7/28/2019 82 Pdfsam Public Opinion http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/82-pdfsam-public-opinion 1/20 personsin th e same social set, diffe:widelyasbetween s oc ia l s e ts , an d between two nations, or two colors, ma y differ to the point where there is no common assumption whatever. That is wh y people profess ing t he s am e s to ck of religious beliefs ca n go to war. Th e element of their beliefwhichdetermines conduct is that view of th e facts which they assume. rh~,,,,,,i~.",r~,,~I~,,,,£Q.'des,,,,,~eltte.r.,,.,s.Q,.,.,,suhtl¥r""an,d.~"§,Q,,,,~~!::;,,,",,. ~iIX.d,y_jtJltQ,,,,,~t.h~,~JI!~~i.!lg,,,=QL,J2.g,1?J!.f~c,,,~P~.~,~.~~;r"J:h~~<,~,", ~~rthog<2,~l1eO!Y . Jl91g§~!h~J", a__ 2.llbli,~~.=QpilliQn,o-.J:Q!l::",_. ~ilitYJ~e.§.'h,,3_mQti!JE£!g!E$~.n.t~~gE2~1~,,<~L..f~s'7~~:'~~ Ih~,,",,c,,. ~h~rl:J~J!m.;§llggt~<tLll.gj,~"~!h~!~~j,,n~,",!It£;,;.J2r£~~;l1,L~.~X,~,!~ ~.fi£~J:~1~G~tri~i~:1~:::~~i~~ t~~~" ,.pa tern "of . ster~Q!Y12~~.,,.@;,tJ>b~~_~,eXl.tet~._QL .. JJ.t.~ 'co~rar&~y~d;W:~i~:~~~ £ :~~,!£.,.~£,"L~;S,!.~ . ,.Yf~.;.,~.h:~J! see, an d In ~hatJ,!g1it",~f~~ljill,""~;~;~""~!h~mJ"".",,,,,Tha t IS "=~""""""""';~"_",,4''''''''''''''',",,,''' • .' 1"h 1· ~ , with th_U~!.j£lll~Ul,,,,th.e;;.»LQt. d,J"e,.n;e~S,;I2Q.l£,y';~; of a'j ou~~rtc!~"~,;.'!~.,".,~~El~,2!;!.';;;.i!,§,,,,,;~£i~~,ri~1 ,.,I?-g1!,S,~i wliy '-a"c'apitalist sees one se t of facts, an d certain aspects of human nature, literally sees them; his socialist o pp on en t a no th er s et an d other aspects, an d wh y each regards t he o th er as unreasonable. or perverse, when th e real difference between them IS a difference of perception. ,TJ!f!l ..~liJf~reDs~,j§jmpQ§~~t. by th~~.iffer~n.ce_het:.weetl-t-h€-"'Gapi..talis.'t"",an.d".s.Qd,~!!~~,~,~ patt~E!1'd.'"<Q.f_~l~r~QJ:¥.pes. e, <" "There ar e no classes In A m ~ ~ i c a " writes an American editor. "The history of all hitherto existing society is th e history of class struggles," says the Communist Ma ni fe st o. I.f you have th e edi tor's pattern in your mind, you will see vividly th e facts that confirm it , vaguely an d inef- PUBLIC OPINION ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f - ~ , ~ i ~ ~ ~ ! - p r o - _ "'''''"''''''''''''''',c",.'"",<"',)"w'''H"""~g'"n",,,,,",,",,,,,,It<~."""'."~I,;"","-",~"""",J"n!,~,tn"~ltl,£lU,,.al. " At tIi'e" ~.'~",~B,~,~Xi,2f"<;e,<;h""~t~~J:~,j§",~.,,p~tt~xnc,,Q[,,,§'!~~91iP~~~ ,R§~&ih,Qlog¥" ..,SQCUJIQg¥,r6,cU:ld-" histQ-t,.y:.'". '"",,.~Ihe"..§.,iUllLview ofh n ma n na t r --, ,1· ti t ti di . 1' - - . . _ ~ ": " ".Yo", """""".lLeo,,,,.,11S,.1,,.?U,,,lQllS.,,Q,J::,,,,t.t£1, . ,,,!,U,Q,!1,,,r,Q:t.k, ¥ ~ ~ J : : _ "!.~l§,t§"fi,thtQng~, . ,,~d,t,,Q.yt.,.';.'c'Qdes,.,n.',.. Compare, for example, th e economic an d th e patriotic codes. There is a wa r ~ u p p o ~ e d to affect all alike. Two men ar e part- ners In business, On e enlis ts, th e other takes a wa r can trac: t .. Th e soldier sacrifices everything, perhaps even hIS hfe. He is paid a dollar a day, an d no one says, no on e believes, that you could make a better soldier out of hi m by an y form of economic incentive. That motive disappears ou t of his human .nature, Th e cantractor sacrifices very little, is paid a hand- some profit over costs, an d few sa y or b el ie ve that he would p ro du ce t he m un it io ns if there were no economic incentive. .That may be unfair to him. Th e P?int is that th e accepted patriotic code assumes one kind of human nature, the c om me rc ia l code another. And the codes ar e probably f ou nd ed on true expectations to this extent, that when a ma n adopts a certain code he tends to exhibit th e kind of human nature which th e code demands. .That is one reason wh y it is so dangerous to gener alize about human nature. A loving father can be a sour boss, an earnest municipal reformer an d a . .. , rapacrous JIngo abroad. Hi s family life his business career, politics, .and his fo re ig n p~licy rest on totally dIfferent versions of what others are like an d ?f how he should act. These versions differ by codes In th e same person, th e codes differ somewhat among CO DES AND THEIR ENEMIES 12 5
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persons in the same social set, diffe: widely as between
social sets, and between two nations, or two colors,
may differ to the point where there is no common
assumption whatever. That is why people profess
ing the same s tock of religious beliefs can go to war.
The element of their beliefwhich determines conductis that view of the facts which they assume.
r h ~ , , , , , , i ~ . " , r ~ , , ~ I ~ , , , , £ Q . ' d e s , , , , , ~ e l t t e . r . , , . , s . Q , . , . , , s u h t l ¥ r " " a n , d . ~ " § , Q , , , , ~ ~ ! : : ; , , , " , , .~ i I X . d , y _ j t J l t Q , , , , , ~ t . h ~ , ~ J I ! ~ ~ i . ! l g , , , = Q L , J 2 . g , 1 ? J ! . f ~ c , , , ~ P ~ . ~ , ~ . ~ ~ ; r " J : h ~ ~ < , ~ , " ,
~ ~ r t h o g < 2 , ~ l 1 e O ! Y . J l 9 1 g § ~ ! h ~ J " , a__ 2 . l l b l i , ~ ~ . = Q p i l l i Q n , o - . J : Q ! l : : " , _ .~ i l i t Y J ~ e . § . ' h , , 3 _ m Q t i ! J E £ ! g ! E $ ~ . n . t ~ ~ g E 2 ~ 1 ~ , , < ~ L . . f ~ s ' 7 ~ ~ : ' ~ ~ I h ~ , , " , , c , , .
~ h ~ r l : J ~ J ! m . ; § l l g g t ~ < t L l l . g j , ~ " ~ ! h ~ ! ~ ~ j , , n ~ , " , ! I t £ ; , ; . J 2 r £ ~ ~ ; l 1 , L ~ . ~ X , ~ , ! ~~ . f i £ ~ J : ~ 1 ~ G ~ t r i ~ i ~ : 1 ~ : : : ~ ~ i ~ ~
t ~ ~ ~ ",.pa
t e r n"of
. s t e r ~ Q ! Y 1 2 ~ ~ . , , . @ ; , t J > b ~ ~ _ ~ , e X l . t e t ~ . _ Q L..
