9/13/2015Bryan James Cowley M.A.1 California State Science Standards Grades 9-12 Chemistry Atomic and Molecular Structure 1. The periodic table displays.

04/19/23 Bryan James Cowley M.A. 1

California State Science Standards

Grades 9-12

Chemistry

Atomic and Molecular Structure

1. The periodic table displays the elements in increasing atomic number and shows how periodicity of the physical and chemical properties of the elements relates to atomic structure. As a basis for understanding this concept:

S1(9-10)B3

a. Students know how to relate the position of an element in the periodic table to its atomic number and atomic mass.

S1(9-10)B1.6

S1(9-10)B3.1

S1(9-10)B3.2

d. Students know how to use the periodic table to determine the number of electrons available for bonding.

S1(9-10)B1.5

S1(9-10)B3.1

S1(9-10)B3.4

e. Students know the nucleus of the atom is much smaller than the atom yet contains most of its mass.

S1(9-10)B1.1

S1(9-10)B1.4


California State Science StandardsGrades 9-12

Chemistry

Chemical Bonds

2. Biological, chemical, and physical properties of matter result from the ability of atoms to form bonds from electrostatic forces between electrons and protons and between atoms and molecules. As a basis for understanding this concept:

a. Students know atoms combine to form molecules by sharing electrons to form covalent or metallic bonds or by exchanging electrons to form ionic bonds.

S1(9-10)B5.1

b. Students know chemical bonds between atoms in molecules such as H2 , CH4 , NH3 , H2CCH2, N2 , Cl2 , and many large biological molecules are covalent.

S1(9-10)B5.1S1(11-12)B3S1(11-12)B4

Conservation of Matter and Stoichiometry

3. The conservation of atoms in chemical reactions leads to the principle of conservation of matter and the ability to calculate the mass of products and reactants. As a basis for understanding this concept:

S1(9-10)B8



ChemistryAcids and Bases

5. Acids, bases, and salts are three classes of compounds that form ions in water solutions. As a basis for understanding this concept:

S1(9-10)B5.6d. Students know how to use the pH scale to characterize acid and base solutions.

S1(9-10)B4.2S6(9-10)B2.2

Solutions

6. Solutions are homogenous mixtures of two or more substances. As a basis for understanding this concept:S1(9-10)B4

a. Students know the definitions of solute and solvent.S1(9-10)B4S1(9-10)B4.1

Chemical Thermodynamics

7. Energy is exchanged or transformed in all chemical reactions and physical changes of matter. As a basis for understanding this concept:

b. Students know chemical processes can either release (exothermic) or absorb (endothermic) thermal energy.S1(9-10)B7.5S1(9-10)B9.2



ChemistryReaction Rates

8. Chemical reaction rates depend on factors that influence the frequency of collision of reactant molecules. As a basis for understanding this concept:

S1(9-10)B6.3c. Students know the role a catalyst plays in increasing the reaction rate.

S1(9-10)B6.6

Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry

10. The bonding characteristics of carbon allow the formation of many different organic molecules of varied sizes, shapes, and chemical properties and provide the biochemical basis of life. As a basis for understanding this concept:

S1(9-10)B5.7

a. Students know large molecules (polymers), such as proteins, nucleic acids, and starch, are formed by repetitive combinations of simple subunits.

S1(9-10)B5.7S1(11-12)B3

b. Students know the bonding characteristics of carbon that result in the formation of a large variety of structures ranging from simple hydrocarbons to complex polymers and biological molecules.

S1(9-10)B5.7S1(11-12)B3

c. Students know amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.S1(9-10)B5.7S1(11-12)B3S2(9-10)B2.5


SAN JOSE UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT

SCIENCE CONTENT STANDARD, BENCHMARKS, AND KNOWLEDGE SKILLS

S1 THE STUDENT UNDERSTANDS AND APPLIES THE CONCEPTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

S1(9-10)B1 Knows the structure of an atom

S1(9-10)B1.1 Understands that the nucleus contains most of an atom’s mass (e.g., consisting of protons and neutrons; electrons have little mass but fill most of the space; atomic mass, atomic mass units, mass of electrons)

S1(9-10)B1.2 Understands that in a neutrally charged atom, positive charges (protons) equal negative charges (electrons); an electrically charged ion is formed when an atom gains or loses negative charge

S1(9-10)B1.3 Understands how electrical forces between the nucleus and electrons hold the atom together

S1(9-10)B1.5 Understands how the spatial arrangement and energy of electrons in an atom determines the chemical properties of the atom

S1(9-10)B1.6 Understands how isotopes of an element vary

S1(9-10)B2 Understands how the properties of solids, liquids and gases are determined by the forces between their particles and the amount of energy these particles possess

S1(9-10)B2.1 Understands that due to their kinetic energy, particles (atoms, molecules, ions) of matter are in constant, random motion; the higher the temperature, the faster they move.

