A. A. Zhdanov - On the History of Philosophy.pdf

8/14/2019 A. A. Zhdanov - On the History of Philosophy.pdf

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ON THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

By A. A. ZHDANOV

[In 1946, there appeared in the Soviet Union a tet!oo" on THEHISTORYOFWESTERNEUROPEANPHILOSOPHY!y #eor$i A%eandrov. A%&

tho'$h ori$ina%%y a(arded a Sta%in pri)e, the !oo" evo"ed (ide&

*pread +riti+i* in the U.S.S.-. A* a +on*e'en+e the /entra% /o&

ittee o0 the /o'ni*t arty o0 the Soviet Union or$ani)ed in

2'ne, 1943, a +on0eren+e o0 phi%o*ophi+a% (or"er* 0ro a%% part* o0

the +o'ntry to di*+'**, not on%y the !oo" and pro!%e* o0 the hi*&

tory o0 phi%o*ophy, !'t a%*o *hort+oin$* and ta*"* on the phi%o&

*ophi+a% 0ront. i$hty&three +ontri!'tion* (ere ade to the di*+'*&*ion at the +on0eren+e, (hi+h (a* *'ari)ed in the !ri%%iant

*pee+h !y A. A. Zhdanov, Se+retary o0 the /entra% /oittee o0

the /..S.U. Zhdanov5* *pee+h ori$ina%%y appeared in the 0ir*t i**'e

o0 the ne( Soviet o'rna%,QUESTIONSOFPHILOSOPHY,and *'!*e'ent%y

in theBOLSHEVIKo0 A'$'*t 78, 1943, 0ro (hi+h thi* tran*%ation ha*

!een ade 0orPOLITICALAFFAIRS. ED.]

COMRADES, THEDISCUSSIONo0 the !oo" !y /orade A%eandrov ha*not !een +on0ined to the *'!e+t 'nder de!ate. It ha* tran*+ended it

in !readth and depth, po*in$ a%*o ore $enera% 'e*tion* o0 the *it'&

ation on the phi%o*ophi+a% 0ront. he di*+'**ion ha* !een tran*&

0ored into a "ind o0 a%%&Union +on0eren+e on the *tat'* o0 o'r *+i&

enti0i+ (or" in phi%o*ophy. hi*, o0 +o'r*e, i* 'ite nat'ra% and %e&

$itiate. he +reation o0 a tet!oo" on the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy,

the 0ir*t :arian tet!oo" in thi* *phere, repre*ent* a ta*" o0 enor&

o'* *+ienti0i+ and po%iti+a% *i$ni0i+an+e. It i* there0ore not a++identa%that the /entra% /oittee ha* $iven *o '+h attention to thi* 'e*&

tion and ha* or$ani)ed the pre*ent di*+'**ion.

o (rite a $ood tet!oo" on the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy ean* to

e'ip o'r inte%%e+t'a%*, o'r +adre*, o'r yo'th (ith a ne(, po(er0'%

ideo%o$i+a% (eapon and at the *ae tie to ta"e a $reat *tep 0or&

(ard in the deve%opent o0 :ari*t&;enini*t phi%o*ophy. Hen+e,

the hi$h %eve% o0 the re'ireent* 0or *'+h a tet!oo" (a* epre**ed

in the di*+'**ion. he eten*ion o0 the ran$e o0 the di*+'**ion ha*,there0ore, !een pro0ita!%e. It* re*'%t* (i%%, (itho't do'!t, !e $reat,

the ore *o *in+e (e dea%t not on%y (ith 'e*tion* +onne+ted (ith

the eva%'ation o0 the tet!oo", !'t a%*o (ith the ore $enera% pro!&

%e* o0 o'r phi%o*ophi+a% (or".


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I *ha%% perit y*e%0 to di*+'** !oth thee*. It i* 0ar 0ro y

tho'$ht to *'ari)e the di*+'**ion < thi* i* the ta*" o0 the a'thor.

I *pea" a* a parti+ipant in the de!ate.

I a*" in advan+e to !e e+'*ed i0 I have re+o'r*e to +itation*, a%&tho'$h /orade Ba*"in ha* repeated%y (arned a%% o0 '* a$ain*t thi*

pro+ed're. O0 +o'r*e, it i* ea*y 0or hi, an o%d *a%t on the *ea o0

phi%o*ophy, to p%o( thro'$h phi%o*ophi+a% *ea* and o+ean* (itho't

navi$ation in*tr'ent*. B't yo' (i%% have to perit e, a novi+e,

treadin$ 0or the 0ir*t tie the 'n*teady, de+" o0 the phi%o*ophi+a%

*hip in a tie o0 terri!%e *tor, to '*e 'otation* a* a *ort o0 +o&

pa** (hi+h (i%% ena!%e + to aintain the +orre+t +o'r*e.

I no( pa** to the rear"* on the tet!oo".

I

H =A>NSSS O? /O:-AD A;@AND-OV5S5 BOO>

I !e%ieve that 0ro a tet!oo" on the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy (e

have a ri$ht to deand the 0'%0i%%ent o0 the 0o%%o(in$ +ondition*,

(hi+h, in y opinion, are e%eentary.

?ir*t, it i* ne+e**ary that the *'!e+t < the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy

a* a *+ien+e < !e pre+i*e%y de0ined.Se+ond, the tet!oo" *ho'%d !e *+ienti0i+ < I.E., !a*ed on

pre*ent&day a+hieveent* o0 dia%e+ti+a% and hi*tori+a% ateria%i*.

hird, it i* e**entia% that the epo*ition o0 the hi*tory o0 phi%o&

*ophy !e a +reative and not a *+ho%a*ti+ (or" it *ho'%d !e dire+t%y

%in"ed (ith the ta*"* o0 the pre*ent, *ho'%d %ead to their e%'+idation,

and *ho'%d $ive the per*pe+tive* 0or the 0'rther deve%opent o0

phi%o*ophy.

?o'rth, the 0a+t* add'+ed *ho'%d !e 0'%%y veri0ied.?i0th, the *ty%e *ho'%d !e +%ear, pre+i*e, and +onvin+in$.

I +on*ider that thi* tet!oo" doe* not eet the*e deand*.

;et '* !e$in (ith the *'!e+t o0 *+ien+e.