J J . t . ~' c o ~ r a r & ~ y ~ d ; W : ~ i ~ : ~ ~ ~ £ : ~ ~ , ! £ . , . ~ £ , " L ~ ; S , ! . ~ . , . Y f ~ . ; . , ~ . h : ~ J !see, and In ~ h a t J , ! g 1 i t " , ~ f ~ ~ l j i l l , " " ~ ; ~ ; ~ " " ~ ! h ~ m J " " . " , , , , , T h a t IS
" = ~ " " " " " " " " ' ; ~ " _ " , , 4 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' , " , , , ' ' ' • .' 1 " h 1·~ , with t h _ U ~ ! . j £ l l l ~ U l , , , , t h . e ; ; . » L Q t . d , J " e , . n ; e ~ S , ; I 2 Q . l £ , y ' ; ~ ;of a'j o u ~ ~ r t c ! ~ " ~ , ; . ' ! ~ . , " . , ~ ~ E l ~ , 2 ! ; ! . ' ; ; ; . i ! , § , , , , , ; ~ £ i ~ ~ , r i ~ 1, . , I ? - g 1 ! , S , ~ iwliy '-a"c'apitalist sees one se t of facts, and certain
aspects of human nat ure, l iterally sees them; his
socialist opponen t ano ther set and other aspects,
and why each regards the o ther as unreasonable. or
perverse, when the real difference between them IS a
difference of perception. ,TJ!f!l.. ~ l i J f ~ r e D s ~ , j § j m p Q § ~ ~ t .by t h ~ ~ . i f f e r ~ n . c e _ h e t : . w e e t l - t - h € - " ' G a p i . . t a l i s . ' t " " , a n . d " . s . Q d , ~ ! ! ~ ~ , ~ , ~
p a t t ~ E ! 1 ' d . ' " < Q . f _ ~ l ~ r ~ Q J : ¥ . p e s . e, <" "There are no classes In
A m ~ ~ i c a " wri tes an American edi tor. "The history
of all hitherto existing society is the history of class
struggles," says the Communist Mani festo. I.f you
have the edi tor's pattern in your mind, you will see
vividly the facts that confirm it , vaguely and inef-
PUBLIC OPINION
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f - ~ , ~ i ~ ~ ~ ! - p r o - _" ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' , c " , . ' " " , < " ' , ) " w ' ' ' H " " " ~ g ' " n " , , , , , " , , " , , , , , , I t < ~ . " " " ' . " ~ I , ; " " , " - " , ~ " " " " , J " n ! , ~ , t n " ~ l t l , £ l U , , . a l . " At tIi'e"
~ . ' ~ " , ~ B , ~ , ~ X i , 2 f " < ; e , < ; h " " ~ t ~ ~ J : ~ , j § " , ~ . , , p ~ t t ~ x n c , , Q [ , , , § ' ! ~ ~ 9 1 i P ~ ~ ~, R § ~ & i h , Q l o g ¥ " ..,SQCUJIQg¥,r6,cU:ld-"histQ-t,.y:.'". ' " " , , . ~ I h e " . . § . , i U l l L v i e wofhn man na t r --, ,1· tit ti di . 1' - - . . _ ~": " ".Yo", """""".lLeo,,,,.,11S,.1,,.?U,,,lQllS.,,Q,J::,,,,t.t£1,. ,,,!,U,Q,!1,,,r,Q:t.k, ¥ ~ ~ J : : _
" ! . ~ l § , t § " f i , t h t Q n g ~ , . , , ~ d , t , , Q . y t . , . ' ; . ' c ' Q d e s , . , n . ' , . .Compare, for example,
the economic and the patriotic codes. There is a
war ~ u p p o ~ e d to affect all al ike. Two men are part-
ners In business, One enlis ts, the other t akes a war
can trac:t . . The soldier sacrifices everything, perhaps
even hIS hfe. He is paid a dollar a day, and no one
says, no one believes, that you could make a better
soldier out o fhim by any form of economic incentive.
That motive disappears ou t of his human .nature,
The cantractor sacrifices very li t tle, is paid a hand-
some profit over costs, and few say or believe that
he would produce the munit ions if there were no
economic incentive. .That may be unfair to him.
The P?int is that the accepted patriotic code assumes
one kind of human nature, the commercial code
another. And the codes are probably founded on
true expectations to this extent, that when a man
adopts a certain code he tends to exhibit the kind
of human nature which the code demands.
.That is one reason why it is so dangerous to generalize about human nature. A loving father can be a
sour boss, an earnest municipal reformer and a. .. ,rapacrous JIngo abroad. His family life his business
career, politics, .and his foreign p ~ l i c y rest on
totally dIfferent versions o f what others are like and
?f how he should act. These versions differ by codes
In the same person, the codes differ somewhat among
communist pattern, you wiIl no t only look for differ
en t t h i ~ g s , but you will see with a totally different
emphasis what you and the edi to r happen to see incommon.
5
A ~ , 9 : ~ .. § i q £ ~ . , . m . Y ..moral s r s . ~ ~ ~ . _ ~ . ~ ~ t ~ . g ! ? . . J ) 1 Y : a ~ c = ~ ! ~ ~ t .- : ~ I ' . § J Q n , Q f t h ~ J a c t s , who denies either...J J : L y _ ~ ~ 1
. J ~ · ~ g ! E - ~ ! ' ! . F ~ · · · g r ~ y , y e r s I o n ()f the. J'!sts..,i S".t2""mu er-···· .. y < : £ § ~ ~ . ~ ... ~ l ! $ 1 X b , ... J l ~ P : g ~ F ~ ~ ~ · How shall I accoun t 10rhim? The o p p o ~ e n t ha'salways to be explained, and
the last explanarion that we eve r look for is that he
s e ~ s a differ.ent set of facts. Such an explan,
anon we avoid, because it saps the very foundation
of ou r assurance t h ~ t we have seen life steadilyand seen It whole. It IS only when we are in thehabit of reco nizin o t i r o " ' r ' ~ " . . . .. ".".. "c •• ~ . - - . -__-; -
'__ " " " " ' _ ' ~ _ " d " . " . , . ~ g ' ' ' ' 7 C , . , ~ . , c ~ , g . " " , , , ~ " ~ p . J l ! 9 n ~ J ! § e . , . R ~ ~ ! : ~ a l experl-
~ o ~ ~ . , ~ § ~ , ~ ! l ~ . , ! h r Q J : ! g h . C ? u r .. ~ ! ~ ~ ~ o t y p e s tha t w e ~ m etrul 01 ran f . · . " C " ' " " ' ; = " ~ _ - - = ' •__' - ~ J " C 4 , ~ ~ Y : " , . c t... , . " ~ ~ ...., " , t " . Q , , . , e . ! } " . g p p o l l e l ? - ~ ~ WI t h o u ~ . t liabit
~ e ~ . " h e l i e ~ ~ i n , " , t h e , . " . a h s Q b J 1 i ~ 1 1 l · ~ ? f . § ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ " " Y l S i O n a m i" ~ ; ~ ~ ; ~ ~ , g ~ ~ ! } . d y ' ,!g .. , £ . h ~ ~ o ~ s : .char'ac'teroT-ail- ..·
~ p e ~ , ~ , ~ ; ! ~ , ~ ~ . : , " , .... , ~ , ~ E e..\\T . l ? ~ ~ c t ' : ~ ~ · . · i l 1 I i ' n g ' I o " · ' ~ ~ g ] I [ D l i a t -t , ~ e . r ~ ~ r e t.WQsICles to a '. quest ion," they donor'"
~ : i ~ ~ : ; ! h ~ ~ ~ r ~ J f : t ~ ~ ~ : t ~ b w ~ : ~ e ~ ~ e : :after long critical education, they are fully conscious
of how second-hand and subjective is their appre-
hension of their social data.
...! ~ ~ : ~ , ~ ~ 9 . " l e c ; , ~ i ? l ? : s . e e v i y i d l y . ~ ~ c ; ~ j t ~ , . Q ~ l 1. _ ~ a . s p , e , . c . t ~ a . n ~ :Qn.tri.¥e their .. ( ) i n , ~ . ~ ! ' p ~ ~ r i . ~ j i 9 ~ ~ ' . : : · Q ( " ~ h ; ' t ~
t h e ~ , , , , , s . e . e , . , . J l ~ , l S , , , . h ~ l m Q § . l i m . P 9 ~ s . , ! , ~ ! ~ for them to c r ~ a l ' f - ' "
each o ! l w : - E d L l l Q , . l l ~ . § l ~ ~ ~ , , " . " J J t h e . ~ , p ~ ! ! . ~ ~ " " B " ! ~ , , , . ! h ~ , ! E _~ ~ ~ n c e a ! " , , ~ r 2 £ i ~ a l . J 2 , £ i U ! t , ~ ~ ! h ~ Y ~ ~ " , e ! ! 2 , J , £ U . R ~ E . , , ; ! 2 g ~ ~ ~U ~ ~ , - ' U l J . n . t e . t R . t ~ ~ t ~ ~ ! i . 9 1 1 : ~ ~ .. b " ~ ) : J 9 , ~ ~ , , _ ~ p < ? 1 1 . It...((realit ." It may not resemble the reality, except
t at it culminates in a conclusion which :fits a real
experience. I may representmy trip from NewYorkto Boston by a straight line on a map, just as a man
may regard his triumph as the end of a straight and
narrow path. The road by which I actually went
to Boston may have involved many detours, much
turning and twisting, just as his road may. have
involved much besides pure enterprise, labor and
thrift. Bu t provided I reach Boston and he succeeds,
the airline and the s traigh t path will serve as ready
made charts. Only when somebody t ri es to follow
them and does no t arrive, do we have to answer
o b j e c ~ i o n s . If we insist on our charts, and h: insistson rejecting them, we soon tend to regard him as a
dangerous fool, and he to regard ?S as l i a r ~ and
hypocrites. Thus we gradually pamt portraIts of
each other. Fo r the opponent presents himself as
the man who says , evil be thou my good. He is an
annoyance who does not :fit into the scheme of
things. Neverthe1ess he interferes. And since that
scheme is based in our minds on incontrovertiblefact fortified by irresistible logic, some place has to
be found for him in the scheme. Rarely in politics
or indus tr ial disputes is a place made for him by the
simple admission that he has l o o k e ~ upon the same
It was no t merely a city that it would be desirable
to include within the Italian kingdom. It was
Italian. They fixed their whole mind upon the
Italian majority within the legal boundaries of the
city itself. The American delegates, having seen
more Italians in New York than there are in Fiumewithout regarding New York as Italian, fixed their
eyes on Fiume as a central European port of entry.
