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Machiavelli & Sun Tzu
A Preliminary Comparative Analysis
_____________________ John Read
HD998010M
March 2001
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Introduction
How is it that different centuries, different cultures and cultural settings, can produce
such similarities of the rules for commanding men?
The historical context for Sun Wu (later called Sun Tzu) is China approximately 350 BC.
His works or Bin Fa represents the first clearly documented military strategy in oriental
history.
Since publication, he has influenced many Emporers in China and Japan, until translation
into French where Napolean is said to have tried to follow his strategies. Translation into
English enabled US military colleges to prescribe it as a text. Even more recently it has
been hailed by business champions the world over.
His strategies are said to have influenced Japan and ultimately found their way into post
WWII industrialisation of that country. Application as market strategies by modern
Japanese business has been immensely successful. I have always regarded the intrusion of
Sony into American culture though purchase of Universal Studios as the ultimate take-
over strategy! Buying a majority share holding in your enemys popular culture is a
wonderful move sending shivers through much of middle USA. It is a supreme victory of
the vanquished over the battle. They lost the war but are winning the economic race,
shifting the war to their home ground: the industrial market economy. Here they are
champions, building from scratch their pride, their infrastructure and their discipline with
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team work and such vigor that it has taken USA some twenty years to catch up with them
again.
Sun Tzus works have clearly proven the cleverness of war strategies even as applied to
industry, market and economics. Today, these strategies rule business with unnerving
success. Two well accepted paradigms have been broken here, in curious harmony:
1. War Strategies apply very well to business
2. Japanese, the enemy state, own more Hollywood movies than does America; they can
lay claim to winning a cultural victory over the USA
Machiavelli on the other hand, wrote during the early sixteenth century, during the
Renaissance times of Italy. Deeply affected by the use & misuse of power in the State,
imprisoned by a corrupt power of the Medici family, he writes first hand about his
experience of power and leadership strategies.
His strategies on war and peace are as insightful & powerful as Sun Tzus. He can count
amongst his followers, Lee Kuan Yew, Bill Gates & Warren Buffett. Machiavelli realised
that war is more common than peace. He tells leaders that if they are not preparing for
war then they are likely to be easily defeated.
A brief story will help to throw light on the impact Machiavelli has had in the west.
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One of the toughest elite fighting forces in the world is the special operations group of
the US Airforce known as the Delta Force. These are the air and land equivalent of the
US Navys Seals.
Training and selection for Delta Force involves over two weeks of gruelling physical and
mental testing. After marching and living in the jungle for two weeks, sometimes with
rations sometimes without, there are just 25% of applicants remaining. These soldiers are
then sent on a forty mile long march, under strict time constraints are imposed, where
they are deprived of sleep, food rationing is applied and physical endurance is put to the
final test. At the end of this stage, the officers amongst them are allowed a shower and
are given a copy of a book. The book is Machiavellis, The Prince. They take a written
and oral examination and have eighteen hours to convince their examiners that they have
read and understood Machiavelli and can apply it to the tasks they may face in command.
They must demonstrate this capability under deliberately stressful conditions, proving
their combat leadership potential.
This paper attempts to take a closer look at each writer: Sun Tzu and Machiavelli
comparing their strategies, assumptions and applications to modern business practice. We
will consider one text from each writer as a practical focus: Sun Tzus Art of War as
translated and described by Prof. Wee Et Al. (1991), and Machiavellis The Prince, an
Oxford University Press edition (1984), translated by Peter Bondanella. Peter is
Distinguished Professor of Comparative Literature & Professor of Film Studies, Italian,
& West European Studies at Indiana University, USA where he serves as the Chairman
of the Department of West European Studies. This edition is co-authored by Mark Musa,
Distinguished Professor of Italian at Indiana University. Other references will be
accessed, as they throw light on these two main texts.
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Both Sun Tzu and Machiavelli have their respective elements of style, language and
language construction. Forms that reflect their authors mind, character and intent. It is
very interesting to note the difficulties in translating from both texts due to our inability
to find words today to match the original works intention. [It seems that we may be
facing one more significant deforestation: our language. There is bio-diversity, and
cultural diversity as well as linguistic diversity. Each of these seem to be reducing with
equal measure, our human heritage.]
Explaining the misuse of Machiavelli, Prof. Bondanella points to the difficulty of finding
words in the English language to capture the multitude of different meanings of a single
word in Italian. Virtu, as an example, can carry up to nine different English words
depending upon the context. Like the Chinese characters in Sun Tzus works,
Renaissance Italian is a multi-level language that is context bound and must be translated
carefully to convey they same complexity of meaning intended by the original author.