S1(9-10)B2.2 Understands that inter-molecular forces between particles are weaker in liquids than in solids; there are no inter-molecular forces between particles of a gas

S1(9-10)B2.4 Understands how the random motion of particles explains diffusion of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration


SAN JOSE UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICTSCIENCE CONTENT STANDARD, BENCHMARKS, AND KNOWLEDGE SKILLSS1 THE STUDENT UNDERSTANDS AND APPLIES THE CONCEPTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE. S1(9-10)B3 Understands how elements are arranged in the periodic table with repeating patterns among elements with similar propertiesS1(9-10)B3.1 Understands how information about an element can be determined from the Periodic Table (e.g., atomic number, atomic mass, number of electrons or neutrons)S1(9-10)B3.2 Understands periodicity and how the position of an element in the Periodic Table relates to its atomic number and atomic mass.S1(9-10)B3.3 Understands how the Periodic Table can be used to identify the physical properties of elements (e.g., metal, non-metals, metalloids, solids, gases, halogens, alkali, alkaline earth metals)S1(9-10)B3.4 Understands how the Periodic Table can be used to identify the chemical properties of elements (e.g., acid-forming, base-forming, number of electrons in outermost energy levels, reactivity with other elements in the table) S1(9-10)B4 Understands that solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances.S1(9-10)B4.1 Understands how the dissolving process results from the random motion of solute particles among particles of solvent (e.g., solid/liquid, liquid/liquid, gas/liquid) S1(9-10)B5 Understands that the chemical and physical properties of matter result from the ability of atoms to form bonds, creating many different kinds of compoundsS1(9-10)B5.1 Understands how two or more atoms combine to form molecules by sharing electrons to form covalent or metallic bonds, or by exchanging electrons to form ionic bonds.S1(9-10)B5.2 Understands chemical symbols, simple formulas and nomenclature that represent atoms, molecules and compounds (e.g., Lewis dot, Na+, C6H12O6, NH4+, symbols for isotopes, sodium chloride)S1(9-10)B5.6 Understands that acids, bases and salts are three classes of compounds that form ions in water solution (e.g., hydrogen ion donating/accepting ions, strong/weak acids and bases, pH scale characterizes acid/base solutions)S1(9-10)B5.7 Understands that carbon compounds formulate the biochemical basis of life on earth (e.g., hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids)


• SAN JOSE UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT

• SCIENCE CONTENT STANDARD, BENCHMARKS, AND KNOWLEDGE SKILLS

• S1 THE STUDENT UNDERSTANDS AND APPLIES THE CONCEPTS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

•

•

• S1(9-10)B6 Understands that chemical reactions can take place at different rates and depend on a variety of factors

• S1(9-10)B6.1 Understands chemical reactions (e.g., reactants, products, representation by chemical equation)

• S1(9-10)B6.4 Understands how adding heat or light (endothermic) to reactants increases their kinetic energy and rate at which reactant molecules collide.

• S1(9-10)B6.6 Understands the role of a catalyst/enzyme in increasing the rate of a chemical/biochemical reaction

•

• S1(9-10)B7 Understands different types of chemical reactions and their roles in physical and biological processes

• S1(9-10)B7.1 Understands that in a synthesis reaction, two or more substances combine to form a new compound (e.g., A+X-->AX; C+O2-->CO2 ; formation of acid rain; protein synthesis)

• S1(9-10)B7.2 Understands that in a decomposition reaction, a single compound produces two new compounds (e.g., AX--> A+X; 2H2O--> 2H2 + O2 ; decomposition of glucose during cellular respiration, biological decay; electrolysis of water)

• S1(9-10)B7.3 Understands that in a single replacement reaction, one element replaces another similar element from a compound (e.g., A+BX--> AX+B; Y+BX-->BY+X;

