7seminar report

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone is an aircraft without a

human pilot on board. Its flight is either controlled autonomously by computers in the vehicle, or

under the remote control of a pilot on the ground or in another vehicle

The acronym UAV has been expanded in some cases to UAVS (Unmanned Aircraft

Vehicle System). The FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) has adopted the acronym UAS

(Unmanned Aircraft System) to reflect the fact that these complex systems include ground

stations and other elements besides the actual air vehicles. The term UAS, however, is not widely

used as the term UAV has become part of the modern lexicon.

There are a wide variety of drone shapes, sizes, configurations, and characteristics.

Historically, UAVs were simple remotely piloted aircraft, but autonomous control is increasingly

being employed. They are predominantly deployed for military applications, but also used in a

small but growing number of civil applications, such as policing, fire fighting, and non-military

security work, such as surveillance of pipelines. UAVs are often preferred for missions that are

too "dull, dirty, or dangerous" for manned aircraft.

1.2 HISTORY

The history of the unmanned aerial vehicles begins in the 19th century:

1.2.1 The Austrian Balloons

The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for war-fighting occurred on

August 22, 1849, when the Austrians attacked the Italian city of Venice with unmanned balloons

loaded with explosives. The balloons were launched from the Austrian ship Vulcano. Although

some of the balloons worked as intended, others were caught in a change of wind and blown back

over Austrian lines. Hence this turned out to be a double edged sword for the Austrians.

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Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

Fig: 1.1 the Austrian Balloons

1.2.2 World War I

The first pilotless aircraft were built during and shortly after World War I. Leading the way,

using A. M. Low's radio control techniques, was the "Aerial Target" of 1916. Soon after, on

September 12, the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, otherwise known as the "flying bomb"

made its first flight, demonstrating the concept of an unmanned aircraft. They were intended for

use as "aerial torpedoes" an early version of today's cruise missiles. Control was achieved

using gyroscopes developed by Elmer Sperry of the Sperry Gyroscope Company.

Fig: 1.2 worlds first UAV 1916

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1.2.3 World War II

1.2.3.1 Reginald Denny and the Radioplane

The first large-scale production, purpose-built drone was the product of Reginald Denny.

Denny believed that low-cost RC aircraft would be very useful and he demonstrated a prototype

target drone, the RP-1, to the US Army. Denny then bought a design from Walter Righter in 1938

and began marketing it as the "Dennymite", and demonstrated it to the Army as the RP-2, and

after modifications as the RP-3 and RP-4 in 1939. In 1940, Denny and his partners won an

Army contract for their radio controlled RP-4, which became the Radioplane OQ-2. They

manufactured nearly fifteen thousand drones for the army during World War II.

1.2.3.2 Aerial Torpedoes

The US began experimenting with radio-controlled aircraft during the 1930s as well,

resulting in the "N2C-2" drone in 1937. The N2C-2 was remotely controlled from another aircraft,

called a TG-2. N2C-2 anti-aircraft target drones were in service by 1938.

The US also used RC aircraft, including modified B-17 and B-24 bombers in Operation

Aphrodite in combat on a small scale during World War II as very large aerial torpedoes, though

with no great success.

Fig: 1.3 Reginald Denny and Radio plane

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CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION OF UAV’S

During recent decades, significant efforts have been devoted to increasing the flight

endurance and payload of UAVs, resulting in various UAV configurations with different sizes,

endurance levels, and capabilities.

2.1 Based on Characteristics of UAV Platform

Here, we attempt to classify UAVs according to their characteristics (aerodynamic

configuration, size, etc.).

UAV platforms typically fall into one of the following four categories:

Fixed-wing UAVs, which refer to unmanned airplanes (with wings) that require a runway

to take-off and land, or catapult launching. These generally have long endurance and can

fly at high cruising speeds.