They saw vividly the Jugoslavs in the suburbs and
the non-Ita lian hinterland. Some of the Italians in
Paris were therefore in need of a convincing explana
tion of the American perversity. They found it in a
rumor which started, no one knows where, that an
influential American diplomat was in the snares of a
Jugoslav mistress. She had been seen. . .. He
had been seen. ...
At Versailles just off the boule
vard. . . . The villa with the large trees.
This is a rather common way of explaining away
opposition. In their more libelous form such charges
rarely reach the printed page, and a Roosevelt may
have to wai t years, or a Harding months, before he
can force an issue, and end a whispering campaign
that has reached into every circle of talk. Public
, men have to endure a fearful amount of poisonous
clubroom, dinner table, boudoir slander, repeated,r : e l a ~ o r a t e . d , chuckled ? v e ~ , and regarded as delicious.
) yvhtle t ~ I S sort thing IS, I believe, less prevalent
(J lI n America than In Europe, yet rare is the American
".... ' \ ' < t . " , , ~ . o ' fficial about whom somebody is no t repeating a",,'PIS'1 ~ ~ s c a n d a l .
' ' { f { ' l : r ' " ~ ' i - . ~ ~ L J h ~ __ P p o s i t i Q n " " w } y ' ~ _ ! ! t e k . ~ ~ _ y j : , J 1 ~ i . n ~ ... ~ n f t _ ~ o n -~ . E : , a ~ 2 : ' ~ If prices go up unmercifully the pro:---
fiteers have conspired; if the newspapers misrepre
sent the news, there is a capitalist plot ; if t he rich
are too rich, they have been stealing; if a closely
fought election is lost, the electorate was corrupted;
if a statesman does something of which you dis
approve, he has been bought or influenced by somediscreditable person. If workingmen are restless,
they are the victims of agita tors; if they are restless
over wide areas, t here is a conspiracy on foot. If
you do no t produce enough aeroplanes, it is the work
of spies; if there is t rouble in I reland, it is German
or Bolshevik "gold." And if you go stark, staring
mad looking for plots, you see all strikes, the Plumb
plan, Irish rebellion, Mohammedan unrest, the restor
ation of King Constantine, the League of Nations,
Mexican disorder, the movement to reduce armaments, Sunday movies, short skirts, evasion of the
liquor laws, Negro self-assertion, as sub-plots under
some grandiose plot engineered either by Moscow,
Rome, the Free Masons, the Japanese, or the Elders
~ K l ~ _ d i p l Q m J l t i ~ J , § " " . , , ~ Q m , p ~ 1 1 e d ~ tQ_ta.lk. au t l2gd to
, < = t h ~ " , . } , Y . ~ r r L l l g J l e , Q p l e s . " . J . e a t . n e d " h Q l Y . . J Q J 1 § . ~ ~ J l ! ! g e r ~ -. 1 9 I J r , , , , Q L . s t e r . e , Q , t ; , y , : , 1 1 ~ , § . ~ . , , . , , , , T h e y were dealing with a pre:-
carious alliance of powers, each of which was main-
taining it s war un ity only by the most careful
leadership. The ordinary soldier and his wife, heroic
and selfless beyond anything in the chronicles of
courage, were still no t heroic enough to face deathgladly for all the ideas which were said by the foreign
offices of foreign powers to be essentia l to the future
of civilization. There were ports, and mines, rocky
mountain passes, and villages that few soldiers
would willingly have crossed No Man's Land to
obtain for their allies.
Now it happened in one nation that the war
party which was in control of the foreign office,
the high command, and most of the press, had claims
on the terri tory of several of i ts neighbors. These
claims were called the Greater Ruritania by the
cuItivated classes who regarded Kipling, Treitschke,
and Maurice Barres as one hundred percent Ruritan-
ian. Bu t the grandiose idea aroused no enthusiasm
abroad. So holding this finest flower of the Ruritan-
ian genius, as their poet laureate said, to their hearts,
130
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 131
Ruritania's statesmen went forth to divide and con-
quer. They divided the claim into sectors. Fo r
each piece they i n v o k e ~ that s t e ~ e o t y p e which s o ~ eone or more of their allies found It difficult to resist,
because that ally had claims for which it hoped to
find approval by the use of this same s t e r e o t y p ~ .The first sector happened to be a mountainous
region inhabited by alien peasants. R u r i t ~ n i ademanded it to complete her natural geographIcal
frontier. If you fixed your attention long enough on
the ineffable value ofwhat is natural, those alien peas-
ants just dissolved into fog, and only the slope .of the
mountains was visible. The next sector was Inhab-
ited by Ruritanians, and on the principle that no
people ought to live under alien rule, they were re-
annexed. Then came a city of considerable com-mercial importance, no t inhabited by Ruritanians.
Bu t until the Eighteenth Century it had been part
of Ruritania, and on the principle of Historic Right
it was annexed. Farther on there was a splendid
mineral deposi t owned by aliens and worked by
aliens. On the principle of reparation for damage
it was annexed. Beyond this there was a territory Sinhabited 97% by aliens, constituting the natural
geographical frontier of another nation, never his-
torically a part of Ruritania. But one of the prov-
inces which had been federated into Ruritania had
former!y traded in those market s, and t he upper
class culture was Ruritanian. ~ ~ J . h ~ , , " . J 2 . ! i D £ ! R ! ~ , . 2 fc u l t Y I . ; ! 1 , . " § ' Y 1 2 ~ J i ~ l t i t L , . ! ! ! ~ S l , : " J h ~ , ~ ~ Q . ~ £ ~ § § , i t ~ , , , . Q f " . d e f e n . d i n g ,
c l ~ i l ! ~ f ! . t i g n " . " J h e " J . i ! Q d § ~ , ) Y , " ~ r ~ . ~ s l ~ ! m s g ~ ~ . m - ' Finally, therewa;"'- a port wholly disconnected from Ruritania
! , ' ~ " ~ ~ § , ' , n ~ , ~ g ~ ~ l f Q r . , l l , a J i Q n . a l , d e £ e n s e . ~In the treaties that concluded the Great War you
can mult iply examples of this kind. Now I do no t
wish to imply that I think it was possible !2_EesettleE J l l : Q . E ~ " " E ~ ! l , ~ ! ~ J , ~ , 1 } ! l y , " , g ! l " J ! n ~ - , Q l l e " , . Q £ . - t h e . § . e , ... ~ ~ - : - I am certain t ha t i t was not. The very use of these
principles, so pretentious and so absolute, meant
that the spirit of accommodation did no t prevail and
that, therefore, the substance of peace was no t there.
Fo r the moment you start to discuss factories, mines,
mounta ins , or even political authori ty , as per fec t
examples of some eternal principle or other, you are
no targuing, you are fighting.
Thateternal principlecensors ou t all the objections, isolates the issue from
its background and its context, and sets going in you
some strong emotion, appropriate enough to the
principle, highly inappropriate to the docks, ware
houses, and real estate. And having started in that
mood you cannot stop. A real danger exists. To
meet it you have to invokemore absoluteprinciples in
order to defend what is open to attack. Then you
have to defend the defenses, erect buffers, and buffers
for the buffers, until the whole affair is so scrambledthat it seems less dangerous to fight than to keep on
talking.
There are certain clues which often help in detect
ing the false absolutism of a stereotype. In the case
of theRuritanian propaganda the principles blanketed
each other so rapidly that one ,could/readily seehow the argument had been c ; n s t ~ ~ ~ - " ; e ' ~ s ¥ e r i e s ~
2
Inabili ty to take account of space is another . In
the spring of 1918, for example, large n u m ~ e r s of
people, appalled by the withdrawal of RUSSIa,
manded the" reestablishment of an Eastern Front.
The war, as they had conceived it , was on two fronts,
and when one of them disappeared there was an
instant d e ~ l C l . l ' l d that it be recreated. The unem
p l o y e d : ~ J a p ' ; ~ ' ~ ~ ? ) a r m y was to man the front! substitutingtoF"nffie Russian. Bu t there was one Insup
erable obstacle. Between Vladivostok and the I
eastern battleline there were five thousand miles of
coun try, spanned by one broken down r a ~ l w a y .Yet those five thousand miles would not stay In the
minds of the enthusiasts. So overwhelming was
their conviction that an eas tern front was needed,
and so great their confidence in the valor of the
Japanese army, that, mentally, they had p r o j e c t ~ dthat army from Vladivostok to Poland on a magic
carpet. In vain our military a.uth?rities a r ~ e dthat to land troops on the rim of SIberIa. as little
to do with reaching the Germans, as chmbing from
the cellar to the roof of the Woolworth building
had to do with reaching the moon.The stereotype in this instance was the.war.on two
fronts. Ever since men had begun to imagine the
Great War they had conceived Germany held be-
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 133
o L c o n t t a d i c t i o n s " " . s h Q l V ~ ~ q " " . t h ~ t , . " f Q t , , , " ~ 9 - ~ C h , ~ , .s@e,tQ,t:,",,,,tbat,,.,
~ . t e o 1 . ¥ p e ~ w ~ a ~ " ~ m l ? , l Q , y , ~ g ~ > ~ h ! £ h , ~ ~ 2 ! : ! ~ , g , . , . Q ! ? ! , i ! ~ . r ~ , ! ~ , " " ' ~ U ,the f u & t s - t h a t j n ! , ~ t f m : " g " ~ ~ , ! ! h , . " ! , h ~ . , , ~ 1 ~ U l J .. ~ , ~ , , , , C o J 1 1 r , ! g l c ~~ ~ of this sort is often a good clue.
