  trials  and  showed  me  what  hard  work  
looks  like,  and  my  son,  Ezra,  for  graciously  pushing  me  during  my  final  lap.  And  finally,  
my  wife,  Casey,  for  everything.
 
1  
1. Introduction While  typing  away  on  this  dissertation  one  Fall  day  in  2012  at  a  local  coffee  shop  
in  Durham,  I  caught  wind  of  the  conversation  at  the  table  next  to  me.  There  were  two  
young  pastors,  one  Methodist  and  the  other  Baptist  (of  the  Southern  variety,  I  
presumed),  meeting  for  coffee  and  discussing  their  respective  church  services,  and  it  
was  not  long  until  worship  music  came  up.  They  talked  about  their  struggles  to  find  
talented  worship  leaders  and  the  budgets  required  to  buy  all  of  the  sound  system  pieces  
to  power  the  guitars  and  microphones  on  stage.  Though  they  argued  about  logistics  and  
sermon  techniques,  they  strongly  agreed  on  the  power  of  contemporary  worship  music:  
"I  know  the  Word  is  important,  but  I  think  worship  is  where  it's  at,"  proclaimed  the  
Methodist  pastor.  His  Baptist  friend  nodded  vigorously  in  agreement,  "If  the  worship  is  
good,  it  helps  prepare  me  to  hear  the  Word.  That's  why  the  worship  leader  is  so  
important!"  
There  is  a  treasure  trove  in  those  two  proclamations  alone,  and  together  they  
serve  as  a  microcosm  of  how  American  Christians  have  changed  in  their  conception  of  
worship  over  the  last  fifty  years.  The  assertion  of  the  first  pastor  rings  true  with  the  
rising  role  of  contemporary  worship  music  in  church  services.  While  preaching  has  
traditionally  been  the  centerpiece  of  the  Protestant  service  in  America,  the  import  of  
contemporary  musical  forms  into  the  church  has  challenged  the  sermon's  preeminence  
 
(contemporary  worship  music),1  its  ability  to  create  a  powerful,  emotional  experience  of  
quiet  intimacy  or  loud,  celebratory  joy  with  God.    
Of  course,  church  music  has  always  provided  an  affective  experience.  Yet  now  
the  gravitational  pull  of  rock  music  in  the  church  has  become  so  great  that  it  is  
swallowing  the  rest  of  what  had  previously  been  considered  "worship."  The  scripture  
readings,  the  prayer  of  confession,  the  creeds.  Even  the  sermon  itself.  As  both  pastors  
testified,  "worship"  had  come  to  mean  worship  music,  and  worship  music  alone.  The  
congregational  act  of  worship  no  longer  marked  the  entire  service,  but  simply  the  time  
in  the  service  when  the  congregation  was  swaying  and  singing  rock  ballads  to  Jesus.  
That  was  the  gravitational  pull  of  contemporary  worship  music,  and  it  has  deeply  
altered  the  way  Christians  worship  in  their  churches.  
Though  both  pastors  acknowledged  the  traditional  Protestant  emphasis  on  the  
Word  (and  thus  the  sermon),  they  also  asserted  the  rising  power  of  contemporary  
                                                                                                               
 
3  
that  worship  (music)  was  "where  it's  at,"  the  second  one,  in  asserting  that  good  worship  
prepared  him  to  hear  the  Word  (and  by  worship  he  meant  the  music),  revealed  the  power  
that  worship  music  had  over  the  sermon  and  the  rest  of  the  service.  His  conditional  
statement  implied  the  opposite  as  well—if  the  worship  (music)  is  bad,  then  the  
congregation  is  not  prepared  to  hear  the  Word.  Good  worship  music  here  implied  
affective  efficacy,  the  music's  emotional  potency,  or  ability  to  create  an  affective  
disposition  for  the  congregants  emotionally  to  commune  with  God.  This  affective  power  
created  a  worship  experience  that  "softened"  congregants’  heart,  emotionally  preparing  
them  to  hear  the  Word.  "Hearing  the  Word,"  then,  was  not  simply  a  cerebral  act,  but  an  
emotional  one  as  well,  where  the  congregant  could  respond  with  their  heart  as  much  as  
their  head.  Bad  worship  music—whether  it  was  misplaced  songs  or  poor  talent  on  
stage—meant  that  the  proper  affective  atmosphere  for  communing  with  God  was  absent  
and  the  congregant  was  not  emotionally  prepared  to  hear  the  Word.  As  I  show  
throughout  this  dissertation,  contemporary  worship  music's  focus  on  creating  affective  
dispositions  for  communing  with  God  was  rooted  in  its  charismatic  origin  and  revealed  
its  Pentecostal  sensibilities.  Yet,  as  our  two  pastors  have  shown,  those  Pentecostal  
sensibilities  did  not  stop  contemporary  worship  music  from  spreading  well  beyond  its  
charismatic  origins.  In  fact,  they  became  part  of  the  engine  that  drove  the  rapid  adoption  
 
4  
Finally,  as  the  Baptist  pastor  understood,  the  work  that  rock  music  came  to  do  in  
American  churches  made  the  worship  leader  all  the  more  important.  If  contemporary  
worship  music  could  shape  the  affective  dispositions  of  believers  for  the  service  and  was  
required  to  prepare  them  to  hear  the  Word,  then  the  contemporary  worship  leader  could  
make  or  break  a  church  service.  Church  growth  leaders  in  the  1980s  and  1990s  picked  up  
on  this  quickly,  and  churches  like  Bill  Hybels's  Willow  Creek  Community  Church  in  
suburban  Chicago  and  Joel  Osteen's  Lakewood  Church  in  Houston  hand  picked  talented  
worship  leaders  that  they  knew  could  attract  the  crowds  and  keep  them  coming  back  
each  week.  Our  Baptist  pastor's  final  proclamation,  then,  reveals  the  rise  of  the  worship  
leader  in  American  church  culture,  and  at  the  top,  the  rise  of  the  worship  music  
superstar,  a  requirement  for  any  ambitious  church  that  sought  to  become  a  national—or  
even  international—powerhouse.  
1.1 Argument
 