Fig: 2.1 fixed wing UAV’s

Rotary-wing UAVs, also called rotorcraft UAVs or vertical take-off and landing

(VTOL) UAVs, which have the advantages of hovering capability and high

maneuverability. These capabilities are useful for many robotic missions, especially in

civilian applications. A rotorcraft UAV may have different configurations, with main

and tail rotors (conventional helicopter), coaxial rotors, multi-rotors, etc.

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Fig: 2.2 Rotary-wing UAV’s

Blimps such as balloons and airships, which are lighter than air and have long

endurance, fly at low speeds, and generally are large sized.

Fig: 2.3 Airship UAV’s

Flapping-wing UAVs, which have flexible and/or morphing small wings inspired by

birds and flying insects.

Fig: 2.4 Flapping-wing UAV’s

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There are also some other hybrid configurations or convertible configurations, which can

take-off vertically and tilt their rotors or body and fly like airplanes, such as the Bell Eagle Eye

UAV.

Fig: 2.5 Hybrid UAV’s

2.2 Based on Size and Endurance

Another criterion used at present to differentiate between aircraft is size and endurance:

High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) UAVs, as for example, the Northrop-

Grumman Ryan’s Global Hawks (70,000 ft altitude, 35 h flight time, and 1,900 lb

payload).

Fig: 2.6 HALE UAVs

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Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) UAVs, as for example General Atomics’

Predator (50,000 ft altitude, 25/30 h flight time, and 450 lb payload).

Fig: 2.7 MALE UAVs

Tactical UAVs such as the Hunter, Shadow 200, and Pioneer (up to 30,000 ft altitude,

5–6 h flight time, and 25 kg payload).

Fig: 2.8 Tactical UAVs

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Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

CHAPTER 3

UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

3.1 Overview

Most civilian unmanned systems consist of an unmanned or remotely piloted aircraft, the

human element, payload, control elements, and data link communication architecture. A military

UAS may also include elements such as a weapons system platform and the supported soldiers.

Fig 3.1 common UAS and how the various elements are combined to create the system.

3.2 Elements of UAV

A UAS is just not the vehicle that flies. An Unmanned Aircraft or Aerial System can be

divided into three succinct elements:

1. The vehicle or platform

2. Payload

3. Ground Control System or Station

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3.2.1 The Vehicle or Platform

The vehicle is the means to deliver the payload to its optimal position. UAS operate at all

altitudes and the propulsion system has to be tailored to the mission. Electric engines are used for

silent operations whereas UAS operating over long distances and at high altitude need jet engines.

The flight control system ensures the UAS follows the pre-programmed or Ground Control

Station-updated mission flight path in the most economical way avoiding obstacles and other air

users.

3.2.1.1 The Airframe

The airframe of an aircraft is its mechanical structure. It is typically considered to include

fuselage, wings and undercarriage and exclude the propulsion. Airframe design is a field of

aerospace engineering that combines aerodynamics, materials technology and manufacturing

methods to achieve balances of performance, reliability and cost.

Fig: 3.2 Airframe of Global Hawk

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3.2.1.2 The Propulsion System

The turbojet is the general-purpose engine. Turbojets consist of an air inlet, an air

compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine (that drives the air compressor) and a nozzle.

The turbojet uses a series of fan-like compressor blades to bring air into the engine and compress

it. An entire section of the turbojet engine performs this function, which can be compared to the

compression stroke of the reciprocating engine.

Fig: 3.3 Turbojet Engine

In this section, there is a series of rotor and stator blades. Rotor blades perform somewhat

like propellers in that they gather and push air backward into the engine. The stator blades serve

to straighten the flow of this air as it passes from one set of rotor blades. The air is compressed

into the chamber, heated and expanded by the fuel combustion and then allowed to expand out

through the turbine into the nozzle where it is accelerated to high speed to provide propulsion.

