8569528 Chapter 11 Stratification by Gender and Age

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11STRATIFICATION BY GENDER AND AGESTRATIFICATION BY GENDER AND AGE

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Chapter Outline

• Social Construction of Gender• Explaining Stratification by Gender• Women: The Oppressed Majority• Aging and Society• Explaining the Aging Process• Age Stratification in the United States• Social Policy and Gender Stratification: T

he Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective

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Social Construction of Gender

•Gender roles are expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females.

•Gender roles are evident in our work and also in how we react to others.

Gender Roles in the United States

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Social Construction of Gender

Gender-Role Socialization

--Boys must be:

masculine

aggressive

tough

daring

dominant

Gender Roles in the United States

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Social Construction of Gender

Gender-Role Socialization--Girls must be:

femininesoftemotionalsweetsubmissive

Gender Roles in the United States

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Social Construction of Gender

Women’s and Men’s Gender Roles

--Self-image develops in males and females through:

identification with the same gender

families

media

Gender Roles in the United States

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Explaining Stratification by Gender

•Gender differentiation contributes to social stability.

•Women take on expressive, emotionally supportive roles.

•Men take on instrumental, practical roles.

The Functionalist View

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Explaining Stratification by Gender

•The relationship between men and women is one of unequal power.

•Men have a dominant position over women.

•Gender differences are a result of the subjugation of women by men.

The Conflict Response

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Explaining Stratification by Gender

•This perspective often views women’s subordination as part of the overall exploitation and injustice in capitalist societies.•This perspective sometimes argues that women’s subjugation coincided with the rise of private property during industrialization.

The Feminist Perspective

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Explaining Stratification by Gender

•This approach focuses on everyday behavior.

--Men are more likely than women to:

change topics of conversation

ignore topics chosen by women

minimize ideas of women

interrupt women

The Interactionist Approach

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Sexism

--Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other.

--Sexism is generally used to refer to male prejudice and discrimination against women.

Sexism and Sex Discrimination

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Sexual Harassment: Behavior that occurs when work benefits are made contingent on sexual favors or when touching, lewd comments, or the appearance of pornographic material creates a “hostile environment” in the workplace.Sexual harassment must be understood in the context of continuing prejudice and discrimination against women.

Sexual Harassment

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

•Women’s subordination is institutionally sanctioned.

•Women remain in second-class positions in most of the world.

•Women are exploited for labor in many developing countries.

The Status of Women Worldwide

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Figure 11.1: Percentage of Adult Women in the Paid Labor Force by Country

Japanese women have had a high level of participation in the labor force for 40 years.

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Mapping Life Worldwide: Female/Male Inequality

Source: John H. Allen. 1999. Student Atlas of World Geography. New York: Duskin/McGraw-Hill, map 27 on p. 45.

The Female/Male InequalityGap in the Monied Workforceand in Secondary Education

Least inequalityLess inequalityAverage inequalityMore inequalityMost inequalityNo data

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Country PercentMexico 42.1Netherlands 64.5New Zealand 67.7Norway 78.3Poland 59.0Portugal 66.8Spain 48.9Sweden 74.6Switzerland 70.3Turkey 34.0United Kingdom 67.5United States 71.7

Country PercentAustralia 64.4Canada 69.6Czech Republic 64.9Denmark 75.8Finland 71.3France 60.8Germany 62.8Hungary 52.1Ireland 54.9Italy 46.0Japan 63.8Korea, South 53.1Luxembourg 64.6

Female Labor Force Participation Rates by Country 1999

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. Statistical Abstract of the United States 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Table 1354 on p. 848. Also accessible at http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/01statab/stat-ab01.html.

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

•Women’s participation in the paid labor force of the United States increased steadily throughout the twentieth century.

•Yet, women entering the job market find their options restricted in important ways.

•Women are underrepresented in occupations historically defined as “men’s jobs,” which often pay more.

Continued….

Women in the Workforce of the United States

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

•Glass Ceiling: An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the person’s gender, race, or ethnicity.

•These workplace patterns have one crucial result: women earn less money than men.

•Women are more likely to be poor than men.

Women in the Workforce of the United States

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

•Social Consequences of Women’s Employment

--The “Second Shift”: The double burden that working women face—work outside the home followed by child care and housework—and which few men share equitably.

--Studies indicate that there continues to be a clear gender gap in the performance of housework, although the differences are narrowing.

--Taken together, a woman’s workday on and off the job is much longer than a man’s.