134 PUBLIC OPINION THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 135
tween France and Russia. One generat ion of strat
egists, and perhaps two, had l ived with that visual
image as the starting point of all their calculations.
For nearly four years every battle-map they saw had
deepened the impression that this was the war.
When affairs took a new turn, it was not easy to see
them as they were then. They were seen through
the stereotype, and facts which conflicted with it ,
such as the distance from Japan to Poland, were
incapable of coming vividly into consciousness.
I t is interesting to note that the American authori
ties dealt with the new facts more real istically than
the French. In part, this was because (previous
to 1914) they had no preconception of a war upon
the continent ; in part because the Americans, en
grossed in the mobilization of their forces, had avision of the western front which was itself a stereo
type that excluded from their consciousness any
ve ry vivid sense of the other theatres of war. In
the spring of 1918 this American view could no t com
pete with the traditional French view, because while
the Americans believed enormously in their own
powers, the French at that t ime (before Cantigny
and the Second Marne) had t he gravest doubts .
.The American confidence suffused the American
stereotype, gave it that power to possess conscious
ness, that liveliness and sensible pungency, that
stimu la ting effect upon the will, that emotional
int erest as an object of desire, that congruity with
the activity in hand, which James notes as char
acteristic of what we regard as H real." 1 The French
I Principles oj Psychology, Vol. II, p. 300.
in despair remained fixed on their accepted image.
And when facts, gross geographical facts, would
no t fit with the preconception, they were either cen
sored out of mind, or the facts were themselves
stretched ou t of shape. Thus the difficulty of the
Japanese reaching the Germans five thousand miles
away was, in measure , overcome by bringing the
Germans more than half way to meet them. Be
tween March and June 1918, there was supposed
to be a German army operating in Eastern Siberia.
This phantom army consisted of some German
prisoners actually seen, more German prisoners
thought about, and chiefly of the delusion that those
five thousand intervening miles did not really exist.'
3A true concept ion of space is no t a simple matter.
If I draw a straight line on a map between Bombay
and Hong Kong and measure the distance, I have
learned nothing whatever about the distance I should
have to cover on a voyage. And even if I measure
the actual distance that I must traverse, I still know
very l it tle unt il I know what ships are in the service,
when they run, how fast they go, whether I can
secure accommodation and afford to pay for it. In
practical life space is amatter of available transporta-
l See in this connection Mr. Charles Grasty's interview with Marshal
Foch, New York Times, February 26, 1918. ."Germany iswalking through Russia. America Japan, who are
in a position to do so, should goto meet her in Siberia,See also the resolution by Senator King of Utah, June 10, 1918, and
Mr. Taft's statement in the New York Times, June I I , 1.918, and theappeal to America on May 5, 1918, by Mr. A. J: Sack, ~ l f e c t o r of th .Russian Information Bureau: " I f Germany were in the Allied place ...she would have 3,000,000 fighting on the East front within a year."
cause consti tutions are difficult to amend, zealous
people with a taste for mortmain have loved to write
on this imperishable brass all kinds of rules and re
strictions that, given any decent humility about the
future, ought to be no more permanent than an
ordinary statute.
p r ~ = ~ t : ! E l ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ... ! : ~ £ ~ ~ t ~ t i 1 E . ~ ~ . ~ n : ! , ~ £ ~ __ } y k ! ~ l Y . l ! 2 ! o our~ ~ : To one person an institution whicl1-liiS'"
existed for the whole of his conscious life is part of
the permanent furniture of the universe: to another
it is ephemeral . Geological time is very different
from biological time. Social time is most complex.
The statesman has to decide whether to calculate
for the emergency or for the long run. Some deci
sions have to be made on the basis of what willhappen in the next two hours; others on what will
happen in a week, a month, a season, a decade,
when the children have grown up, or their children's
children. ~ , ~ , ! P 2 ~ ! . ! ~ ~ 1 j ; . 9 i ~ . i < L J I 1 t ~ ~~ " ~ ~ " ~ ~ i . ~ g ~ i ~ . ~ S ~ ~ , , , , ~ i m ~ ~ ~ " Q l l ~ ~ 1 1 J ; i Q n ~ " = ' t h . a L l 2 ; ~ -,
~ e 1 o ~ & ~ . t g the t h ! 1 . 1 g J n k " h a n d . ~ ~ ~ ~ The person who uses"~ t f i e - ' ' ' w r o r i g time-conception ranges from the dreamer
who ignores the present to the philistine who can see
nothing else., " , 1 _ " . ! r " 1 ! . ~ ~ .. , = ~ £ ~ 1 ~ , " . " , Q f " . , l L a l y . e , ~ . J l i ! S .. a _ ~ y
acu t e s e l 1 § ~ q f relati \ T ~ t h u . e ..""
' " - D l ' s " t ; i i ' t ~ ' W t r ~ ~ : " · " p ; · ; · t · N ~ ~ d .future, has somehow to be
conceived. But as James says, "o f the longer dura
tion we have no direct 'realizing' sense." 1 The
longest duration which we immediately feel is what
is called the "specious present ." It endures, ac-
1 Principles of Psychology,Vol. I, p. 638.
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 139
cording to Titchener, for about six seconds.' "All
impressions within this period of time are present
to us at once. This makes it possible for us to per
ceive changes and events as well as stationary ob
jects. The perceptual present is supplemented by the
ideational present. Through the combination of per..
ceptions with memory images, entire days, months,
and even years of the past are brought together into
h "e present.
In this ideat ional present , vividness, as James
said, is proport ionate to the number of discrimina
tions we perceive within it. Thus a vacation in
which we were bored with nothing to do passes
slowly while we are in it, but seems very short in
memory. Great act ivity kills time rapidly, but in
memory its duration is long. On the relation betweenthe amount we discriminate and our time perspective
James has an interesting passage: 2
"We have every reason to think that creatures may
possibly differ enormously in the amounts of duration
which they intui tive ly feel, and in the fineness of the
events that may fill it. Von Baer has indulged in some
interesting computations of the effect of such differences
in changing the aspect of Nature. Suppose we were
able, within the length of a second, to note 10,000 eventsdistinctly, instead of barely 10 as now; 3 if our life were
then destined to hold the same number of impressions,
it might be 1000 t imes as shor t. We should live less than
a month, and personally know nothing of the change of
(.l.eited by Warren, Human Psychology, p. 255.2Op. cit., Vol. I, p. 639.3 In the moving picture this effect is admirably produce
mediate difficulty has lost sight of the duration of
the beggar's life. The people who for the sake of
an i ~ m e d i a t ~ peace. are willing to buy off an ag
gressIve e m ~ I r e by Indulging its appetite have al
lowed .a S P ~ C I O U S present to interfere with the peaceof theIr. children, The people who will not be pa
t I ~ n t WIth a troublesome neighbor, who want tobrIng everything to a "showdown " are no less thevictims of a specious present. '
6
I n ~ o a l m o ~ t every social problem the proper calculation of time enters. Suppose, for example it is
a question of timber. Some trees grow faster' than
others. Then a sound forest policy is one in which
the amoun t each species and of each age cutineach season IS made good by replanting. In so far
as that calculation is correct the truest economy has
?een r e ~ c h e d . To cut less is waste, and to cut more
IS exploitation. But there may come an emergency,
say the need for aeroplane spruce in a war when
the year's allowance must be exceeded. alert
government will recognize that and regard the
restoration of the balance as a charge upon thefuture.
Coal i?volves a different theory of time, becausec o ~ l , unl.Ike a tree, is produced on the scale of geological time, The supply is limited. Therefore a
correct s o ~ i a l policy involves intricate computation
of the available reserves of the world the indicated
possibilities, the present rate of u s ~ , the present
economy of use, and the alternative 'fuels. But
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 143
when that computation has been reached it must
finally be squared with an ideal standard involving
time. Suppose, for example, that engineers con
clude that the present fuels are being exhausted at
a certain rate; that barring new discoveries industry
will have to enter a phase of contraction at some
definite time in the future. We have then to de
termine how much thrift and self-denial we will use,
after all feasible economies have been exercised, in
order not to rob posteri ty. But what shall we con
sider posterity? Our grandchildren? Our great
grandchildren? Perhaps we shall decide to calculate
on a hundred years, believing that to be ample
time for the discovery of alternative fuels if the
necessity is made clear at once. The figures are,
of course, hypothetical. But in calculating that waywe shall be employing what reason we have. We
shall be giving social time its place in public opinion.
Let us now imagine a somewhat different case: a
contract between a city and a trolley-car company.
The company says that it will not invest i ts capital
unless it is granted a monopoly of the main highway
for ninety-nine years. In the minds of the men who
make that demand ninety-nine years is so long as
to mean" forever." But suppose there is reason to
think that surface cars, run from a central power
plant on tracks, are going out of fashion in twenty
years. Then it is a most unwise contract to make,
for you are vir tual ly condemning a future genera
tion to inferior transportation. In making such a
contract the city officials lack a realizing sense of
ninety-nine years. Fa r better to give the company
s e n s ~ of eternity. No ci ty official and no company
official has a sense of real t ime when he talks about
ninety-nine years.