3.2.1.3 Sense & Avoid System

The UAV uses a wide array of sensors to accomplish navigation and autonomous flight

control. Few of these are:

3.2.1.3.1 Gyroscope

A Gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles

of angular momentum. Mechanically, a gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disk in which the axle is

free to assume any orientation. Although this orientation does not remain fixed, it changes in

response to an external torque much less and in a different direction than it would without the

large angular momentum associated with the disk's high rate of spin and moment of inertia. The

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device's orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of the mounting platform's motion, because

mounting the device in a gimbal minimizes external torque.

Fig: 3.4 Single driving structure of 3-axis Fig: 3.5 MEMS structure dies of 3-axi

digital gyroscopes digital gyroscopes

Gyroscopes manufactured with MEMS technology have become widely available. These

are packaged similarly to other integrated circuits and may provide either analog or digital

outputs. In many cases, a single part includes gyroscopic sensors for multiple axes. Some parts

incorporate both a gyroscope and an accelerometer, in which case the output has six full degrees

of freedom.

3.2.1.3.2 Accelerometer

An Accelerometer is a device that measures acceleration. Accelerometers are sensors that

can measure the acceleration of the body in a specific direction, thus it can be used to determine

the forces acting on the plane by knowing the mass of the plane. This can assists in the derivation

of the aircraft model by finding some stability derivatives from the accelerometers data.

3.2.1.4 The Flight Control Computer or System

An Attitude Heading Reference System consists of sensors on three axes that provide

heading, attitude and yaw information for aircraft. They are designed to replace traditional

mechanical gyroscopic flight instruments and provide superior reliability and accuracy. AHRS

consist of either solid-state or MEMS gyroscopes and accelerometers on all three axes.

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AHRS have proven themselves to be highly reliable and are in common use in commercial

and business aircraft. AHRS are typically integrated with Electronic Flight Information

Systems (EFIS) (which are the central part of so-called glass cockpits) to form the Primary Flight

Display. AHRS can be combined with air data computers to form an "Air Data, Attitude And

Heading Reference Systems" (ADAHRS), which provide additional information such as airspeed,

altitude and outside air temperature.

3.2.2 The Payload

The purpose of a UAS is deliver or collect data usually in a dull, dirty or dangerous

environment. The payload is the most important element of the whole UAS as this determines the

payback or the economic or other gains.

3.2.2.1 Electro-Optical Sensing Systems and Infra-Red Systems

Strapped to manned aircraft or aerial drones, these multispectral sensors operate in

multiple modes – usually with both day (electro-optical camera) and night (infrared camera)

capability – to provide ground forces critical, time-sensitive information about the insurgent

hiding around the corner or entering a town by vehicle. Both sensor types are typically equipped

with high-magnification optical lenses that may provide zoom capability. They may also have

laser rangefinders or designator/rangefinders to help identify targets.

Fig: 3.7 Mmultiple Sensors EO Sensors and Radar on Global Hawk

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These airborne, multi-spectral sensors are frequently packaged into a turret, which is a

mounting for sensor payloads that is gyro-stabilised to ensure the delivery of clear images despite

aircraft vibrations. These turrets can be mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles, helicopters, fixed

wing aircraft and even aerostats.

Fig: 3.8 Gimbal EO/IR Sensors

In addition, image resolution improved with the advent of high-definition (HD) TV. Both

electro-optical (Charged Coupled Device TV) and infrared (thermal imaging) cameras have

benefitted from HD technology, which increases the number of pixels in a sensor’s array to

improve image resolution. In particular, focal plane arrays have evolved from a 320 x 240 format

to 640 x 480 pixels, and now, HD array formats of 1,920 × 1,080 pixels, as is the case with the

miniature 1080p HD camera in L-3 Wescam’s MX-15HDI sensor turret.

The Modern UAS also use Advanced IR Tracking Adjunct System (AIRTAS) which is a

gimbaled, stabilized, high-resolution sensor that provides passive tracking and real-time display.