Women in the Workforce of the United States

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Figure 11.2: Trends in U.S. Women’s Participation in the Paid Labor Force, 1890--1999

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Figure 11.3: Gender Differences in Child Care and Housework, 1997

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

Relative Earnings and Proportion of Bachelor’s Degree HoldersWho are Women by Field of Training, 1996

(Percents are based onwomen and men aged 18and older, whose highestdegree is a bachelor’sdegree, with earnings, employed full-time for the previous 4 months)

80.5

72.6

65.9

49.3

58.6

48.8

70.348.4

70.2

33.7

67.3

15.4

87.9

38.5

Education

Science

Social science

Liberal arts

Business

Engineering

Other

Women’s earnings asa percent of men’s

Percent women in field

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. The Population Profile of the United States: 2000. Figure 9-4. (Internet Release) accessed at http://www.census.gov/population/www/pro-profile/profile2000.html#cont.

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Women: The Oppressed Majority

•The feminist movement of the United States originated in upstate New York in 1848.

•Early concerns were political and legal equality for women.

•The movement re-emerged in the 1960s to battle sexist attitudes and the position of women in the workforce.

•Feminism is very much alive today in the growing acceptance of women in nontraditional roles and even the basic acknowledgment that a married mother not only can be working outside the home but also perhaps belongs in the labor force.

Women: Emergence of a Collective Consciousness

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Aging and Society

•“Being old” is a master status that commonly overshadows all others in the United States.

•Once individuals are labeled as “old,” this designation has a major impact on how others perceive them and how individuals view themselves.

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Aging and Society

Mapping Life Worldwide: World Population by Age Groups

Source: John H. Allen. 1999. Student Atlas of World Geography. New York: Duskin/McGraw-Hill, map 24, p. 42.

Percent of Population inSpecific Age Groups(years) Estimate for 2000

More than 40% below age 15Between 30% and 40%below age 15More than 60% between ages 15 and 65More than 10% above age 65No data

Countries in two colors belong totwo of the indicated categories.

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Aging and Society2010 Projection

CountryUnder 15

yrs old65 yrs oldand over

Egypt 34.9 5.2

Ethiopia 60.3 3.6

France 18.0 17.3

Germany 14.3 20.1

India 33.6 6.1

Indonesia 31.9 6.7

Iran 28.5 5.3

Iraq 50.3 3.9

Italy 13.1 20.5

Japan 14.5 21.9

Kenya 38.0 3.7

2010 Projection

CountryUnder 15

yrs old65 yrs oldand over

World 30.0 8.6

Argentina 27.3 12.3

Australia 20.4 15.3

Bangladesh 34.5 4.5

Brazil 26.4 7.5

Cambodia 47.3 4.5

Canada 18.2 15.5

Chile 25.1 10.2

China 22.5 8.9

Colombia 33.1 6.6

Cuba 18.1 12.5Age Distribution by Country: 2010 Projection (in percent)

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. Statistical Abstract of the United States 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Table 1328 on p. 834. Also accessible at http:www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/01statab/stat-ab01.html.

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Aging and Society2010 Projection

CountryUnder 15

yrs old65 yrs oldand over

Malaysia 37.2 6.1

Mexico 33.2 6.3

Netherlands 17.6 16.0

Nigeria 53.5 3.8

Pakistan 41.9 5.3

Peru 34.3 6.7

Philippines 40.1 5.2

Poland 15.7 13.2

Russia 14.9 12.7

Saudi Arabia 58.0 5.1

2010 Projection

CountryUnder 15

yrs old65 yrs oldand over

South Africa 26.8 5.8

Spain 13.9 18.5

Syria 44.8 4.3

Thailand 23.7 9.2

Turkey 26.2 8.1

Ukraine 14.4 13.9

United Kingdom 17.1 17.0

United States21.6 14.4

Venezuela 30.7 6.6Age Distribution by Country: 2010 Projection (in percent) continued

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. Statistical Abstract of the United States 2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Table 1328 on p. 834. Also accessible at http:www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/01statab/stat-ab01.html.

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Explaining the Aging Process

Functionalist Approach

Disengagement Theory

--Society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships. Thus social roles are passed to another generation.

--The passing of social roles to another generation ensures social stability.

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Explaining the Aging Process

Interactionist Approach

Activity Theory

--This theory argues that the elderly persons who remain active and socially involved will be the best-adjusted.

--This theory contends that old people have the same need for social interaction as other groups.

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Explaining the Aging Process

The Conflict Approach

•The treatment of older people in the United States reflects the many divisions in society.

•The low status of older people is seen in the prejudice and discrimination against them:

age segregation

unfair job practices

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Age Stratification in the United StatesThe Graying of America

•We are, as a nation, getting older.

•In 1900, 4.1% of the population of the United States was age 65 or older.

•By 2003, 12.6 % of the population of the United States will be age 65 or older.

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Age Stratification in the United States

Competition in the Labor Force•Older workers face discrimination in the labor force.

•Younger adults tend to view older workers as “job stealers.”

•Older workers face discrimination when applying for jobs.