. " , P q p _ l ! ! ~ ~ __ ~ ~ . ! . ~ . ~ , ~ : I , , } ~ , ~ . , a happy hunt ing ground of
t f T " " ' ~ J l " ' " ' - " ' - " ~ ' - " ~ - " - " " ' " " - - - " ' - " - " ~ ' - -~ , ! ! E : ~ ~ _ o . q s . g . ~ . , , , ' Y . " ~ ! E ~ , ~ ~ : ....!,,,,.,, 0 teaverage Englishman, for--"
example, the behavior of Cromwell, the corruption
of t he Act of Union, the Famine of 1847 are wrongs
suffered by ~ e o p l e long dead and done by actors
long. de ad w ith whom no living person, Irish or
EnglIsh, . h a ~ any real c o n n e c t i o n . " ' 7 , J ! ! ! . t l t l ~9 ~ ~ , P . ~ . ~ : ~ ? , ~ , ~ E " , ! : ~ ~ ~ ! E _ ~ ~ . ~ . , ! h ~ §_ . , , § , ~ J n ~ " , , ~ e n t s . are almost-'
."... ~ < ? ! l : ! , ~ ! J } E 2 L ~ ! : r : . " , , , . , His memory is I i k e ~ ' - o n - e - " o T t I i o s e~ i s t o r i c a l .paintings, where Virgil and Dante si t
side by s I ~ e conversing. . h ~ s e J ~ m ~ p e c t i v e s andf ? ~ ~ ~ . ~ . ? r t e n i n g s are a great barrier b e t ; e ~ n - ~ e o p r e s : - ! ! , , ! , ~ - , . ~ Y . ~ t ~ ' § Q : : : a i : m : £ i i I r I Q : r = ~ i = I i e r , i o n : g r : Q : D i : i i i C l r l l ~ 1 i " ' t ~ - '
x : ~ . £ 1 . ~ , m Q , ~ r ..... J £ h a t o " , i s " , ~ c Q n t e m p o l : a T a y - , i R - , t , h e , , , , , t t a d . i t i ~ ; ; : ~ ~ fan,g,ether. -
Almost nothing that goes by the name of Historic
R ights o r Hi sto ric Wrongs can be called a truly
objective view of the pas t. Take, for example, the
Franco-German debate about Alsace-Lorraine. I t
all d e p ~ n d s on the o r i ~ i n a l date you select. If you
s ~ a r t ~ l t h the Rauraci and Sequani, the lands are
hIstOrIcally part of . A n c ~ e n t Gaul. If you prefer
!Ienry I, th ey are historically a German territory;
you take 1273 they belong to the House ofAustria;
If you take 1648 and. the Peace of Westphalia, most
of them are French; If you take Louis XIV and the
year 1688 t hey ar e a lmost all French.' If you are,_....,_.... " " " = . _ " ' ~ - - - " " "
144 PUBLIC OPINION THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 145
using the argument from h i s t Q r ~ ~ ¥ " Q 1 L " a t e . " J a i ! 1 ~ " , , , ~ , ~ ~ t : , " ,t i J i l l ~ ' ~ e I ~ c I ! f i ~ " ~ ~ t P . s - P . ! § L ~ h i ~ h " " , ~ ~ P 1 ~ ~ E ~ wyour ~ i ~ ~ ~ < i L ~ b : . ~ " , ~ ~ ~ 2 , ~ l ~ l } ~ ~ , 4 Q , D ~ ~ ~ r u ? ~ ~ _ M ' ~'---Argliments abo\! C ! ~ S ~ ~ ~ : , . , . e . ! J J I , " l l ~ U I Q ! ! ~ E ! ! , ~ ~ , " , , ? f t e n- ra t l i e - s a m e 7 ~ r b i trar vie. .of time. Duriii""'''' I~ y " . " ~ " " , " " " , , , , , , , , , _ . , , " , , , , , , , , _ . " , , , , , , , . . , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , . J L , - - , , , , , , , , , l l : L , " , , , , , ~ , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , · ' · , " ~ ~ . c · " " ' " · . " " ' " g J
th e war, under the influence of powerful feeling, th e 1
difference between " Teu tons" on th e one handy]and ((Anglo-Saxons" and French on the other , was ;1'
popularly believed to be an eternal difference. They I
had always been opposing races. Ye t a generation Iago, historians, like Freeman, were emphasizing the I
common Teutonic origin of the West European/,
peoples, and ethnologists would certainly insist that
th e Germans, English, and th e greater part of the
French are branches of what was once a common
stock. The general rule is: if you l ike a people to-dayyou come down the branches to the trunk; if you
dislike them you insist that the separate branches
are separate trunks. In one case you fix your at ten- \
tion on the period before they were distinguishable;in the other on the period after which they became
distinct. And the view which fits the mood is taken
as th e (( tr u th."
An amiable variation is the family tree. Usually
one couple a re appoint ed t he original ancestors, if
possible, a couple associated with an honorific event
like the Norman Conquest. That couple have no
ancestors. They are no t descendan ts. Yet theywere
the descendants of ancestors, and th e expression
that So-and-So was the founder of his house means
no t that he is the Adam of his family, but t ha t he is
the par ti cu la r ances to r from whom it is desirable
to start, or perhaps the earliest ancestor of which
there is a record. But genealogical tables exhibit
a deeper prejudice. Unless the female line happens
to be especially remarkable descent is traced down
through the males. The tree is male. A t various
rnomen ts females accrue to it as itineran t bees light
upon an ancient apple tree.
7
But the future is the most illusive time of all. Our"';'_·..,..-"'., ~ ~ , ~ . t : ~ " •.. _ . ~ . , . " . . - , , , ' ~ . : .• , " c . , ~ , , , ~ ' " _ " " " " " " " ' , . •t e ~ p t a t l o n uere IS to Jump over necessary stepsin
: l i j ~ : : : , . ~ . § . q ~ e n c e ' ; · a n d · a s · · · ' \ v e ' ' ' a r e ' ' ' ' g - o v e f ~ ~ ~ l ? y h o p e - ' " O r doubt, t O e x a " ' : " ' : e ' r a f e " o t " ' t o : ~ m T n ' i m l ' z ' e " ' t h ' ~ U F t r m " ~ r e ~ u i r e l i·.·".M.,.,.• ,::,......•:-..>:" •.• JsJ? .,.. .... :.: ..: . :.... '.' ..' . " ' N " " ' ' ' " ' ~ ' ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' - ' ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' t l ' ' ' C 4 ' ' ' , " , ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' __"",,_9.t Q ~ : £ £ ~ ~ m , p l e i i : . ~ ~ " y ~ r ~ Q i i S . ~ l ; t a . i : t s : : O £ " " , a . , ¥ P , Q G . @ ~ s .. T h ~ ~ · c r r s :cussion of the role to be exercised by wage-earners
in the management of industry is riddled with this
difficulty. For management is a word that covers
many functions.' Some of these require no training;
some require a li tt le training; others can be learned
only in a lifetime. And the truly discriminatingpro
gram ofindustrial democratization would beone based
on the proper time sequence, so that the assumption of
responsibility would run paraIlel to a complementary
program of industr ial training. The proposal for a
sudden dictatorship of the proletariat is an attempt
to do a,:,ay with the intervening time of preparation;the resistance to all sharing of responsibility an
~ t t e m p t to deny the alteration of human capacity
In the course of time. Primit ive notions of democ
racy, such as rotation in office, and contempt for
the expert, are really nothing bu t the 01<;1 myth that
1 Cf, Carter 1. Goodrich, TheFrontt'er of C o ~ t r o l .
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 147
the Goddess of Wisdom sprang ma tu re and fully
armed from the brow of Jove. They assume that
what it takes years to learn need not be learned at all.
W ~ ~ £ . ~ ! h ~ .. 2 ! l ~ . ~ ~ _ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ E s l . . ~ 9 p l e ..:::..i § , ~ ~ ~ c : la ~ ~ r w b a ; s i ~ . . 2 . [ ~ R 2 . l L < ; l : , _ . , ! ~ ~ ; £ 9 _ 1 1 ~ .. ~ 9 E , ~ ~ f ...! . ~ ~ ! ~ . " ~ , ~ ~ _ ~ ~ - . .decisive element. The
~ o v t : . ~ ! ~ ! " .. L , , ~ h ~ ~ _ e a g ~ e C!-!