/orade >iven"o ha* pointed o't that /orade A%eandrov

doe* not pre*ent a +%ear idea o0 the *'!e+t o0 *+ien+e, and that a%&

tho'$h the !oo" +ontain* a %ar$e n'!er o0 de0inition* havin$ indi&

vid'a% iportan+e, in that they i%%'inate on%y individ'a% a*pe+t* o0

the 'e*tion, one doe* not 0ind in the (or" an eha'*tive $enera%

de0inition. hat o!*ervation i* entire%y +orre+t. Neither i* the *'!e+t

o0 the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy a* a *+ien+e de0ined. he de0inition

$iven on pa$e 14 i* not +op%ete. he de0inition on pa$e , it&

a%i+i)ed, apparent%y a* a !a*i+ de0inition, i* e**entia%%y in+orre+t.


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Sho'%d one a$ree (ith the a'thor that Cthe hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy i*

the hi*tory o0 pro$re**ive, a*+endin$ deve%opent o0 an5* "no(&

%ed$e o0 the *'rro'ndin$ (or%d,C it (o'%d ean that the *'!e+t o0

the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy +oin+ide* (ith that o0 the hi*tory o0 *+i&en+e in $enera%, and in (hi+h +a*e phi%o*ophy it*e%0 (o'%d appear a*

the *+ien+e o0 *+ien+e*. hi* +on+eption (a* %on$ a$o ree+ted !y

:ari*,

:A-IA;IS: V-SUS IDA;IS:

he a'thor5* a**ertion that the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy i* a%*o the

hi*tory o0 the ri*e and deve%opent o0 any +onteporary idea* i*

%i"e(i*e in+orre+t !e+a'*e the +on+ept 55+onteporaryC i* here iden&ti0ied (ith the +on+ept C*+ienti0i+,C (hi+h, nat'ra%%y, i* erroneo'*. In

de0inin$ the *'!e+t o0 the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy it i* ne+e**ary to

pro+eed 0ro the de0inition o0 phi%o*ophi+a% *+ien+e, $iven !y

:ar, n$e%*, ;enin, and Sta%in.

hi* revo%'tionary *ide o0 He$e%5* phi%o*ophy (a* ad&

opted and deve%oped !y :ar. Dia%e+ti+a% ateria%i* Cno

%on$er need* any phi%o*ophy *tandin$ a!ove the other *+i&en+e*.C O0 0orer phi%o*ophy there reain* Cthe *+ien+e o0

tho'$ht and it* %a(* < 0ora% %o$i+ and dia%e+ti+*.C And

dia%e+ti+*, a* 'nder*tood !y :ar, and in +on0ority (ith

He$e%, in+%'de* (hat i* no( +a%%ed the theory o0 "no(&

%ed$e, or epi*teo%o$y, (hi+h, too, '*t re$ard it* *'!e+t

atter hi*tori+a%%y, *t'dyin$ and $enera%i)in$ the ori$in and

deve%opent o0 "no(%ed$e, the tran*ition 0ro non&"no(&

%ed$e to "no(%ed$e./on*e'ent%y the *+ienti0i+ hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy i* the hi*tory

o0 the ori$in, ri*e, and deve%opent o0 the *+ienti0i+ ateria%i*t

(or%d o't%oo" and it* %a(*. Ina*'+h a* ateria%i* $re( and de&

ve%oped in the *tr'$$%e (ith idea%i*t +'rrent*, the hi*tory o0 phi%o&

*ophy i* *i'%taneo'*%y the hi*tory o0 the *tr'$$%e o0 ateria%i*

(ith idea%i*.

A* to the *+ienti0i+ +hara+ter o0 the !oo" 0ro the *tandpoint o0

it* 'ti%i)in$ +onteporary attainent* o0 dia%e+ti+a% and hi*tori+a%

ateria%i*, in thi* re*pe+t, too, it *'00er* 0ro any *erio'* inad&

e'a+ie*.

V. I. ;enin,Selected W!"#,Vo%. @I, p. 13.

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A -VO;UION IN HI;OSOH

he a'thor de*+ri!e* the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy and the deve%op&

ent o0 phi%o*ophi+a% idea* and *y*te* a* a *ooth, evo%'tionary

pro+e** thro'$h the a++''%ation o0 'antitative +han$e*. he i&

pre**ion i* +reated that :ari* aro*e *ip%y a* the *'++e**or to

pre+edin$ pro$re**ive tea+hin$* < priari%y the tea+hin$* o0 the

?ren+h ateria%i*t*, o0 n$%i*h po%iti+a% e+onoy, and the idea%i*t

*+hoo% o0 He$e%.

On pa$e 43E the a'thor *tate* that the phi%o*ophi+a% theorie*

0or'%ated !e0ore :ar and n$e%*, a%tho'$h o++a*iona%%y +ontain&

in$ $reat di*+overie*, (ere not 0'%%y +on*i*tent and *+ienti0i+ in a%%

their +on+%'*ion*. S'+h a de0inition di*tin$'i*he* :ari* 0ro

pre&:ari*t phi%o*ophi+a% *y*te* on%y a* a theory 0'%%y +on*i*tent

and *+ienti0i+ in a%% it* +on+%'*ion*. /on*e'ent%y, the di00eren+e

!et(een :ari* and pre&:ari*t phi%o*ophi+a% tea+hin$* +on*i*t*

on%y in that the %atter (ere not 0'%%y +on*i*tent and *+ienti0i+ the o%d

phi%o*opher* ere%y Cerred.C

A* yo' *ee, it i* a 'e*tion here on%y o0 'antitative +han$e*.

B't that i* etaphy*i+*. he ri*e o0 :ari* (a* a $en'ine di*+ov&ery, Arevo%'tion in phi%o*ophy. ;i"e every di*+overy, %i"e every

%eap, %i"e every !rea" in $rad'a%ne**, %i"e every tran*ition into a

ne( +ondition, the ri*e o0 :ari* +o'%d not have o++'rred (itho't

the previo'* a++''%ation o0 'antitative +han$e* < in thi* in*tan+e,

the deve%opent o0 phi%o*ophy prior to :ar and n$e%*. B't the

a'thor evident%y doe* not 'nder*tand that :ar and n$e%* +reated

a ne( phi%o*ophy, di00erin$ 'a%itative%y 0ro a%% ante+edent phi%o&

*ophie*, ho(ever pro$re**ive they (ere. he re%ation o0 :ari*tphi%o*ophy to a%% pre+edin$ phi%o*ophie* and the !a*i+ +han$e

(hi+h :ari* e00e+ted in phi%o*ophy, tran*0orin$ it into a *+i&

en+e, i* (e%% "no(n to a%%. A%% the ore *tran$e, there0ore, i* the 0a+t

that the a'thor 0o+'*e* hi* attention, not on that (hi+h i* ne( and

revo%'tionary in :ari* !'t on that (hi+h 'nite* it (ith the deve%&

opent o0 pre&:ari*t phi%o*ophy. hi*, not(ith*tandin$ the *tate&

ent o0 :ar and n$e%* that their di*+overy eant the end o0 the

o%d phi%o*ophy.