English does not enable such translations easily, and for both books the translators have
had to choose nearest available terms to reflect the apparent intention of the original
authors. We rely on the correctness of these translations.
Today we can see and translate principles developed by both Sun Tzu & Machiavelli as
guides for both companies and market strategies. They can offer guidance to leaders in
business with their own lessons and differences, as we shall see.
It is often said: All is fair in love and war. Moral and ethical behavior is bounded by the
local context...whether it is business or market, national or international. The freedoms
of love and war are also context bound, these boundaries are more elastic in these two
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cases only, significantly less so than in the business context. In business, reputation
controls influence and profit. The time of reaction between reputation and profit are very
much shorter in business than in love and war. It takes very little time for a fall in
business reputation to lead to a decline profit.
An example of this right now is to look at the disease ruining the livestock industry in
Europe. Others like the tobacco industry, Monsanto Chemicals and its Bhopal Accident
or Nike and its overseas manufacturers show direct and rapid links between these two
elements in business. Moral boundaries vary across nations but remain much closer than
practices in (love and) war. This is also changing today with the rise of war crimes
tribunals, as they work to define the moral boundaries of war.
Lets begin by looking at Machiavelli and The Prince.
Scope of Strategies: Machiavelli
It is useful in any comparative analysis to portray both the standing point and the scope
of views provided by each strategist. So that we can identify apples from oranges, and
compare them appropriately.
Nicolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince as an application for the position of Chief
Strategist to Lorenzo, Prince of Italy. As Son of Piero de Medici, Lorenzo and his family
had the potential to re-unite Italy. Soderini, the ousted Florentine Republican State
Secretary, groomed Machiavelli. Machiavelli had visited and forged strategic agreements
with heads of State across Europe & Italy. He was also head of the Militia for the
Republic of Florence. He was interested in identifying and developing general rules and
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principles for the rule of men, State and Nation. This was unique amongst writers of his
time.
During this period, Italy was not a unified country, more a collection of independent but
related states. Not a federation, but an interlocking, sometimes enemy, sometimes
friendly collection of neighboring states. Machiavellis vision was a united and strong
Italy.
Machiavelli wrote The Prince after he was expelled from the civil service, a role he
held for fifteen years from 1498 to 1512. He was in a good position to view first-hand the
fall and rise of a new empire in his own state. He experienced first hand the political
practices that arise when heads of state roll, as he observed when the Medici family took
power.
He wrote The Prince during a break he took from his research for another book, that of
commenting on Livys History of Rome. From his research there he gained insights into
the rise and fall of empires and translated these observations into his contemporary
political context. He combined this with his first-hand exposure to exile and removal
from influence to derive a prescription for mastering nation, state and men by his future
prospective employer.
He observed that the Medici family faced a unique historical opportunity (occasione): to
become supreme ruler and commander of a unified Italy. They had usurped power in
Tuscany, family son Lorenzo had been appointed to the papacy, gaining effective control
of the Papal States. Machiavelli envisioned this opportunity most clearly and sought to
become part of it. If not its architect then at least its servant. He saw the challenge this
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opportunity presented to the Medici family, imposing upon their ability, skill and
ingenuity to fulfill (their virtu). Such opportunity, meeting extant capability was indeed
historical fortune. Machiavelli notes the benevolence of such fortune (fortuna) & had his
own reasons for writing to capitalise upon them.
Importantly, Machiavelli tells about power and influence like it is. This pragmatic non-
idealistic perspective of leadership was against the literary and moral rules of his times.
Even today, Machiavelli seems to challenge the morals of our times with his favor of
pragmatism & common logic.
The answer to this partly is found in the translation process from Renaissance Italian to
English. It is tempting to choose selected quotations from the works, take them out of
their original situation and misinterpret them. Losing intended meaning is as good as
plagiarism, when interpreting and translating original works. As identified earlier, misuse
of translation can reflect the translators intent more strongly than the original authors
works. Author Stanley Bing in his book What Would Machiavelli do? The ends justify
the meanness(2000), plays this game very well to secure a satirical look at Machiavelli's
management style.
None the less there are distinct moral questions raised as well as overlooked by
Machiavelli, his interest in becoming architect of Italian reform, his impassioned plea to
Prince Lorenzo to pursue this cause as a higher ideal than the Prince himself is religious
in nature. Putting the means of political and state advantage towards patriotic ends is seen
but not answered by Machiavelli as a righteous goal. Many have quoted him as saying
the ends justify the means, however pragmatism is rather more clearly portrayed by
Machiavelli as the most efficient and least harmful way to reach a strong and stable
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internal state. Bondella (1984) notes that Machiavelli was most unlike his prescription for
success, and could not be accused of being Machiavellian himself! (page xvi).