· - - " ' " · - - a ~ s i t o r ' ' ' ' e x a m ' ' - l e · ' ' · that (( the character oftl ? ~ ~ _ 2 . . . . W , ~ ~ o ' 7 " , " , . , . J L > - d I ; ' t ~ " th;st:teol'tlie
the m ~ l l d a t ~ m u s t " , d i a : e r - a , c , c Q t , .. , " g " " < - , , , , , " , , " , , , , , - , ~ •.,,... ' ~ " " = _ " h _ " __''".- d ~ l o " P E l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ , ~ ~ , ~ : ~ "· · " · ~ ; ; : - J l d s . Certain communities, i ~ _ , ~ , ! - ~ ~ ~ _ ! ~ ) ~ ,'navegr < t ~ ~ 1 ! i ( f . ~ J i 1 M " ' t o . ~ ~ 1 ! n : u : " ; ~ ~ 1 J . S ; ' W ' ~ ~ ~ ~ m t : i \ ' l , . " : ! l ~ ~ ' : ~ " > r . ! ! ' ! . ' : % : ~ r ~ , : ' r ~ ~ , " ' , ~ ~ t o = ' : 1 \ " ' l h h .:<';1;'. '1 " ' i t ~ ~ " " W ~ : 3 ' ! ; f ' ' ' ' ' ' ' "00" - ~ " " " " ' T : - - " " c d 1 t ,. t err inuet : ~ , ~ f en Q ~ f l , ! ~ ! & g ~ l r " " , Q J , ~ " . J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l l 1 1 ; 1 , e n , ,. ,.,,:w eJ,:e"''".... ~ ~ ' " M . . , . ' ' •.•' ' - " ' ' , . ~ , ' w .:. M_
~ ~ ~ : S ~ , ~ . s & ~ n . " ' J l ~ ~ ~ 1 2 ~ " x i ~ ' " ~ l b : : : = ! ~ ~ , ~ . 9 , g g ~ ~ ~ . g , L , , ~ , ~ ~ J : ~ ~ , ",
to advice and assistance until s ~ S l l _ ..t!.IDe,.. , a s . ~ t i j ~ y " , ~ '.,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * l V : ~ ~ ~ ; - : l ~ e ~ : ~ i ·t y ~ ¥ ~ ~ ( P t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r ; ~ ~ ~ T h ~ ~ T ~ t h ; ~ ~ ~ - o rI ", , ' . . _:: . ~ s t " " " , , , , - l l l . ; ¥ ' I i $ " - , , , , , , , , , , , , , q , : , , , , , : . ! ! < I " ' ~ ~ " " _ ; W ' " " ' ' ' ' ' ' ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' t : : : . , " c : ~ , , , •' ~ " - C ~ b > a - i l i e j ~ d g m e n t of the American g o v e r n ~ e n tvirtually coincided with that of the Cuban patnots,
and though there has been trouble, there is no finer
page in the history of how s t r o n ~ powers h a v ~ dealt
with the weak. Oftener in that history the estimates
have not coincided. Where the imperial people,
whatever i ts public expressions, has been deeply
convinced that the backwardness of the backward
was so hopeless as not to bew ~ r t h
remedying, orprofitable that it was no t .deslrable to remedy It,
the tie has festered and poisoned the peace of the
world. There have been a few cases, very few, where
backwardness has meant to the ruling power the need
for a program of f o r w a r d n ~ s s , a p r o g r ~ m with definite
standards and definite estimates of time. Far more
frequently, so frequently in fact as to seem the rule,
~ ~ J : d n _ ~ ~ § . . . __ . ~ ; L J 2 ~ J ~ n __ ' c i > . n . c c i , ~ intrinsic
~ n d - k t ~ r l 1 ~ L ~ m i ! r k _ , ~ Q . L j n £ e t i Q r i q r . And then every
attempt to be less backward has been frowned upon
as th e sedition, which, under these conditions, it
undoubtedly is. In our own race wars we can seesome of the results of the failure to realize that time
would gradually obliterate the slave morality of the
Negro, and that social adjustment based on this rnor-
ali ty would begin to break down.
1 is ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . , . ~ ~ J 2 ~ , £ ! - l ! ! : ~ ,. . t ~ ~ " . f ~ , ~ E r e 3 . . ~ if i to ~ ~ y e do U ! : J ~ ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~ ! J . . ! , . , P Y r J 2 , Q ~ ~ ~ ~ , ~ " ! Q , " , , , ! ~ , ! } ! h l J a ! ~ ~ e rde,gt"ys'our desire, or immortalize whatever stands betweenus .... a i i ( : r ; ; o t i ' F " f e ~ r F ' s ~ e",,"",', - " " , " , ~ " ' ~ " " - - ' - - ~ ' - ' - - " ~ " " - - - " - - - -
8In putting together our public opinions, no t only
do we have t o p ic tu re more space than we can see
with our eyes, and more time than we can feel, but
we have to describe and judge more people, more
actions, more things than we can ever count, or
vividly imagine. We have to summarize and general-
ize. We have to pick ou t samples, and treat them as
typical.
, ! 2 - P l ~ _ ~ ~ . , i ~ ~ £ ! y . , ~ _ g ~ C ? ~ , , ~ , ~ ~ E ! < ~ ~ , . 9 (. ~ J ' l r g ~ " £ l a _ ~ ~ § , , " , i s "~ . ! ! Q l ~ ~ . s y . , . . J 2 ~ ( ) ~ 1 ~ m belongs to the science of
s t a t i s t i ~ ~ " - ' a ' n t f l t ' is"'i"most difficult affair for anyone
whose mathematics is primitive, and mine remain
azoic in spite of the half dozen manuals which I
once devoutly imagined that I understood. All
they have done for me is to make me a l i tt le more
conscious o f ~ ? ~ h ' ! r ~ t , ~ t , ! ~ . 1 Q " , . , ~ 1 a _ s s j £ y _ ~ a l i . d . _ t o - s a a l p l e ) " .
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 149
how readily we spread a little butter over the whole
universe.Some time ago a group of social workers in Sheffield,
England, started ou t to substitute an accurate PIC-
ture of the mental equipment of the workers of that
city for the impressionistic one they had.'T ~ e y
wished to say, with some decent grounds for sayIng
it how the workers of Sheffield were equipped. They
f ~ u n d as we all find the momen t we refuse to le t
our fi;st notion prevail, that they were beset w.ith
complications. Of the test t h e ~ employed nothing
need be said here except that It was a large ques-
tionnaire. For th e sake of the illustration, assume
that the questions were a fair test of mental equip-
ment for English city life. Theoretically, then, those
questions should have been ~ u t . to every member
of the working class. Bu t It IS no t so easy to
know who are the working class. However, assume
again that the census knows how to classify them.
Then there were roughly 104,000 men and 107,000
women who ought to have been questioned. They
possessed the answers which would justify or refute
the casual phrase about the "ignorant workers"
or the " intell igent workers." Bu t nobody could
think of questioning the whole two hundred thou-
sand.So the social workers consulted an eminent statis-
tician, Professor Bowley. He advised them that no t
less than 408 men and 408 women would.prove to be
a fair sample. According to mathematical c a ~ c ~ l a t ion this number would no t show a greater deViatIon
from the average than I in 22 . 1 They had, therefore,
to quest ion at least 816 people before they could
pretend to talk about the average workingman.
But which 816 people should they approach? "W e
might have gathered particulars concerning workers
to whom one or another of us had a pre-inquiry
access; we might have worked through philanthropicgentlemen and ladies who were in contact with cer
tain sections of workers at a club, a mission, an
infirmary, a place of worship, a settlement. Bu t
such a method of selection would produce entirely
worthless results. The workers thus selected would
not be in any sense representative of what is popu
larly called' the average run of workers;' they would
represent nothing but the Ii ttle coteries to which theybelonged. .
"The right way of securing' victims,' to which at
immense cost of t ime and labour we rigidly adhered,
is to get hold of your workers by some 'neutral'
or 'accidental' or 'random' method of approach."
This they did. And afte r all these precautions they
came to no more definite conclusion than that on
their classification and according to their question
naire, among 200 ,000 Sheffield workers "about one
quarter" were"well equipped," "approaching three
quarters" were "inadequately equipped" and that
"about one-fifteenth" were" mal-equipped."
Compare this conscientious and almost pedantic
method of arriving at an opinion, with our usual
judgments aboutmasses of people, about the volatile
Irish, and the logical French, and the; disciplined
1 Op. cit., footnote, p. 65.
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES lS I
Germans, and the ignorant Slavs, and the honest
Chinese and the un trustworthy Japanese, and so
on and 'so on. All these are generalizations drawn
from samples, bu t the samples are selected by a
method that statistically is wholly unsound. Thus
the employer will judge labor by the most troublesome employee or the most d?c ile. that he ~ n o w s ,and many a radical group has imagined that It was
a fair sample of the working class.. I!,ow n:any
women's views on the "servant question are lit tle
more than the reflection of their own treatment of
their s ervants? The. t e n d e 1 . ] £ L Q L " J h . e " " . , , £ . ~ § y ~ 1 l 1 1 i n dis to pick out or S h i m b l ; - ~ p o n . _ ~ ~ ~ T . E 1 ~ .. , , ~ h ! . s h . , , § B . l ? ~ , . ~I,_'._" ~.•...... """"". "" .. .,.. ~ . ~ . a· . :. . ' . ". ''''"..."•. . • . . ." ~ . · . :..t.··.-."".n.".".r'. "".e.1ucrrces-·ana t h ~ ! L J Q " . " m a k e ! . l , t · ...'orts or . e es 1. ..J:Z:., ...:J • ".,,,,,,,.•.,, .• ",...,,•,,",,,.. ,,.•."...