:A-@IS: AND H ND O? H O;D HI;OSOH

vident%y the a'thor doe* not 'nder*tand the +on+rete hi*tori+a%

pro+e** o0 the deve%opent o0 phi%o*ophy.

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One o0 the e**entia% *hort+oin$* o0 the !oo", i0 not the prin&

+ipa% one, i* it* i$norin$ o0 the 0a+t that in the +o'r*e o0 hi*tory, not

on%y do vie(* on thi* or that phi%o*ophi+a% 'e*tion 'nder$o

+han$e, !'t the very ran$e o0 the*e 'e*tion*, the very *'!e+t o0phi%o*ophy, 'nder$oe* a +on*tant +han$e, (hi+h i* in +op%ete +on&

0ority (ith the dia%e+ti+a% nat're o0 h'an +o$nition and *ho'%d

!e +%ear to a%% rea% dia%e+ti+ian*.

On pa$e 4 o0 hi* !oo", epo'ndin$ on the phi%o*ophy o0 the an&

+ient #ree"*, /orade A%eandrov (rite*F Chi%o*ophy a* an inde&

pendent *phere o0 "no(%ed$e aro*e in the *%ave *o+iety o0 an+ient

#ree+e.C And 0'rther, Ghi%o*ophy, ari*in$ in the *ith +ent'ry [B./.

a* a *pe+ia% *phere o0 "no(%ed$e, attained (ide di**eination.CB't +an (e *pea" o0 the phi%o*ophy o0 the an+ient #ree"* a* a

*pe+ia%, di00erentiated *phere o0 "no(%ed$e On no a++o'nt. he

phi%o*ophi+a% vie(* o0 the #ree"* (ere *o +%o*e%y inter(oven (ith

their nat'ra% *+ien+e and (ith their po%iti+a% vie(* that (e *ho'%d

not, and have no ri$ht to, tran*0er to #ree" *+ien+e o'r divi*ion o0

the *+ien+e*, the +%a**i0i+ation o0 the *+ien+e* (hi+h +ae %ater. *&

*entia%%y, the #ree"* "ne( on%y one, 'ndi00erentiated *+ien+e, into

(hi+h there entered a%*o their phi%o*ophi+a% +on+eption*. =hether(e ta"e Deo+rit'*, pi+'r'*, or Ari*tot%e < a%% o0 the in e'a%

de$ree +on0ir the tho'$ht o0 n$e%* that Cthe o%de*t #ree" phi%o&

*opher* (ere at the *ae tie inve*ti$ator* o0 nat're.C

he 'ni'e +hara+ter o0 the deve%opent o0 phi%o*ophy re*ide*

in the 0a+t that 0ro it, a* the *+ienti0i+ "no(%ed$e o0 nat're and *o&

+iety deve%oped, the po*itive *+ien+e* !ran+hED o00 one a0ter an&

other. /on*e'ent%y, the doain o0 phi%o*ophy (a* +ontin'a%%y re&

d'+ed on a++o'nt o0 the deve%opent o0 the po*itive *+ien+e*. JIt*ho'%d !e noted that thi* pro+e** ha* not ended even 'p to the

pre*ent tie.K hi* ean+ipation o0 the nat'ra% and *o+ia% *+ien+e*

0ro the ae$i* o0 phi%o*ophy +on*tit'te* a pro$re**ive pro+e**, 0or

the nat'ra% and *o+ia% *+ien+e*, a* (e%% a* 0or phi%o*ophy it*e%0.

he +reator* o0 the phi%o*ophi+a% *y*te* o0 the pa*t, (ho %aid

+%ai to the "no(%ed$e o0 a!*o%'te tr'th in the '%tiate *en*e, (ere

'na!%e to 0'rther the deve%opent o0 the nat'ra% *+ien+e*, *in+e a*&

pirin$ to *tand a!ove *+ien+e, they *(add%ed the (ith their

*+hee*, ipo*in$ on %ivin$ h'an 'nder*tandin$ +on+%'*ion* di+&

tated, not !y rea% %i0e, !'t !y the re'ireent* o0 their phi%o*ophi+

?rederi+" n$e%*,DIALECTICSOFN$t%!e, p. 4E.

E


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*y*te. And *o phi%o*ophy (a* tran*0ored into a '*e' in

(hi+h (ere pi%ed the o*t diver*e 0a+t*, +on+%'*ion*, hypothe*e*,

and o'tri$ht 0anta*ie*. I0 phi%o*ophy (a* nonethe%e** a!%e to *erve

a* a ean* o0 *'rveyin$ phenoena, o0 +ontep%ation, it *ti%% (a*not *'ita!%e a* an in*tr'ent 0or pra+ti+a% a+tion on the (or%d, a* an

in*tr'ent 0or 'nder*tandin$ the (or%d.

he %a*t *y*te o0 thi* "ind (a* the *y*te o0 He$e%, (ho at&

tepted to ere+t a phi%o*ophi+a% *tr'+t're, *'!ordinatin$ a%% other

*+ien+e*, pre**in$ the into the ro+r'*tean !ed o0 it* o(n +ate$or&

ie*. He$e% +o'nted on *o%vin$ a%% +ontradi+tion*, !'t 0e%% into a hope&

%e** +ontradi+tion (ith the dia%e+ti+a% ethod (hi+h he hi*e%0 had

divined !'t not 'nder*tood, and hen+e app%ied in+orre+t%y.B'tF

. . . A* *oon a* (e have on+e rea%i)ed... that the ta*"

o0 phi%o*ophy th'* *tated ean* nothin$ !'t the ta*" that a

*in$%e phi%o*opher *ho'%d a++op%i*h that (hi+h +an on%y

!e a++op%i*hed !y the entire h'an ra+e, in it* pro$re**&

ive deve%opent < a* *oon a* (e rea%i)e that, there i* an

end o0 a%% phi%o*ophy in the hitherto a++epted *en*e o0 the(ord. One %eave* a%one Ca!*o%'te tr'th,C (hi+h i* 'nattain&

a!%e a%on$ thi* path or !y any *in$%e individ'a% in*tead,

one p'r*'e* attaina!%e, re%ative tr'th* a%on$ the path o0 the

po*itive *+ien+e*, and the *'ation o0 their re*'%t* !y

ean* o0 dia%e+ti+a% thin"in$.