• Mg + 2HCl-->H2 + MgCl2 ; oxygen uptake by hemoglobin)

•

• S1(9-10)B7.5 Understands that endothermic reactions require energy; exothermic reactions release energy

•

• S1(9-10)B8 Understands that matter is conserved during a chemical reaction

•

• S1(9-10)B9 Understands that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another

•


ATOMS AND MOLECULES

• In 1805 English chemist John Dalton presented evidence that matter is made of tiny particles called atoms

• In 1897 3 types of subatomic particle were discovered


ATOMS AND MOLECULES

The PROTON is positively charged • Comprises one half of the nucleus • Atoms of every element have at one least proton

The NEUTRON has a neutral electrical charge• The other half of the atom’s nucleus

The ELECTRON is a negatively charged • Particle that rapidly orbits an atom’s nucleus

• An atom’s charge (+ or -) is determined by whether it has more protons or electrons.

• When two or more atoms (from either the same or different elements) bond a MOLECULE is formed.


Helium atom

2

2

2

Protons

Neutrons

Electrons

Nucleus

ATOMS AND MOLECULES


MATTER

• Matter has mass and takes up space. • Matter exists in 3 “states” on earth.

• SOLID has definite shape and volume.• LIQUID definite volume, not definite

shape.• GAS has neither definite shape nor

volume.• PLASMA is a 4th state found only in the hottest stars.


PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• PHYSICAL properties (e.g. color, boiling point, hardness)

• CHEMICAL properties (e.g. it’s ability to interact with other matter)

• Matter undergoes physical change when it changes state.

• A chemical change, or reaction, alters the matter composition.


LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER

• MATTER IS NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED

• Even after a chemical reaction the amount of matter remains constant.


LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

• ENERGY IS NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED


ENERGY LEVELS(electron shells)

• Electrons orbit the atom nucleus at various ENERGY LEVELS

• Some atoms may have up to eight energy levels.

• The level closest to the nucleus has the least energy. The further the level is from the nucleus the more energy it has.



• When the maximum number of the electrons occupy the outer level that atom is said to be STABLE and unreactive

• The outermost energy level determines the chemical properties of an atom

• In most atoms, a full outer level holds eight electrons



HYDROGEN (H)Atomic number = 1

CARBON (C)Atomic number = 6

NITROGEN (N)Atomic number = 7

OXYGEN (O)Atomic number = 8

Electron

Outermost electron shell (can hold 8 electrons)

First electron shell (can hold 2 electrons)


ELEMENTS

• An ELEMENT is the matter comprised of only one type of atom

• element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means

• There are 94 naturally occurring elements


ELEMENTS

• Every element has one or two letter abbreviation based on the first one or two letters in it's name. For example, H stands for the English word Hydrogen, W stands for the German word Wolfram (Tungsten), Ag stands for the Latin word Argentum (Silver).


ATOMIC MASS & NUMBER

• An element's ATOMIC NUMBER is the number of protons in it's nucleus. This number never varies

• An element's ATOMIC MASS is equal to

the sum of protons and neutrons in it's nucleus. Since the number of neutrons in an element's nucleus does vary so does it's mass


ISOTOPE

• An element with more or less than the standard number of neutrons is called an ISOTOPE.

• Isotopes names list the number of the neutrons after the element name (i.e. Carbon-14).


COMPOUNDS

• An atom whose outer energy level is not filled may share or transfer electrons with another atom and form a CHEMICAL BOND

When two or more atoms from different elements bond a COMPOUND is formed.


CHEMICAL BONDS

• There are two types of chemical bonds.

• COVALENT BONDS result when two or more atoms share electrons. If only two atoms are bonded this way they form a diatomic

molecule.

• IONIC BONDS result when an atom accepts or donates an electron to another atom. The atom that gains an electron becomes positively charged

while the atom that looses an electron becomes negatively charged.

These electrically charged atoms are called IONS.


IONIC BOND

NaSodium atom

ClChlorine atom

Na+

Sodium ionCl–

Chloride ion

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Na Cl Na Cl

+–


IONIC BOND

Na+

Cl–

•Sodium and chloride ions bond to form sodium chloride, common table salt


BONDS IN H2O

Hydrogen bond

ICEHydrogen bonds are stable

LIQUID WATERHydrogen bonds constantly

break and re-form



UNDERSTANDING NOTATION• Chemical formulas show the elements that

make up a compound, 6H2O• The number of atoms is expressed as

subscript, 6H2O.• The number of molecules is a coefficient that

precedes the formula, 6H2O.