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ¥ ; ~ i £ ~ i ~ ~ ~ : W ~ l l f l ~ " P € € } r l l l ' " G l l l ~ .c l l n e ~ i : ~ · · S r ~ £ t F e T ~ ~ l y ~ ~ ! ! .. . l ' : § . " . ~ . _ Q . i l . Y ~ ..•d . ~ s . § i f i e d . " .:1::' ' ' " ~ e - m ' ' " " ' ~ P ; ~ ~ h ~ ~ < " ' < ; ~ ~ I d ~ " ' b e so m t ! c ; l L ~ ~ , ~ l § i e r , , , i L v . , Q P J y : ,t ~ e y ~ ; ; ; c l d ~ a ; - ; r ; : c r e w e - ~ I ~ s ~ ~ m : . J 3 u t , as. a
m a l l : e r o t 4 f a c ~ f ; - " " ~ " p l 1 r a s e " ' T i k e " " t h e working class will
cover only some of the truth for a part of the time.
When you take all the people, below .a certain level
of income and call them the working class, you
cannot help assuming that the people so classified
will behave in accordance with your stereotype. Justwho those people are you are no t ~ u i t e certain. Fac-
tory hands and mine workers fit In more or less, bu t
trade unionists, and treat them as Labor ; the o ther
seventeen or eighteen million, who might qualify
statistically, are tacitly endowed with the point of
view ascribed to the organized nucleus. How very
misleading it was to impute to the British working
class in 1918-1921 the point of view expressed in
the resolutions of the Trades Union Congress or in
the pamphlets written by intellectuals.
The stereotype of Labor as Emancipator selects
the evidence which supports itself and rejects the
other. And so paral le l with the real movements of
working men there exists a fiction of the Labor
Movemen t, in which an idealized mass moves to
wards an ideal goal. The fiction deals with the
future. In ... t h ~ . J g 1 ! J r ~ ' i , 1 ? Q § § i . b i U t i ~ , § . " " , , ~ r e .al,most. indis
t i f l g ~ , ~ , ~ h ~ I ~ ~ : ' : : } i 9 m probabilities a n d ~ p ; ~ b a b i l i t ies" l r ; i i 1 " ' c e r t i l n t : i e s ~ " " " r r " t l i e " f ~ r u t u r e " ' T s l o n ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' ' e n o u " - f i ~ ~ t l i e"f",.",., ".".,.' '.',... . ,•.... f.·'."'.·j,.·•• , ' . " " " ~ · M , ' ' ' ' ' ' ' c ; r ' ' , ' · · - " , ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' " . , , · " , , , , , , , , , , , , , . 4 ' > " - " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' f ' ' ' ' ' ' f ' ' ' ' i , , , . , , , ' ' ' ' ' ' , , , , " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' R ' , , , , , , , , , , . , , , a , J , - , , , , , , , , , " " " ' ~ " ~human will might turn what is J' ust conceivable
." • ; . ; _ ~ _ : ; , - ; ' , . ' ;' ,' : 7',";'- '- '.- ' ,<. _ A ~ ' - ' :;''':'.:<.OJ(';,'::','-;-:' ;_ ' " .( · " ' . j i ' f ' > : ' _ f ' : i ; -_ ; " ' ' ' . . ; j : o ~ _ ' 'i ' ' , , _ ; , " , , : , ; ! - "; ~ " " ~ : ' O ; ' t , : , · ,.. , ' · ~ ? , , . - . , , , , i ' ; g ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ; ' ; i W ' ~ ' I ; ! : i ' i : ' " < % " / . ' : ; h " ' t ~ t " l - - . . : ' ...O:l l
l . ! 1 : . , t 2 ~ . , ••• ~ . h ~ " S ' I , . ; . , ~ . ~ , ....,, . Y ~ r x , . , . " , . ! i . ~ , ~ . ~ . r ? _ , ; ; , : , ~ , ; ~ , . · . , ~ , ~ , ~ ~ ~ , , , , , , , ! , ~ , , , , J i ~ , s I Y " , , J c ! ) J Qw ~ ~ t i s ~ ~ ~ : .. .. . ~ ~ p r ; ! ; ~ .•.. , J ~ m ~ , § s i ~ I l ~ ~ ~ ; " , , ! : h ~ ~ t h e f a i thJ ~ " ~ 1 4 ~ r , ' a n a "sai'cf'fllat"'CCTt is a slope of g ~ ~ d ~ i : r r - ' o n ' ' " ~which in the larger questions of life men habitually
I, " 1rve,
"1 . There is nothing absurd in a certain view of the
world being true, nothing contradictory;2. It might have been true under certain conditions;
3. It may be true even now;
4. It is fit to be true;
5. It ought to be true;
6. It must be true;
7. It shall be true, at any rate true for me."
1William James, Some Problemsof Philosophy, p. 224.
THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 153
And, as he added in another place,' "your acting
thus may in certain special cases be a means of
making it securely true in the end." Yet no one
would have insisted more than he, that, so far as
we know how, we must avoid substitut ing the
goal for the s tarting point, must avoid reading
back into the present what courage, effort and
skill might c reate in the future. Yet this tru ism
is inordinat ely difficult to live by, because every
one of us is so little trained in the selection of our
samples.
If we believe that a certain thing ought to be
tr;ie, ~ ' w e ' c ' i n ~ : i l l i i o s - r " " i r W g ~ ' ~ ~ " " n n ( r " ' e r t n e F ' a i r ' ' i n s t a . ·n . .·e~ _ l f u f ~ » < = , t J _ .. . , ~ ¢ l A A ' ! i l . ... .- - - ~ , J : ~ . 3 1 V ; ~ , ' : t " . ~ . , , ~ ' i ' K , , ; I ; ' t t ; ' ~ ~ ..~ ( , X f , . l , ' \ j ~ ~ i ' - " : < ~ t ~ ~ ; ; : : ~ ~ l : - c " ' g » / ; . " ' ~ : " ---", "" ' " , ' --
' £ h ~ r . . e - i t l s " " ' t t , u . @ , } " ~ @ p ; " c s 6 m @ @ f l · e " ) , w h @ " , J ; ~ . @ l i ; e , ~ e · ~ " , t t ; , , ~ ' l ] ; g h ..~ ; , . ~ ( )be true. I t is ever so hard when a concrete fact il-
' ' \ : ~ ~ & 9 # i t 4 ; ~ ~ '
lustrates a hope to weigh that fact properly. Whenthe first six people we meet agree with us, it is no t
easy to remember that they may all have read the
same newspaper at breakfast. And yet we cannot
send ou t a questionnaire to 816 random samples
every time we wish to estimate a probability. In
dealing with any large mass of facts, the presumption
is against our having picked true samples, if we are
acting on a casual impression.
9
And when we tr y to go one step further in order
to seek the causes and effects of unseen and com
plicated affairs, haphazard opinion is very tricky.
There are few big issues in public life where cause
and effect are obvious at once. They are no t obvious
to scholars who have devoted years, let us say, to
studying business cycles, or price and wage move
ments, or the migration and the assimilation of
peoples, or the diplomatic purposes of foreign powers.
Yet somehow we are all supposed to have opinions
on these matters, and it is not surprising that the
commonest form of reasoning is the intui tive, post
hoc ergo propter hoc.
The more untrained a mind, the more readily it
works out a theory that two things which catch
its attention at the same time are causally connected.
We have already dwelt at some length on the way
things reach our at tention. We have seen t h a t ~access to information,...,is. 0bstrllcted and uncertain"~ d t h ; t ~ ~ ~ ~ - ' ~ p p r e h e n s i ~ " ' - i ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ e p l y ' c o ~ t r o l l e d ~ _ ~ _ y -
o u r ~ ' s i ~ r e o t ~ w " " ' ~ e s ~ " t h a t " O t T i e ~ ~ e v l c r e i 1 ~ c e ~ avairaole LQ=O\If~ , " , 4 ~ ~ = . , r R ~ " o " " , · ~ ~ · , " " ~ · " · " ' " ' ~ " - ~ ~ ; f ~ ' ~ ~ ~ .:: ~ - d ' f u ~ ~ ; ' ~ - ; e s t i .er e ~ s o n ..' l § , k ' " , § ! i l i J , e , c , t ~ , J { ) ~ , " " t l L . = ..".Jl."',"",_H__ " ~ ' ' - L " " , , ~ ~ , = , ~ ~ , , 1 2 _ .__,g . "r i 1 ( ) ' f ~ 1 1 ~ ' · r ~ ' s J 2 ~ : . : , . t ! r n _ ~ , , , , f . l t u l , , § , ~ m , 1 1 1 i l l g ~ - J Y £ _ m l 1 S ! , E o ~ ..
- O Q i : ~ i . J i ~ ' t ~ . i i i l t , i ' h i s - - i l l , i J : i ~ L ~ , ! , e i E : ! } , , ~ , E , ~ £ - 2 ~ n i o n s .arestill further beset, because in a series o ~ e n . t s - s e e n - - ..-
~ t l i : I I 1 i : Q g g [ = T I ~ e £ ~ i f ~ ~ ~ ~ Y e - r ~ y accept se:
quenc:or p a E ~ l ! e l i s ~ ~ ~ . ~ ' 9 u i v ' a l ' e J f f " t : 0 - ~ c a u s e ande i f - e c t ~ - ' - " ' " ' ' ' ' ' - ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ~ ' - ' ' ' ' '....,... ""'--.. ','...... ", ,,_"-'w,-.,·,'=.. =·. " " ' ' ' - ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' · ~ ~ · ...........-'''
- ~ " ~ T h l ~ I ~ m o s t l ikely to happen when two ideas that
come together arouse the same feeling.Ifthey cometogether they are likely to arouse the same feeling;
and even when they do not arrive together a powerful feeling attached to one is likely to suck out
of all the corners of memory any .idea that feels
about the same. Thus everything painful tends
to collect into one system of cause and effect, and
likewise everything pleasant.