he di*+overy o0 :ar and n$e%* repre*ent* the end o0 the o%d

phi%o*ophy,I.E.,the end o0 that phi%o*ophy (hi+h +%aied to $ive a

'niver*a% ep%anation o0 the (or%d./orade A%eandrov5* va$'e 0or'%ation* !%'r the $reat re&

vo%'tionary *i$ni0i+an+e o0 the phi%o*ophi+a% di*+overy o0 :ar and

n$e%*, *in+e he epha*i)e* that (hi+h +onne+ted :ar (ith the

ante+edent phi%o*opher*, !'t 0ai%* to *ho( that (ith :ar there !e&

$in* a +op%ete%y ne( period in the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy < phi%o&

*ophy (hi+h 0or the 0ir*t tie ha* !e+oe *+ien+e.

A S/INI?I/ HI;OSOH O? H -O;A-IA

In +%o*e +onne+tion (ith thi* error, (e 0ind in A%eandrov5*

!oo" a non&:ari*t treatent o0 the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy a* the

?rederi+" n$e%*,L%d&'( Fe%e!)$c*, p. E.

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$rad'a% +han$e 0ro one phi%o*ophi+a% *+hoo% to another. =ith the

appearan+e o0 :ari* a* the *+ienti0i+ (or%d o't%oo" o0 the pro%et&

ariat end* the o%d period in the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy, (hen phi%o&

*ophy (a* the o++'pation o0 i*o%ated individ'a%*, the po**e**ion o0phi%o*ophi+a% *+hoo%* +on*i*tin$ o0 a *a%% n'!er o0 phi%o*opher*

and their di*+ip%e*, deta+hed 0ro %i0e and the peop%e, and a%ien to

the peop%e.

:ari* i* not that "ind o0 phi%o*ophi+a% *+hoo%. On the .+on&

trary, it *'per*ede* the o%d phi%o*ophy < phi%o*ophy that (a* the

property o0 a *a%% e%ite, the ari*to+ra+y o0 the inte%%e+t. It ar"ed

the !e$innin$ o0 a +op%ete%y ne( period in the hi*tory o0 phi%o&

*ophy, (hen it !e+ae the *+ienti0i+ (eapon in the hand* o0 thepro%etarian a**e* in their *tr'$$%e 0or ean+ipation 0ro +apita%&

i*.

:ari*t phi%o*ophy, a* di*tin$'i*hed 0ro pre+edin$ phi%o*oph&

i+a% *y*te*, i* not a *+ien+e doinatin$ the other *+ien+e* rather,

it i* an in*tr'ent o0 *+ienti0i+ inve*ti$ation, a ethod, penetratin$

a%% nat'ra% and *o+ia% *+ien+e*, enri+hin$ it*e%0 (ith their attain&

ent*F in the +o'r*e o0 their deve%opent. In thi* *en*e :ari*t

phi%o*ophy i* the o*t +op%ete and de+i*ive ne$ation o0 a%% pre&+edin$ phi%o*ophy. B't to ne$ate, a* n$e%* epha*i)ed, doe* not

ean ere%y to *ay Cno.C Ne$ation in+%'de* +ontin'ity, *i$ni0ie* a!&

*orption, the +riti+a% re0orin$ and 'ni0i+ation in a ne( and hi$her

*ynthe*i* o0 everythin$ advan+ed and pro$re**ive that ha* !een

a+hieved in the hi*tory o0 h'an tho'$ht.

Hen+e, it 0o%%o(* that the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy, ina*'+h a*

there ei*t* the :ari*t dia%e+ti+a% ethod, '*t in+%'de the hi*tory

o0 the preparatory deve%opent o0 that ethod, *ho(in$ that (hi+h+onditioned it* ri*e. A%eandrov5* !oo" doe* not $ive the hi*tory o0

%o$i+ and dia%e+ti+*, doe* not *ho( the deve%opent o0 the %o$i+a%

+ate$orie* a* the re0%e+tion o0 h'an pra+ti+e !e+a'*e o0 thi* the

'otation 0ro ;enin in the introd'+tion to the !oo", to the e00e+t

that every +ate$ory o0 dia%e+ti+a% %o$i+ *ho'%d !e +on*idered a noda%

point in the hi*tory o0 h'an tho'$ht, han$* in the air.

ntire%y inde0en*i!%e i* the 0a+t that the !oo" !rin$* the hi*tory

o0 phi%o*ophy on%y 'p to the ri*e o0 :ari*t phi%o*ophy, that i*, to

1L4L. =itho't pre*entin$ the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy d'rin$ the %a*t

h'ndred year*, the (or" nat'ra%%y +annot !e +on*idered a tet!oo".

=hy the a'thor ha* *o piti%e**%y (ron$ed thi* period reain* a y*&

tery, and no ep%anation i* to !e 0o'nd either in the pre0a+e or in the

3


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introd'+tion.

Nor i* the rea*on indi+ated 0or the 0ai%'re to in+%'de the hi*tory

o0 the deve%opent o0 -'**ian phi%o*ophy. It i* not ne+e**ary to

epha*i)e that thi* oi**ion invo%ve* prin+ip%e. =hatever the a'&thor5* otive* 0or e+%'din$ the hi*tory o0 -'**ian phi%o*ophy 0ro

a $enera% hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy, it* oi**ion o!e+tive%y ean* !e&

%itt%eent o0 the ro%e o0 -'**ian phi%o*ophy it arti0i+ia%%y divide*

the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy into the hi*tory o0 =e*tern 'ropean and

o0 -'**ian phi%o*ophy. he a'thor a"e* no attept to ep%ain the

ne+e**ity 0or *'+h a divi*ion. hi* *eparation perpet'ate* the !o'r&

$eoi* divi*ion o0 C=e*ternC and Ca*ternC +'%t're and pre*ent*

:ari* a* a re$iona% =e*tern +'rrent. On pa$e 6 o0 the introd'+&tion, the a'thor ardent%y ar$'e* the rever*e po*itionF

=itho't *t'dyin$ di%i$ent%y and 'ti%i)in$ the pro0o'nd

+riti+i* o0 the phi%o*ophi+a% *y*te* o0 the pa*t $iven !y

the +%a**i+* o0 -'**ian phi%o*ophy, it i* ipo**i!%e to

a+hieve a *+ienti0i+ 'nder*tandin$ o0 the deve%opent o0

phi%o*ophi+ tho'$ht in =e*tern 'ropean +o'ntrie*.