It can provide threat assessment and ID beyond visual range, providing real-time threat and

damage assessment. AIRTAS is an advanced IR sensor, with a wide field of view and longer

range for HAWK missile users.

3.2.2.2 Radars

Radars can be designed to rapidly scan large areas and are less affected by weather, smoke

and dust. Without crossing international borders, long-range stand off surveillance radars, such as

the Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS) that uses Synthetic-

Aperture Radar (SAR) etc, can provide rapid surveillance of large areas of foreign territory.

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Fig: 3.9 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

Synthetic-Aperture Radar is a form of radar whose defining characteristic is its use of

relative motion, between an antenna and its target region, to provide distinctive long-term

coherent-signal variations that are exploited to obtain finer spatial resolution that is possible with

conventional beam-scanning means.

SAR is usually implemented by mounting, on a moving platform such as an aircraft or

spacecraft, a single beam-forming antenna from which a target scene is repeatedly illuminated

with pulses of radio waves at wavelengths anywhere from a meter down to millimetres. The many

echo waveforms received successively at the different antenna positions are coherently detected

and stored and then post-processed together to resolve elements in an image of the target region.

In a typical SAR application, a single radar antenna is attached to an aircraft or spacecraft

so as to radiate a beam whose wave-propagation direction has a substantial component

perpendicular to the flight-path direction. The beam is allowed to be broad in the vertical direction

so it will illuminate the terrain from nearly beneath the aircraft out toward the horizon.

Resolution in the range dimension of the image is accomplished by creating pulses which

define very short time intervals, either by emitting short pulses consisting of a "carrier" frequency

and the necessary "sidebands", all within a certain bandwidth, or by using longer "chirp pulses" in

which frequency varies (often linearly) with time within that bandwidth. The differing times at

which echoes return allow points at different distances to be distinguished.

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Fig: 3.10 Radars

3.2.2.3 Munitions

Fielding larger Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), such as the MQ-9 Reaper, capable of

carrying much heavier payloads will open new horizons for the use of standard aerial weapons,

such as laser guided gravity dropped bombs. The main benefit of such weapons is their relative

low cost, ability to deploy from high altitude and absence of telltale acoustic or visual launch

signature. The MQ-9 Reaper will be able to carry stacks of Deployable 250 pound Small

Diameter Bomb (SDB)  relatively lightweight, high precision weapons. Current SDBs are fitted

with GPS guidance kits.

Fig: 3.11 UAV Weapons -1

Fig: 3.12 UAV Weapons -2

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Other improvements will introduce "Focused Lethality Warheads" utilizing the Dense

Inert Metal Explosive (DIME) technology, developed by the US Air Force and Lawrence

Livermore national laboratory.

Essential improvements applied on UAVs just after the operation in Kosovo included the

integration of laser designator in the standard EO/IR UAV payload. Work on a weaponized

version of the Predator commenced, culminating in a series of test firings of Lockheed martin

Hellfire missiles from USAF Predator UAVs in 2001. Another example for an early generation

armed UAVs is the Nothrop Grumman / IAI MQ-5A Hunter, an armed derivative of the RQ-5A

UAV. This aircraft was also fitted with an extended wing, carrying hard-points for two weapons

such as Hellfire or Northrop Grumman Viper-Strike munitions. The General Atomics Gnat UAV

is also designed to carry Hellfire missiles.

3.2.3 The Ground Control System or Station

The Ground Control Station (GCS) in tomorrow’s UAS environment will be part of an

integral part of managed airspace. It will house the UAS pilot and the UAS commander and will

appear to the outside world as if both people are actually aboard the air vehicle. To achieve all

this, the GCS must have secure communications with both the air-vehicle and the international,

national, regional and local air traffic management infrastructure.