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Age Stratification in the United States

Figure 11.4: Actual and Projected Growth of the Elderly Population of the United States

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Age Stratification in the United States

Population 65 Years of Age and Over: United States, 1950-2030

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030Year

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70Number in millions

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. The Population Profile of the United States: 2000. Figure 9-4. (Internet Release) accessed at http://www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/profile2000.html#cont.

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Age Stratification in the United States

Figure 11.5: Twenty-Six Floridas by 2025

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Age Stratification in the United States

Alone With Spouse With other relatives With nonrelatives

Women65-74 Years

75-84 Years

85 years and over

85 years and over

75-84 Years

Men65-74 Years

0 20 40 60 80 100Percent

Living Arrangements of Persons 65 Years of Age and Over by Age and Sex: United States, 1997Source: Kramarow E., Lentzner H., Rooks R., Weeks J., Saydah S.,. 1999. Health, United States, 1999. Healthand Aging Chartbook. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Figure 2 on p. 25.

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Age Stratification in the United States

Elderly

Nonelderly

Broken plaster orpeeling paint (interior)

Lacking some orall plumbing facilities

Open cracks orholes in interior

Missing roofingmaterial

Uncomfortably cold for 24hours or more last winter

Signs of mice inlast 3 months

Leakage frominside structure

Water notsafe to drink

Leakage fromoutside structure

1.73.0

1.81.3

2.96.2

3.23.8

4.38.0

4.77.5

5.410.6

5.611.0

9.713.0

Neighborhood Characteristics of Elderly and Non-Elderly Households, 1999Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. The Population Profile of the United States: 2000. Figure 7-4. (Internet Release) accessed at http:www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/profile2000.html#cont.

Housing units

Note: Elderlyhouseholdersare those aged65 and older

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Age Stratification in the United States

Household Characteristics of Elderly and Non-Elderly Households, 1999Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. The Population Profile of the United States: 2000. Figure 7-4. (Internet Release) accessed at http:www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/profile2000.html#cont.

Elderly

Nonelderly

Major accumulation oftrash within 300 feet

Bothersome odorsin neighborhood

Major street repairsneeded within 300 feet

Unsatisfactorypolice protection

Bothersomestreet noise

Neighborhoodcrime present

No car, truck, orvan available

Unsatisfactoryneighborhood shopping

No public transportationavailable

2.7

2.94.2

4.95.5

6.58.1

8.512.3

10.215.4

17.17.2

19.216.0

43.147.4

Neighborhoods

Note: Elderlyhouseholdersare those aged65 and older

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Age Stratification in the United States

Percent Recession

1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 20000

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

18 to 64 years

16.2 percent

10.2 percent

Under 18years

65 years and over

9.4 percent

Note: The data points represent the midpoints of the respective years. The latestrecession began in July 1990 and ended in March 1991. Data for people 18 to 64 and older are not available from 1960 to 1965.

Poverty Rates by Age: 1959--2000

Source: Figure in Joseph Dalaker. 2001. Poverty in the United States: 2000. Current Population Reports Series P60-214. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Also accessible at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty00.html.

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Age Stratification in the United StatesThe Elderly: Emergence of a

Collective Consciousness

•Awareness of the social power of the elderly has been growing.

•AARP—the largest organization representing the elderly—has enormous power and is the third largest volunteer organization in the United States.

•The elderly in the United States are better off today financially and physically than ever before.

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Social Policy and Gender StratificationThe Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective

The Issue

--Roe vs. Wade, 1973, was based on a woman’s right to privacy and granted a woman the right to terminate pregnancies.

--The ruling was condemned by pro-life groups who believe that life actually begins at the moment of conception and that abortion is an act of murder.

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Social Policy and Gender StratificationThe Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective

The Setting

--The debate following Roe vs. Wade revolves around prohibiting abortion altogether or, at the very least, putting limits on it.

--Changing technology, such as the “day-after” pill available in some nations, make abortions easier to perform, even the day after conception.

--The people of the United States appear to support their right to a legal abortion, but with reservations.

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

Figure 11.6: Restrictions on Public Funding for Abortion

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Social Policy and Gender StratificationThe Battle over Abortion from a

Global Perspective•Sociological Insights

--Sociologists see gender and social class as largely defining the issues surrounding abortion.

--The intense conflict over abortion reflects broader differences over women’s position in society.

--In terms of social class, the first major restriction on the legal right to abortion affected poor people.

--Viewed from a conflict perspective, this is one more financial burden that falls especially heavily on low-income women.

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Social Policy and Gender StratificationThe Battle over Abortion from a

Global PerspectivePolicy Initiatives

--The Supreme Court currently supports the general right to terminate a pregnancy by a narrow margin.

--Many European nations also legalized abortions in the 1970s, although Ireland, Belgium, and Malta continue to ban it.

--It is primarily in Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia that women are not allowed to terminate a pregnancy upon request.

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Social Policy and Gender Stratification

Figure 11.7: The Global Divide on Abortion