=hy then did the a'thor 0ai% to adhere to thi* +orre+t po*ition inhi* !oo" hi* reain* a!*o%'te%y in+oprehen*i!%e and, ta"en to&

$ether (ith the ar!itrary terination at 1L4L, it prod'+e* a vein$

ipre**ion.

he +orade* (ho *po"e in the di*+'**ion have a%*o pointed

o't the $ap* in the pre*entation o0 the hi*tory o0 the phi%o*ophy o0

the Orient.

It i* +%ear that 0or thi* rea*on a* I (e%% the !oo" re'ire* radi+a%

revi*ion.

H A- /HA-A/- O? HI;OSOH

Soe +orade* have indi+ated that the introd'+tion to the

!oo", (hi+h o!vio'*%y *ho'%d pre*ent the a'thor5* +redo, +orre+t%y

de0ine* the ta*"* and ethod* o0 the inve*ti$ation o0 the *'!e+t, !'t

that the a'thor *oeho( ha* not 0'%0i%%ed hi* proi*e*. I !e%ieve

that thi* +riti+i* i* inade'ate 0or the introd'+tion it*e%0 i* 0a'%ty

and +annot *tand 'p a$ain*t +riti+i*.

I have a%ready entioned the inea+t de0inition o0 the *'!e+t o0

the hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy. B't that i* not a%%. he introd'+tion +on&

tain* other theoreti+a% error*. Soe +orade* have pointed o't the

*trained anner in (hi+h the a'thor, dea%in$ (ith the 0o'ndation* o0

L


9/28

the :ari*t&;enini*t hi*tory o0 phi%o*ophy, re0er* to /herni*hev*"y,

Do!ro%i'!ov, and ;oono*ov, (ho, o0 +o'r*e, have no dire+t re%a&

tion to the 'e*tion 'nder di*+'**ion. he 'e*tion, ho(ever, in&

vo%ve* ore than thi*. he 'e*tion* 0ro the (or"* o0 the*e $reat-'**ian *+ienti*t* and phi%o*opher* (ere !ad%y *e%e+ted. he theor&

eti+a% propo*ition* (hi+h they +ontain are 0ro the :ari*t point o0

vie( in+orre+t and, I (o'%d add, even dan$ero'*. And I do not in

the *%i$hte*t intend to +a*t any a*per*ion on the 'oted a'thor*,

*in+e the 'otation* (ere *e%e+ted ar!itrari%y and are re%ated to

'e*tion* that have nothin$ in +oon (ith the *'!e+t (ith (hi+h

the a'thor i* dea%in$. he point i* that the a'thor re0er* to /hern&

i*hev*"y in order to *ho( that the 0o'nder* o0 di00erent, a%tho'$h+ontradi+tory, phi%o*ophi+ *y*te* '*t !e to%erant%y re%ated one to

another.

A%%o( e to +ite the 'otation 0ro /herni*hev*"yF

he +ontin'er* o0 *+ienti0i+ (or" ri*e a$ain*t their pre&

de+e**or* (ho*e (or" *erved a* the point o0 depart're 0or

their o(n %a!or*. h'*, Ari*tot%e too" a ho*ti%e vie( o0

%ato, th'* So+rate* thoro'$h%y h'i%iated the *ophi*t*,(ho*e +ontin'er he (a*. In odern tie* there are a%*o

any eap%e* o0 thi*. B't there are happy in*tan+e* (hen

0o'nder* o0 a ne( *y*te 'nder*tand +%ear%y the +onne+tion

o0 their 'd$ent* (ith the idea* o0 their prede+e**or* and

ode*t%y +on*ider the*e%ve* their di*+ip%e* (hen in di*&

+%o*in$ the inade'a+y in the idea* o0 their prede+e**or*,

they at the *ae tie +%ear%y ani0e*t ho( '+h tho*e

idea* +ontri!'ted to the deve%opent o0 their o(n. S'+h(a* the +a*e, 0or in*tan+e, in the re%ation o0 Spino)a to

De*+arte*. o the honor o0 the 0o'nder* o0 odern *+ien+e,

it '*t !e *aid that they %oo" 'pon their prede+e**or* (ith

re*pe+t and a%o*t 0i%ia% a00e+tion, 0'%%y a+"no(%ed$in$ the

$reatne** o0 their $eni'* and the no!%e +hara+ter o0 their

tea+hin$, in (hi+h they indi+ate the $er* o0 their o(n

vie(*. JA%eandrovF HISTORYOFWESTERNPHILOSOPHY,pp. 6&7.)

Ina*'+h a* the a'thor o00er* thi* 'otation (itho't re*erva&

tion, it o!vio'*%y appear* to !e hi* o(n point o0 vie(. I0 that i* *o,

the a'thor a+t'a%%y ta"e* the po*ition o0 denyin$ the prin+ip%e o0 the

arty&+hara+ter o0 phi%o*ophy, inherent in :ari*& ;enini*. It i*

(e%% "no(n (ith (hat pa**ion and irre+on+i%a!i%ity :ari*&;enin&

9


10/28

i* ha* a%(ay* +ond'+ted the *harpe*t *tr'$$%e a$ain*t a%% eneie*

o0 ateria%i*. In thi* *tr'$$%e :ari*t&;enini*t* *'!e+t their op&

ponent* to r'th%e** +riti+i*. An eap%e o0 Bo%*hevi" *tr'$$%e

a$ain*t the opponent* o0 ateria%i* i* ;enin5* !oo", +ATERIALIS+ANDE+PIRIOCRITICIS+,in (hi+h every (ord i* %i"e a pier+in$ *(ord,

annihi%atin$ the opponent. ;enin (roteF

he $eni'* o0 :ar and n$e%* +on*i*ted in the very

0a+t that in the +o'r*e o0 a %on$ period,NEARLYHALFACENTURY,

they deve%oped ateria%i*, that they 0'rther advan+ed one

0'ndaenta% trend in phi%o*ophy, that they did not +on0ine

the*e%ve* to reiteratin$ epi*teo%o$i+a% pro!%e* that had

a%ready !een *o%ved, !'t +on*i*tent%y app%ied < and *ho(ed

HOWto app%y < THISSAMEateria%i* in the *phere o0 the *o&

+ia% *+ien+e*, er+i%e**%y !r'*hin$ a*ide a* %itter and r'!&

!i*h the pretentio'* ri$aro%e, the inn'era!%e attept* to

Cdi*+overC a Cne(C %ine in phi%o*ophy, to invent a Cne(C

trend and *o 0orth....