Machiavelli proposed a moral outcome: a strong and stable Italy, one who could repel
attacks from within and outside it, to become a secure state and nation for the betterment
of members within. We might observe a similar intent and result for the Republic of
Singapore through Lee Kuan Yew, or in Microsoft by Bill Gates.
In short, moral outcomes are intended and not overlooked by Machiavelli. He aims his
pragmatism at a morally justifiable social outcome for his country. These principles and
strategies explained below can equally be applied to modern business.
Machiavellis Strategies in The Prince
Like Sun Tzu, Machiavellis strategies can be grouped together into chapters. There are
twenty-six of these chapters covering all of the preparations and principles needed for
effective success at winning and sustaining Head of State & Nation.
A summary of these chapters and their strategies follows:
I How many kinds of Principalities (states ruled by Prince) are there & the
Ways They are Acquired
Machiavelli identifies two types of states: those under rule by Prince and are used to
being subjects, & a republic, unused to strong rule by one person.
He defines two types of acquisition of states: inheritance or by force using either ones
own or someone elses forces. (In business, we can define two types of market
acquisition: take over of a market as a competitor leaves for some reason, equivalent to
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inheritance; and either direct entry or piggy backing on someone elses position in the
market).
II Hereditary Principalities
Places used to rule by one prince are easier to acquire and maintain, by adhering to the
previous culture, changing as little as required to meet new events. Loyalty will more
likely follow a benevolent situation arising from long term singular princely rule. (I can
see many applications of this in company mergers and acquisitions. My current employer
TMP Worldwide, who took us (Morgan & Banks) over recently, has left the local
management and systems intact, with very few changes made, consequently there is little
impact on existing loyalty)
Where innovation or change occurs, its uniqueness can be lost in the annals of time,
whereas the overriding quality of rule will be preserved in peoples minds.
III On Mixed Principalities
Change of ruler is problematic because those taken over must switch loyalty. Both your
own staff and the locals will suffer injury in the new order. The closer the culture and
values of the two states, the easier they are to acquire and maintain. Common customs
and laws can overcome differences in language. If this is the case the usurper can just
eliminate the family of the previous ruler leaving the people alone to get together. In the
case of very dissimilar places in terms of customs, it is necessary to have a strong
presence (The Prince himself) to live in the new place and provide direct means to issue
resolution, and detect & resolve trouble early. This will lead to loyalty and control. Place
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colonies of the home state staff into the new territory in dispersed areas so as to diminish
the local strength and save the cost of maintaining an army there. Keeping an army
outstationed injures everyone, home state, and province in taxes & protection as well loss
of opportunity. Rebellion may follow. Use controls to remove the possibility for revenge.
Use the weaker locals to support the stronger colonists as the Romans did effectively
building control across Europe by blocking other foreign powers. They ruled from the
bottom up, capturing the market first, then controlling entry to the market through their
gateways and subject to their rules.
Time can weaken a states resolve and an armys strength, so that choosing to fight a
battle today is better than putting it off until tomorrow. Having wide spread of colonists
and good communications is essential to hear about competition or the threat of war.
Spread these assets as far as possible, to detect such movement early.
Anyone who is the cause of anothers becoming powerful comes to ruin himself, because
that power is the result either of cunning or force, both of which threaten the one who has
claimed power.
(This speaks to us of many important principles underlying change management,
company integration from merger or acquisition, and succession planning. Thomson
Yaohan and Sogo both Japanese retailers have collapsed from failures in international
management practice. These companies placed senior managers from Japan HQ into
senior positions in their regional operations. They failed to enable them to take charge in
their local markets. Each major decision had to go back to HQ and follow the company
line. They were unable to manage under disparate local conditions, neither moving fast
enough or appropriately to meet local market needs.)
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IV Why the Kingdom of Darius, occupied by Alexander, did not rebel against
his successors after the Death of Alexander
There are two kinds of Princely leadership strategies of State: The Leader and his
authorised ministers (Such as the King in Thailand) or The Leader and separate regional
leaders who choose to follow the Leader, but may rule with their own law.
Acquiring the first is more difficult since the Prince can command the whole States
forces at once. Acquiring the second is easier since once the influential are subdued, the
rest will follow.