                                                                                                               
 
5  
This  verse  is  from  Love  Song's  ballad  "Little  Country  Church,"  released  on  
Maranatha!  Music's  The  Everlastin'  Living  Jesus  Concert  (1971),  the  first  album  of  the  small  
record  label  founded  by  pastor  Chuck  Smith  at  Calvary  Chapel  in  Costa  Mesa,  
California.  The  song  marked  the  beginning  of  a  musical  revolution,  one  that  would  see  
the  adoption  of  rock  music—and  its  cultural  attachments—into  church  sanctuaries  
around  the  country.  Yet,  as  the  song  noted,  this  was  not  the  way  it  used  to  be.  For  most  
American  Christians,  rock  music  first  sounded  like  noxious  noise.  In  the  1950s  and  
1960s,  white  evangelical  leaders  condemned  rock  and  roll3  for  its  "jungle  rhythm,"  
rebellious  lyrics,  and  implicit  sensuality.4  In  1958,  the  Youth  for  Christ  leader  Marlin  
"Butch"  Hardman  declared  that  rock  music  exerted  physical,  emotional  and  spiritual  
effects  on  listeners  that  were  not  in  line  with  the  Word  of  God.5    Hardman  was  just  one  
of  many  pastors  and  evangelical  leaders  who  saw  rock  music  as  a  gateway  for  licentious  
activities,  whether  it  was  dancing,  drinking,  or  sexual  license.  Evangelicals  also  feared  
that  rock  music  exerted  a  physical  effect  on  the  listener.  Critic  of  evangelical  rock  David  
Noebel  declared  that  "the  muscles  are  weakened,  the  heartbeat  is  affected,  and  the  
                                                                                                               
 
6  
what's  it  doing  to  young  people?"6    Even  Billy  Graham,  when  asked  how  teenagers  
should  approach  rock  music,  said,  "if  I  were  17  today  I'd  stay  as  far  away  from  it  as  I  
could."7    
By  the  turn  of  the  21st  century,  however,  the  noxious  noise  had  become  beautiful  
and  the  devil's  music  had  moved  from  anathema  to  big  business.    In  2001,  the  
contemporary  Christian  music  (CCM)  industry—the  producers  and  peddlers  of  rock  
music  written  for  Christian  audiences—reported  sales  more  than  $920  million  dollars,  
which  accounted  for  6.7  percent  of  total  albums  sold  in  the  United  States,  after  moving  
nearly  50  million  units.8  And  not  only  had  the  devil's  music  become  popular  in  
evangelicals'  cars  and  on  their  iPods,  but  in  their  churches  as  well,  giving  birth  to  the  
focus  of  this  study,  what  I  call  contemporary  worship  music  (cwm),  and  which  we  will  
unpack  in  the  next  section.  According  to  the  National  Congregations  Study,  by  2012,  59  
percent  of  white  conservative,  evangelical,  or  fundamentalists  in  America  attended  
services  that  used  drums  in  their  worship,  while  62.8  percent  used  guitars.  The  embrace  
of  rock  music  in  Christian  sanctuaries  even  extended  beyond  white  evangelicals—45.5  
                                                                                                               
 
7  
liberal  or  moderate  mainliners  also  attended  services  that  used  guitars.9  How  did  rock  
and  roll,  the  best  music  for  worshipping  the  devil,  become  the  finest  music  for  
worshipping  God?  
The  answer  to  this  question  is  complicated  and  involves  tracing  the  various  shifts  
(historical,  demographic,  theological,  economic,  and  technological)  that  allowed  white  
evangelicals—even  American  Christians  at  large—to  embrace  the  instrumentation,  
timbre,  and  accoutrement  of  rock  music  in  their  churches  as  contemporary  worship  
music.  But  before  rock  music  even  existed  for  white  evangelicals  to  fight  over,  black  
Christians  were  wrestling  with  the  incorporation  of  popular  music  in  their  own  
churches.  In  the  early  20th  century,  black  churches  fought  over  musical  propriety  for  
worship  as  Afro-­Pentecostalism  brought  forth  new  fusions  of  European  hymnody,  black  
spirituals,  jazz,  and  blues.  Afro-­Pentecostal  artists  like  Arizona  Dranes  and  Sallie  Martin  
and  black  Baptist  artists  like  Thomas  Dorsey  and  Mahalia  Jackson  pioneered  what  
became  black  gospel  music,  fighting  for  its  inclusion  in  established  black  denominations  
and  its  adoption  beyond  the  upstart  Afro-­Pentecostal  and  Holiness  churches.  As  black  
                                                                                                               
 
artists,  songwriters,  record  labels,  and  publishers.  Black  gospel's  contested  birth  and  
development  served  as  a  "forerunner"  for  CWM,  foreshadowing  many  of  the  tensions  
and  joys  that  CWM  would  bring  for  white  Christians  in  America,  whether  evangelical  or  
mainline.  
Perhaps  surprising  to  many,  even  when  rock  music  had  arrived,  evangelicals  
were  not  the  first  to  bring  it  into  their  sanctuaries.  That  feat  belonged  to  Roman  
Catholics,  who  were  writing  liturgical  music  that  highlighted  the  folk  guitar  while  
evangelicals  were  still  condemning  rock  as  the  devil's  music.  Roman  Catholic  parishes  
opened  their  doors  to  "folk  masses"  or  "guitar  masses"  in  the  mid  1960s  as  a  result…