And 0ina%%y, ta"e the vario'* phi%o*ophi+a% 'tteran+e*!y :ar in CAPITAL and other (or"*, and yo' (i%% 0ind an

INVARIABLE !a*i+ oti0, VIZ., in*i*ten+e 'ponMATERIALISM and

+ontept'o'* deri*ion o0 a%% o!*+'ranti*, o0 a%% +on0'*ion

and a%% deviation* to(ard*IDEALISM. ALL:ar5* phi%o*ophi+a%

'tteran+e* revo%ve (ithin the*e 0'ndaenta% oppo*ite*, and,

in the eye* o0 pro0e**oria% phi%o*ophy, their de0e+t %ie* in

thi* Cnarro(ne**C and 5one&*idedne**.C

;enin, (e "no(, did not *pare hi* opponent*. In a%% attept* to!%'r and re+on+i%e the +ontradi+tion* !et(een phi%o*ophi+a% tenden&

+ie*, ;en in a%(ay* *a( the ane'ver o0 rea+tionary pro0e**oria%phi%o*ophy. Ho( then a0ter that +o'%d /orade A%eandrov appear

in hi* !oo" %i"e a prea+her o0 tooth%e** ve$etariani* in re%ation to

phi%o*ophi+a% opponent*, pre*entin$ 'n'a%i0ied tri!'te to pro0e**or&

ia% 'a*i&o!e+tivi*, (hen :ari* aro*e, deve%oped, and tri&

'phed in a er+i%e** *tr'$$%e a$ain*t a%% repre*entative* o0 the

idea%i*t tenden+y

/orade A%eandrov doe* not +on0ine hi*e%0 to thi*. He +on&

*tant%y app%ie* hi* o!e+tivi*t idea* thro'$ho't the !oo". It i* not a+&

V.I. ;enin, Se%e+ted =or"*, Vo%. @I, pp. 7L6&3.

18


11/28

+identa%, there0ore, that /orade A%eandrov, !e0ore +riti+i)in$

*oe !o'r$eoi* phi%o*opher, pay* Ctri!'teC to hi* erit* and !'rn*

in+en*e to hi. ;et '* ta"e, 0or eap%e, the tea+hin$ o0 ?o'rier on

the 0o'r pha*e* in the deve%opent o0 an"ind,he $reat a+hieveent o0 the *o+ia% phi%o*ophy o0 ?o'rier, *ay*

/orade A%eandrov,

Mi* hi* theory o0 the deve%opent o0 an"ind. In it*

deve%opent *o+iety pa**e*, a++ordin$ to ?o'rier, thro'$h

0o'r pha*e*F iK a*+endin$ di*inte$ration aK a*+endin$ har&

ony 7K de*+endin$ harony 4K de*+endin$ di*inte$ra&

tion. In the %a*t *ta$e an"ind eperien+e* a period o0

*eni%ity, a0ter (hi+h a%% %i0e on earth +oe* to an end. Ina*&

'+h a* the deve%opent o0 *o+iety pro+eed* independ&

ent%y o0 h'an (i%%, a hi$her *ta$e o0 deve%opent ari*e*

'*t a* 'n0ai%in$%y a* the +han$e o0 *ea*on*. ?ro thi*

?o'rier dre( the +on+%'*ion o0 the inevita!%e tran*0ora&

tion o0 the !o'r$eoi* *y*te into a *o+iety in (hi+h 0ree

and +o%%e+tive %a!or (o'%d prevai%. r'e, ?o'rier5* theory o0

deve%opent o0 *o+iety (a* %iited !y the +on+eption o0the 0o'r pha*e*, !'t 0or that period it repre*ented a $reat

*tep 0or(ard. JA%eandrov,H'#t!- We#te!/ P*'l#0*-,

pp. 7E7&7E4.K

here i* not a tra+e o0 :ari*t ana%y*i* in thi*. By +opari*on

(ith (hat doe* the theory o0 ?o'rier repre*ent a *tep 0or(ard I0 it*

%iitation +on*i*ted in that it *po"e o0 0o'r pha*e* o0 the deve%op&

ent o0 an"ind, (ith the 0o'rth pha*e +on*tit'tin$ de*+endin$ di*&

inte$ration, a* a re*'%t o0 (hi+h a%% %i0e on earth +oe* to an end,then ho( *ha%% (e 'nder*tand the a'thor5* +riti+i* o0 ?o'rier that

hi* theory o0 *o+ia% deve%opent i* %iited (ithin the +on0ine* o0

the 0o'r pha*e*, (hen the 0i0th pha*e 0or an"ind +o'%d +on*i*t on%y

o0 %i0e in the herea0ter

/orade A%eandrov 0ind* it po**i!%e to *ay *oethin$ $ood

a!o't a%o*t every phi%o*opher o0 the pa*t. he ore einent the

!o'r$eoi* phi%o*opher, the $reater the 0%attery that i* o00ered hi.

A%% o0 thi* *ho(* that /orade A%eandrov, perhap* (itho't !ein$

a(are o0 it, i* hi*e%0 a +aptive o0 !o'r$eoi* hi*torian*, (ho pro&

+eed 0ro the a**'ption that every phi%o*opher i* 0ir*t o0 a%% an a*&

*o+iate in the pro0e**ion, and on%y *e+ondari%y an opponent. S'+h

+on+eption*, i0 they *ho'%d ta"e ho%d aon$ '*, inevita!%y (o'%d

11


12/28

%ead to o!e+tivi*, to *'!*ervien+e to !o'r$eoi* phi%o*opher* and

ea$$eration o0 their *ervi+e*, to(ard deprivin$ o'r phi%o*ophy o0

it* i%itant o00en*ive *pirit. And that (o'%d *i$ni0y the depart're

0ro the !a*i+ prin+ip%e o0 ateria%i* < it* prin+ip%e o0 dire+tion,it* parti*an*hip. =e%% did ;enin tea+h '* that Cateria%i* in+%'de*,