154 PUBLIC OPINION THE DETECTION OF STEREOTYPES 155
"lId I rrn (1675) This day I hear that G[od] has shot
arrow into the midst of this Town. The small poxan d' K. in an ordinary yesign of the Swan, th e or mary eepersIS . . k f h d'name is Windsor. His daughter IS SIC 0 t e isease.
It is observable that this disease begins at an alehouse,
to tes ti fy God's displeasure ag" the sin of drunkenness
& yt of multiplying alehouses!"1
Thus Increase Mather, and thus in the year 1919
a distinguished Professor of Celestial Mechanics dis
cussing the Einstein theory:
"I t may well be that. . . . Bolshevist u p r i s ~ n g s are inreality the visible objec ts of some underly ing , d e e ~ ,mental disturbance, world-wide in character . . • . ThIS
h . d d sci " 2 1t'same spirit of unrest as mva e SCIence. ,,,;,
In ha tin&"one thing v i o l ~ . n e ~ ! Y . ' . " " ~ . " f " , . w . ' ' ' ' ' . ' ; . ' N . E ' ~ f i ~ i.}X}-h,. ?"c .
ia t,,.e" ' ' ".~ = - - - > - ~ , , - . r · " · ' ' ' ' ' " ' l t · ' · ' · ~ · ' · · t · til ' t er t Ings we- l ~ ~ r ; t : L ! ! f ~ ~ · J } , · ; ~ ~ · ~ k ~ ~ ~ i t ~ · · · ~ o r ~ ....., ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; t a ~ alehouses, or Rela-
tivity and Bolshevism, but they ?ound ~ o g e t ~ e rin the same emotion. In a superstrtious mind, like
that of th e Professor of Celestial Mechanics, emotion
is a stream of molten lava which catches and im
beds whatever it touches. When you excavate !n it
you find, as in a buried city, all sorts of .objects
ludicrously entangled in each o t ~ e r . ~ ~ n y . ! h , H ! ; g . S ~ t : l : ...b e . r e l ~ t e d to, ~ ! l ~ . ~ ~ ~ . t E ~ ! : ~ ~ $ ~ t J ! ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : ; i : · = .Not has .(1. m ~ n d ! x L s , l J ~ I i . ~ a , v s t a t . e " J u l , ¥ , ~ ; w a y o g
1 i ' ( ) \ , : V · I ? f e i 2 Q s · t : ~ ; ~ ~ . ~ ~ : . i l t w i s . , , . i l p . c i e n t . , J ~ a r s J . ~ r , . @ i . n , £ o t , G e d ~ . h ¥ , -m o r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t .. E : . ~ ~ s ~ .... c ? ~ & ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ j ~ ! 2 .. .. §!1<lrLQLfeal:s."....
Tit;· · i i ~ = ; ; ; · · ..~ " i " ' ~ h e P ~ ~ i ~ · ~ : ' : ' ~ ; : " ' · ~ ~ ~ , edited by Eli zabeth Deering
Hanscom.2 Cited in The New Republic, Dec. 24, 1919 , p. 120.
, " ~ ~ ~ l l L L ~ _ , , ~ , g , . , E ~ , ! . , " ~ ~ ~ , t ~ , § " j . u " " " , t h ~ , , , , J ~ ~ ! . ~ 9 i o ~ _ ofe . ~ Y s tern of all e v i ~ ~ . " . \ , : ! l " ~ " ; " , £ L " " ~ J 1 Q . t h e h , , , , , , " w h i c . h , ~ - t l i es
" ' ~ ~ ' t e " m ~ " " o r " ' a I r " " " ' j " o o a : , m , , "Then ou r love of the absolute~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ t s e 1 r : ~ , , ~ r ~ ' o ' r " " w e '' ( f o " ' i i ' o ; t " ' r i ' k ' ~ " " " ' ~ ' ; I i ' f : " ' T ~ ' - ' a ( l v e r b ' s - ~ - f ' ~ '. > " ' ; ' n i ~ ' ' ' ' ' ~ W ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '_ _ ~ ~ ' _ ' ' ~ " ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' . , . " , ••"",.,.••.,." .. . " " " " , , , , q . , , , , t , , . / . , , , , . , , , , x . " = g _ " , , " , , , _ . _ ~
They clutter up sentences, and interfere with irre-
sist ible feeling. We prefer most to more, least to
less, we dislike the words rather, perhaps, if, or, but,
toward, no t quite, almost, temporarily, partly. Yet
. ~ ~ 1 1 # ~ ~ 7 · : ~ a ~ " h ~ T i ~ c ~ ~ u ~ e ~ ~ s : ;f ~ ~ e ' ' ' - ' m ~ ' n ; e n t s ' ' ' ' ' e v ' e ' r y I l i i n g ' ' ' · ' ' t e i i d s ' ' ' ' ' ' t o ' " = 1 5 e h a v e abso-Iutely,-one hundred percent, everywhere, forever.
It is no t enouzh to sax that our side is more rivht~ l ! - ' # > t i l ~ . ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ' . ' ~ - ' : " : : : " : ; ; ; " ' ; ; : " " ' ~ i ' ' : ; . ' . ' 1 . ' ' ' : " d 7 ; ~ , ~ ' j c ' ' ; ; ? , ~ , , , , · , : . ' ; , ; . , { , . : , · ~ · . , : . ; ' i ; : ' ; ; i ) · , : ; , · , , , · , . : : - , ; r ' ~ · ; ' . ' i " , ~ C ' : ' _ ' : · " ' ~ : ; ( · ; _ , ~ i O : ; . " i ' j " ) : . _ ' : " , . _ . ' . j , ' . . ; . t . . . . . . w ;~ .. " " " ~ " " , , . ,__ ~ - ~ _ , ~t ~ ~ ? : , . , ! . ~ ~ ? " , ~ , ! ! ~ . ~ , I : ~ 1 " ~ h e i t Q M r " Y i £ . t 2 I Y " , , 1 Y g L % h ~ p d ~ m o c - .
' ~ ~ ~ " ~ ~ ~ i ~ r a ~ ~ ~ ; ; ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ * e ~ 6 r r ~ ; ; ~ t ~ Z -" " a . ~ m Q ~ ~ ' , ~ · £ Y · : ' = " ' " " ' A D a " : . · ; h ~ ~ · · · · . t · h e . · ···war·• · · i s . · · · · . o v ~ r ; : : : , : l h ! ! ! ! g b - ~ ~ ~ ~.have . ! h ~ ~ r t s ; s i . ..~ . ~ g ! ~ . ~ ! ~ ! . / ~ , ~ i L . !h'-tD . J h Q , § , . ~ " " ~ h i ~ J l . , , s tilL.
~ . f ! 1 i ~ t . ~ ~ ? ... . r ~ l a t i ~ i ~ y . . r e s u 1 ~ . ~ : . ~ : ~ ~ u t , thei 9 S 9 ! ~ . i ~ n . ~ ~ . ~ ..::2f ..· . ~ . ~ ~ ~ ' . p r ~ s , ~ . ~ , ~ ~ ~ i . ! -, ~ y ~ E ~ . ~ , ~ . ~ ~ " ' o u F · s p i ' r i l ; · · ·andwefeel that we are helplessbecause w e ~ f i a v e not"
been' 'irresi'SfibTe: 'Befweenomni" ' o t e n c e ' ~ " a r r a · = ~ / i m : " '.. , ';8,"",···,"',·'·'··"1l'····'·,",·"··,·r".'v.,"'r·""""",··""",·,;,,,·,,,,,·,,,,n.,...,,,,.•.,E,,...,,,,. '-- ..,. ' .....' _k , ....
potence . ~ H ~ 1 l . q . ~ , . " y m , § : W : J . n g l ? ~ , , , . , , ,Real space, real t ime, real numbers, real connec-
t r o ~ · s ; ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ t : : 5 ~ ~ ~ § r g ~ : ~ ' ~ : · ~ ' ~ " r ~ " ' ' ' ~ t ( ) ~ ' ' t · ~ , , : , : , : ~ ~ ~ : ' : ~ ~ F £ E ~ P · ~ ~ . t i Y e ~t ~ e ~ : ' · } ) ' ~ ~ ~ g r ~ ~ ~ d . > ~ ~ 5 ! ., ! . ~ ~ : ' ~ i · ~ ~ g § ! 9 n § .. 2 f ' : v ~ i c ' f i " ( Y n - ' a r e
c I i p p , e d s , c ~ n : s t : " , [ r . Q i ~ ! l , # l ! i : I h i , ~ " t ~ i ~ . Q i i p , ~ , ~ . " , . , : ~ ' " . " ..1 Cf. Freud's discussion of absolut ism in dreams, Interpretation of