STRUCTURAL FORMULAS• Show the number and kind of atoms in one

molecule of a compound

• Shows how the atoms are attached to one another


CARBON SKELETONS

Ethane PropaneCarbon skeletons vary in length.

Butane IsobutaneSkeletons may be unbranched or branched.

1-Butene 2-ButeneSkeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in location.

Cyclohexane BenzeneSkeletons may be arranged in rings.


MIXTURES

• Matter is either classified as a pure substance (one kind of element or compound) or a mixture (two or more pure substances).

• In a mixture each pure substance retains it's own chemical identity.

• Each pure substance in the mixture can be physically separated (i.e. filtration or evaporation).


MIXTURES

• Mixtures may be either:

HOMOGENOUS, where all substances are evenly mixed, or

HETEROGENOUS, where concentrations vary through out the mixture.


3 KINDS OF MIXTURES

• The three kinds of mixture are: SOLUTION SUSPENSION COLLOID


SOLUTION

• SOLUTION is a homogenous mixture where one substance dissolves in another. SOLUTE is the substance that dissolves. SOLVENT is the substance that does the

dissolving.


SOLUTION

• Solutions are the "best mixed" mixture.

• A solution is SATURATED when no more solute will dissolve.

• DISSOCIATION is the process where ionic compounds separate into individual ions which enter the solution.


SOLUTION


SUSPENSION

• A SUSPENSION is a heterogeneous mixture whose substances do not mix completely.

• Most substances "settle out” of the mixture.

• Those that do not settle are suspended

giving the mixture a cloudy appearance.


COLLOID

• A homogenous mixture whose particles are larger than those in a solution but smaller than those in a suspension.

• Colloidal particles may be groups of atoms,

ions, molecules or even a single giant molecule.

• Examples include, cytoplasm, gelatin and homogenized milk.


WATER

•Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule may share electrons equally, creating a nonpolar molecule

•If electrons are shared unequally, a polar molecule is created

•Water is polar


WATER

–This makes the oxygen end of the molecule slightly negatively charged

–The hydrogen end of the molecule is slightly positively charged

–Water is therefore a polar molecule


WATER

(–)

O

(–)

(+)(+)

H H

•In a water molecule, oxygen exerts a stronger pull on the shared electrons than hydrogen


Water’s polarity leads to hydrogen bonding and other unusual properties

Hydrogen bond

•The charged regions on water molecules are attracted to the oppositely charged regions on nearby molecules

–This attraction forms weak bonds called hydrogen bonds


Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive

•Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules can move from a plant’s roots to its leaves

•Insects can walk on water due to surface tension created by cohesive water molecules


Ions in solution

Salt crystal

Cl–

Na+

Cl–

Na+

•Solutes whose charges or polarity allow them to stick to water molecules dissolve in water

–They form aqueous solutions

WATER IS A VERSATILE SOLVENT


ACIDS AND BASES

•A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is an acid, and one that accepts H+ ions in solution is a base

•Acidity is measured on the pH scale:

–0-7 is acidic

–8-14 is basic

–Pure water and solutions that are neither basic nor acidic are neutral, with a pH of 7


pH Scale

Acidic solution

Neutral solution

Basic solution

Incr

easi

ng

ly A

CID

IC(H

igh

er c

on

cen

trat

ion

of

H+)

Incr

easi

ng

ly B

AS

IC(L

ow

er

con

cen

trat

ion

of

H+)

NEUTRAL[H+] = [OH–]

Lemon juice; gastric juice

Grapefruit juice

Tomato juice

Urine

PURE WATER

Seawater

Milk of magnesia

Household ammonia

Household bleach

Oven cleaner

Human blood

H+

OH–


pH and cells

•Cells are kept close to pH 7 by buffers

•Buffers are substances that resist pH change

–They accept H+ ions when they are in excess and donate H+ ions when they are depleted

–Buffers are not foolproof

9/13/2015Bryan James Cowley M.A.1 California State Science Standards Grades 9-12 Chemistry Atomic and Molecular Structure 1. The periodic table displays.

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