*o to *pea", parti*an*hip,I.E., the o!%i$ation (hen e*tiatin$ any

event to adopt dire+t%y and 0ran"%y the vie(point o0 a de0inite *o+ia%

$ro'p.C

he epo*ition o0 phi%o*ophi+a% vie(* in A%eandrov5* !oo" i*

a!*tra+t, o!e+tivi*t, ne'tra%. hi%o*ophi+a% *+hoo%* are p%a+ed one

a0ter another or one near the other in the !oo", !'t are not *ho(n in

*tr'$$%e a$ain*t one another. hat, too, i* a Ctri!'teC to the a+adei+pro0e**oria% Ctenden+y.C In thi* +onne+tion, it i* apparent%y not a++i &

denta% that the a'thor5* epo*ition o0 the prin+ip%e o0 parti*an*hip in

phi%o*ophy i* not *ati*0a+tory. he a'thor re0er* to the phi%o*ophy o0

He$e% a* an eap%e o0 parti*an*hip in phi%o*ophy and the *tr'$$%e

o0 anta$oni*ti+ phi%o*ophie* ha* 0or hi it* i%%'*tration in the

*tr'$$%e o0 the rea+tionary and pro$re**ive prin+ip%e* (ithin He$e%

hi*e%0. S'+h a ethod o0 deon*tration i* not on%y o!e+tivi*t e+&

%e+ti+i*, !'t it +%ear%y e!e%%i*he* He$e%, ina*'+h a* in thi* (ayone (ant* to *ho( that in He$e%5* phi%o*ophy there i* a* '+h pro&

$re**ive a* there i* rea+tionary +ontent.

o +on+%'de on thi* point, I ay add that /orade A%ean&

drov5* ethod o0 eva%'atin$ vario'* phi%o*ophi+a% *y*te* < Ca%on$

(ith erit*, there are a%*o *hort+oin$*,C or Cthe 0o%%o(in$ theory

i* a%*o o0 iportan+eC < i* ar"ed !y etree va$'ene**, i* eta&

phy*i+a%, and +an on%y +on0'*e. It i* in+oprehen*i!%e (hy /o&

rade A%eandrov +ho*e to pay tri!'te to the a+adei+ *+ienti0i+ tra&dition* o0 the o%d !o'r$eoi* *+hoo%*, 0or$ettin$ the 0'ndaenta%

prin+ip%e o0 ateria%i* (hi+h deand* irre+on+i%a!i%ity in the

*tr'$$%e a$ain*t one5* opponent*.

A 0'rther rear". A +riti+a% *t'dy o0 phi%o*ophi+a% *y*te*

'*t have an orientation. hi%o*ophi+a% vie(* and idea* %on$ *%ain

and !'ried *ho'%d not attra+t '+h attention. On the other hand,

phi%o*ophi+a% *y*te* and idea* *ti%% +'rrent, (hi+h, not(ith*tand&

in$ their rea+tionary +hara+ter, are !ein$ 'ti%i)ed today !y the en&

eie* o0 :ari*, deand e*pe+ia%%y *harp +riti+i*. hi* in+%'de*

parti+'%ar%y neo&>antiani*, theo%o$y, o%d and ne( edition* o0 a$&

V.I. ;enin, Cllected W!"#, Vo%. 1, p. 36 J-'**ianK.

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13/28

no*ti+i*, the attept* to *'$$%e #od into odern nat'ra% *+ien+e,

and every other +oo"ery that ha* 0or it* ai the 0re*henin$ 'p o0

*ta%e idea%i*t er+handi*e 0or the ar"et., hat i* the ar*ena% (hi+h

the phi%o*opher %a+"ey* o0 iperia%i* a"e '*e o0 at the pre*enttie in order to !o%*ter their 0ri$htened a*ter*.

ON H :HOD O? DIA;/I/A; :A-IA;IS:

he introd'+tion to the !oo" a%*o +ontain* an in+orre+t treat&

ent o0 the notion* o0 rea+tionary and pro$re**ive idea* and phi%o&

*ophi+a% *y*te*. he a'thor *tate* that the 'e*tion o0 the rea+tion&

ary or pro$re**ive +hara+ter o0 one or another idea or phi%o*ophi+a%

*y*te *ho'%d !e deterined on the !a*i* o0 hi*tori+a% +ondition*.B't, tie and a$ain he i$nore* the e*ta!%i*hed po*ition o0 :ari*

that the very *ae idea +an !e rea+tionary or pro$re**ive 'nder di0&

0erent +on+rete hi*tori+a% +ondition*. he a'thor, !y o!*+'rin$ thi*

point, open* a 0i**'re 0or the *'$$%in$ in o0 the idea%i*t +on+eption

o0 idea* a* independent o0 hi*tory.

=hi%e the a'thor +orre+t%y note* that the deve%opent o0 phi%o&

*ophi+a% tho'$ht in the 0ina% ana%y*i* i* deterined !y the ateria%

+ondition* o0 *o+ia% %i0e and that the deve%opent o0 phi%o*ophi+a%tho'$ht ha* on%y re%ative independen+e, he repeated%y vio%ate* the

!a*i+ po*ition o0 *+ienti0i+ ateria%i*. ie and a$ain he pre*ent*

the vario'* phi%o*ophi+a% *y*te* (itho't re%atin$ the to their a+&

t'a% hi*tori+a% environent, and (itho't *ho(in$ the *o+ia%&+%a**

root* o0 thi* or that phi%o*opher. hat i* the +a*e, 0or in*tan+e, (ith

hi* epo*ition o0 the phi%o*ophi+a% vie(* o0 So+rate*, Deo+rit'*,

Spino)a, ;ei!nit), ?e'er!a+h, and other*. S'+h a ethod i*, +%ear%y,

not *+ienti0i+ it '*ti0ie* the a**'ption that the a'thor ha* *%ippedinto the +o'r*e o0 treatin$ the deve%opent o0 phi%o*ophi+a% idea* a*

independent o0 hi*tory, a di*tin$'i*hin$ +hara+teri*ti+ o0 idea%i*t

phi%o*ophy.

he 0ai%'re to *ho( the or$ani+ +onne+tion o0 thi* or that phi%o&

*ophi+a% *y*te (ith it* hi*tori+a% environent i* evident even

(here the a'thor attept* to $ive an ana%y*i* o0 that environent.