3.2.3.1 Avionics Flight Display

The GCS can be configured for many different applications by using the modular

electronics compartment. The modular electronics compartment contains a comprehensive set of

connections which allows the user to install application specific hardware such as autopilot RF-

modems, video receivers, data links, data storage and recording devices.The GCS is housed in a

military-grade transportation case for maximum protection. A removable Cordura accessories bag

makes it convenient to carry small components and accessories such as a mouse, wiring, antennas

and external GPS antenna.

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Fig: 3.13 GCS Control System of UAV

Fig: 3.14 Portable GCS Control of UAV

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3.2.3.2 Navigation Guidance and Control Systems

Guidance, Navigation and Control (GN&C) algorithms are the core of flight software to

successfully complete the assigned mission through autonomous flight. It offers to the vehicle the

ability to follow waypoints and execute other pre-programmed maneuvers like automatic take-off

and landing, hovering and trajectory tracking.

The overall system consists of six functions:

1. GCS for mission definition and high-level decisions making.

2. Basic guidance system for path planning and trajectory generation.

3. Navigation system for sensors raw data fusion and vehicle’s state vector estimation. The

standard navigation sensors and capabilities onboard the rotorcrafts have been enhanced to

include a visual odometer.

4. Nonlinear controller for stabilization and trajectory tracking.

5. Communication system and interface between the autopilot and the vehicle.

6. The aerial platform.

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CHAPTER 4

CASE STUDY OF PREDATOR C: AVENGER

4.1 Predator C Avenger Introduction

The General Atomics Avenger (formerly Predator C) is a developmental unmanned

combat air vehicle built by General Atomics Aeronautical Systems for the United States military.

Its first flight occurred on 4 April 2011. Unlike the previous MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9

Reaper (Predator B) drones, the Avenger is powered by a turbofan engine, and its design

includes stealth features such as internal weapons storage, and an S-shaped exhaust for reduced

heat and radar signature.

The Avenger includes a retractable electro-optical/infrared sensor, internal weapons bay,

and folding wings. The aircraft’s structure was designed with the flexibility to accommodate

carrier suitable landing gear, tail-hook, drag devices, and other provisions for carrier operations.

Fig: 4.1 Predator C Avengers UAV

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4.2 Predator C Avenger Specification

4.2.1 General characteristics

Length: 44 ft (13 m)

Wingspan: 66 ft (20 m)

Weight: 18,200 lb (8,255 kg)

Fuel capacity: 7,900 pounds (3,600 kg)

4.2.2 Performance

Maximum speed: 460 mph (740 km/h; 400 kn)

Cruise speed: 402 mph (349 kn; 647 km/h)

Endurance: 18 hours

4.2.3 Armament

Internal weapons bay with 3,500 pounds (1,600 kg) capacity. 6 external hard points.

6,500 pounds (2,900 kg) payload total.

AGM-114P Hellfire  missiles

GBU-39 SDB  - 250 lb bombs

GBU-12 Paveway II , GBU-38 JDAM - 500 lb bombs

GBU-16 Paveway II , GBU-32 JDAM - 1000 lb bombs

GBU-31 JDAM  - 2000 lb bombs

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CHAPTER 5

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF UAV

5.1 ADVANTAGES

The advantages of using an Unmanned Air Vehicle, relative to use of a manned aircraft, are

that the UAV:

1. Does not contain, or need, a qualified pilot on board

2. Can enter environments that are dangerous to human life

3. Reduces the exposure risk of the aircraft operator

4. Can stay in the air for up to 30 hours, performing a precise, repetitive raster scan of a

region, day-after-day, night-after-night in complete darkness, or, in fog, under computer

control:

a. performing a geological survey

b. performing visual or thermal imaging of a region

c. measuring cell phone, radio, or, TV coverage over any terrain

5. Can be programmed to complete the mission autonomously even when contact with its

GCS is lost.

6.  Drones can have more pinpoint accuracy from greater distances, thus reducing collateral

damage to civilians and infrastructure.