=hat (e have in tho*e in*tan+e* i* a p're%y e+hani+a%, 0ora%, and

not a %ivin$ or$ani+ +onne+tion. he divi*ion* and +hapter* dea%in$

(ith the phi%o*ophi+a% vie(* o0 a parti+'%ar epo+h, and tho*e di*&

+'**in$ the hi*tori+a% +ir+'*tan+e*, revo%ve 'pon para%%e% p%ane*,

(hi%e the pre*entation o0 the hi*tori+a% data < the %in" o0 +a'*ation

!et(een the !a*i* and the *'per*tr'+t're < i* $iven a* a r'%e 'n&

17


14/28

*+ienti0i+a%%y, *%ip*hod&(i*e. It doe* not provide ateria% 0or ana&

%y*i* !'t rather pre*ent* an inade'ate 0rae o0 re0eren+e. S'+h, 0or

eap%e, i* the introd'+tion to /hapter VI, entit%ed Gi$hteenth

/ent'ry ?ran+e, (hi+h i* 'tter%y irre%evant and (hi+h in no (aye%'+idate* the *o'r+e* o0 the idea* o0 ?ren+h phi%o*ophy in the

ei$hteenth and the !e$innin$ o0 the nineteenth +ent'rie*. /on&

*e'ent%y, the idea* o0 the ?ren+h phi%o*opher* %o*e their +onne+tion

(ith the epo+h and !e$in to appear a* *oe independent pheno&

ena% A%%o( e to 'ote thi* partF

Be$innin$ (ith the *iteenth and *eventeenth +ent'r&

ie*, ?ran+e 0o%%o(in$ !ehind n$%and $rad'a%%y ta"e* the

road to !o'r$eoi* deve%opent, eperien+in$ radi+a%

+han$e* 0or a h'ndred year* in it* e+onoy, po%iti+*, and

ideo%o$y. he +o'ntry, a%tho'$h it (a* *ti%% !a+"(ard,

!e$an to 0ree it*e%0 0ro it* 0e'da% inertia. ;i"e any other

'ropean *tate* o0 that tie, ?ran+e entered the period o0

priary +apita%i*t a++''%ation.

he ne( !o'r$eoi* *o+ia% *tr'+t're (a* rapid%y ta"in$*hape in a%% *phere* o0 *o+ia% %i0e, 'i+"%y $ivin$ ri*e to a

ne( ideo%o$y, a ne( +'%t're, A!o't that tie (e (itne** in

?ran+e the !e$innin$ o0 a rapid $ro(th o0 *'+h +itie* a*

ari*, ;yon*, :ar*ei%%e*, and Havre, and o0 the deve%op&

ent o0 a *tron$ er+hant 0%eet. Internationa% tradin$ +o&

panie* aro*e one a0ter another, and i%itary epedition*

(ere or$ani)ed (hi+h +on'ered a n'!er o0 +o%onie*.

rade $re( rapid%y. In the year* 13L4&13LL the t'rnover o0eterna% trade rea+hed 1,811,688 %ivre*, e+eedin$ ore

than 0o'r tie* the trade o0 1316&138. he $ro(th o0 trade

(a* 0a+i%itated !y the reaty o0 Aa+hen [Ai&%a&/hape%%e

J134LK and the reaty o0 ari* J1367K. *pe+ia%%y *i$ni0i+&

ant (a* the trade in !oo"*. h'*, 0or in*tan+e, in 1334 the

t'rnover in the !oo" trade in ?ran+e rea+hed 4E i%%ion

0ran+*, (hi%e in n$%and it *tood on%y at 1&17 i%%ion

0ran+*. In the hand* o0 ?ran+e (a* 0o'nd near%y ha%0 the$o%d *'pp%y o0 'rope. At the *ae tie ?ran+e *ti%% re&

ained an a$rarian +o'ntry. he over(he%in$ aority o0

the pop'%ation (a* a$rarian. JA%eandrov, pp. 71E&716.K

hat, o0 +o'r*e, i* no ana%y*i*F it i* ere%y an en'eration o0 a

14


15/28

n'!er o0 0a+t* *et 0orth (itho't re%ation to one another, !'t *ip%y

in 'tapo*ition. It i* o!vio'* that 0ro the*e data a* C!a*i*C one

+annot derive any +hara+teri*ti+ o0 ?ren+h phi%o*ophy, the deve%op&

ent o0 (hi+h appear* deta+hed 0ro the hi*tori+a% +ondition* o0the ?ran+e o0 that period.

;et '* ta"e a* a 0'rther eap%e the de*+ription o0 the ri*e o0

#eran idea%i*t phi%o*ophy. A%eandrov (rite*F

#erany in the ei$hteenth and 0ir*t ha%0 o0 the nine&

teenth +ent'ry (a* a !a+"(ard +o'ntry (ith a rea+tionary

po%iti+a% re$ie. ?e'da%&*er0 and arti*an&$'i%d re%ation* pre&

vai%ed in it. At the end o0 the ei$hteenth +ent'ry the 'r!an

pop'%ation (a* %e** than E per +ent o0 the tota%, (hi%e the

arti*an* +on*tit'ted on%y 4 per +ent. /orve, 'it&rent, *er0&

do, and $'i%d re*tri+tion* hindered the deve%opent o0 the

e!ryoni+ +apita%i*t re%ation*. :oreover, the +o'ntry (a*

*p%it 'p into n'ero'* po%iti+a% *e$ent*.

/orade A%eandrov +ite* the per+enta$e o0 'r!an pop'%ation

in #erany to i%%'*trate the !a+"(ardne** o0 that +o'ntry and the

rea+tionary +hara+ter o0 it* *tate and *o+ia%&po%iti+a% *tr'+t're. B't inthat *ae period the 'r!an pop'%ation o0 ?ran+e (a* %e** than 18

per +ent o0 the (ho%e neverthe%e**, ?ran+e (a* not a !a+"(ard

0e'da% %and, a* (a* #erany, !'t the +enter o0 the !o'r$eoi* revo%'&

tionary oveent in 'rope. /on*e'ent%y, the per+enta$e o0 'r!an

pop'%ation it*e%0 doe* not ep%ain anythin$. :ore than that, the 0a+t

it*e%0 '*t !e ep%ained !y the +on+rete hi*tori+a% +ondition*. hi*,

too, i* an eap%e o0 the inept '*e o0 hi*tori+a% ateria% to ep%ain

the ri*e and deve%opent o0 one or another 0or o0 ideo%o$y.A%eandrov (rite* 0'rtherF

he o*t proinent ideo%o$i*t* o0 the #eran !o'r&

$eoi*ie o0 that period < >ant, and %ater ?i+hte and He$e%

A. A. Zhdanov - On the History of Philosophy.pdf

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