7.  Drones are as lethal to enemy combats as regular airplanes.

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8.  Drones have proven to increase surveillance, reconnaissance, and general military

intelligence.

5.2 DISADVANTAGES

1. Costly compared to manned vehicles.

2. Limited Abilities: Drones have obvious limitations. For example, they cannot

communicate with civilians for more detailed intelligence.

3. More hardware complexity.

CHAPTER 6

APPLICATIONS OF UAV

UAVs perform a wide variety of functions. The majority of these functions are some form

of remote sensing; this is central to the reconnaissance role most UAVs fulfill. Less common

UAV functions include interaction and transport.

6.1 Remote Sensing

UAV remote sensing functions include electromagnetic spectrum sensors, biological

sensors, and chemical sensors. A UAV's electromagnetic sensors typically include visual

spectrum, infrared cameras as well as radar systems. Other electromagnetic wave detectors such

as microwave and ultraviolet spectrum sensors may also be used, but are uncommon. Biological

sensors are sensors capable of detecting the airborne presence of various microorganisms and

other biological factors. Chemical sensors use laser spectroscopy to analyze the concentrations of

each element in the air.

6.2 Aerial Surveillance

Aerial surveillance of large areas is made possible with UAV systems. Surveillance

applications include: wildfire mapping, pipeline security, home security, military, road patrol .

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The trend for use of UAV technology in commercial aerial surveillance is expanding rapidly with

increased development of automated object detection approaches.

6.3 Transport

UAVs can transport goods using various means based on the configuration of the UAV

itself. Most payloads are stored in an internal payload bay somewhere in the airframe. For

any helicopter configurations, external payloads can be tethered(tied) to the bottom of the

airframe. With fixed-wing  UAVs, payloads can also be attached to the airframe.

6.4 Armed Attacks

MQ-1 Predator UAVs armed with Hellfire missiles are increasingly used by the U.S. as

platforms for hitting ground targets. Armed Predators were first used in late 2001 from bases

in  Uzbekistan, mostly aimed at assassinating high profile individuals (terrorist leaders etc) inside

Afghanistan. Since then, there have been many reported cases of such attacks taking place in

Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen and Somalia. The advantage of using an unmanned vehicle, rather

than a manned aircraft, in such cases is to avoid a diplomatic embarrassment should the aircraft be

shot down and the pilots captured, since the bombings take place in countries deemed friendly and

without the official permission of those countries.

6.6 Search and Rescue

UAVs will likely play an increased role in search and rescue in the United States. This

was demonstrated by the use of UAVs during the 2008 hurricanes that struck Louisiana and

Texas. Micro UAVs, such as the Aeryon Scout have been used to perform Search and Rescue

activities on a smaller scale, such as the search for missing persons.

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

From the results of this study, it is clear that the future of the UAV as an all-around

combat vehicle is a possibility. With more research and technological advances, it is possible that

the UAV may well replace manned combat aircraft in the future.

The advantages of unmanned aerial vehicle against manned combat aircraft are numerous.

First is the risk of being shot down. If a UAV is shot down, the military can just assemble another

one and be ready to fly in just minutes while if a manned combat aircraft is shot down, the risk of

the pilot being killed and/or captured is high. With combat UAVs, casualties in war could be

reduced tremendously.

The main contribution that is to be accomplished in this is the development of a low cost

avionics unit.This avionics unit included a variety of sensors and digital display units that are

needed to develop a complete autopilot system.

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REFERENCES

[1]The 2015 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems

June 9 - 12, 2015 Denver Marriott Tech Center Denver, Colorado, USA

[2] Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)

http://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=4431538589

[3] History of unmanned aerial vehicles

Http:/www.huav.com/History_of_unmanned_aerial_vehicles

[4] Autonomous Flying Robots

http://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=4431538569

[5] US Navy UAVs in Actionhttp://www.theuav.com/

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[6] General Atomics Predator C Avenger  http://General_Atomics_Avenger

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