Maintaining the first is easier since they all follow one law and one rule, keeping and
ruling the second is harder since the laws and practices of many must change. Desire to
change will exist in the diverse situation of the second making winning easier to reach
but unification much harder as there are many more factions to satisfy.
In summary, different situations give rise to different experiences and requirements for
acquiring and maintaining power. Identifying your situation and adapting to these
requirements is vital for success.
(Perhaps the longest surviving leader in business in the USA is Jack Welch of General
Electric. He has always sought and gained the respect of his subordinates and his
employees. Not always liked, but always respected as a decision-maker and perspective
setter, he has been able to continue to re-design his company to meet the changing market
expectations for his products and services.)
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V How Cities or Principalities should be Governed that lived by their own laws
before they were Occupied
There are three methods for holding states who were subject to their own laws and
customs previously: first is to destroy them, second is to occupy them personally, third is
to allow them freedom under your protection paying taxes to you and allowing friendly
self-governance. Essentially there are two motivators here...loyalty or obedience. Loyalty
provides better control than externally delivered rule by obedience or external discipline.
(Just as Sun Tzu says!)
Republics, used to self-government, must be either destroyed or occupied so as to
maintain loyalty.
(Like Sun Tzu, Machiavelli shows us the importance of emotional attachment at work,
and speaks to us about the psychological contract there. Both writers give building
loyalty as a basic tenet of leader-follower relationships. This is more sound than external
discipline enforcement. Most modern management theories subscribe to the same
principle, but interestingly, more bureaucratic and authoritarian managers ignore this at
their peril. Machiavelli would advise them to build their staffs loyalty to secure a more
permanent relationship, that rice bowl and pay are insufficient reason to come to work.)
VI On new Principalities Acquired by ones own Arms & Skill
Introducing a new order of things takes the most skills and ingenuity, since all those
under the old scheme will suffer injury, those who support change will only be lukewarm
to the risk of new profit. Men are by their nature sceptical unless by first hand experience
they can be influenced.
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Innovation therefore requires support to become successful in the long term, unarmed it
will whither and die naturally and quickly.
(These two principles are reflected in everyday corporate life. We know that building the
case for change is crucial to its success, and it takes more time and effort than the original
scheme of things took to secure. 3M Company derive 25% of their profit and revenue
from new products, drive innovation through continuous programming across the
company. Significant resources are put from the top to the bottom at this company to
keep innovation happening)
VII On New Principalities Acquired with the arms of Others & by Fortune
Becoming a leader by skill or fortune creates different challenges for maintaining that
position. A skilled leader will already be recognised and therefore has little extra to do to
maintain his position. The fortunate Leader may also be cursed, he will have to do much
work to maintain his position, creating allies, building support and proving his followers
that he can sustain them.
Following the good example set by others, imitating their successful strategies can
provide a guide to future courses of action. Learning from their mistakes can prevent you
from becoming redundant or getting eliminated. Matching your strategy to a good
analysis of the situation (state value and character customs, state ownership, means of
transferring control, methods of supervision and ultimate goal will all direct the leaders
choice of strategy).
Each authority you place in a subordinate position can rise to overthrow you, so be
careful to anticipate this and build other measures or structures to counter this. Men do
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harm out of fear or hatred, and do not forget old injuries. Their memory cannot be bought
over.
(These points speak to both corporate and market behavior.)
VIII On those who have become Princes through Wickedness
Machiavelli clearly distinguishes power from glory. He states that gaining power by
doing evil can never lead to glory. He cites Agathocles the Sicilian as an example, who
by killing the people who put him in power secured the people to him. He then resisted
the Catharginians several times securing the peoples safety. But at such a price and
inhumanity as to be regarded and judged as evil rather than excellent. He clearly defines
the limits of pragmatism as being bounded within religious and moral codes, none of
which Agathocles abided by. Consequently it must be concluded that it was done for
selfish reasons alone, and this is not enough to become classified as a great leader,
according to Machiavelli.
Evil can be used but must be brought back to account; otherwise it will destroy the user
as any addiction might. Evil must be delivered quickly and the benefits won savored long
so as to justify the action.
(I guess it depends on whom you ask, when you come to bring evil to account. There are
always winners and losers, in markets, in business and in corporate life. Great corporate
leaders are judged by their effectiveness in the share market as well as their people
orientation by their employees and managers. Great companies are judged very
pragmatically by the market, loyalty can be transacted but there are rules such as those
defined here by Machiavelli).
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IX On the Civil Principality
Leaders can arise by appointment; by either from the people or the nobility, depending
which has the opportunity to choose. Balancing these two powers may give rise to a
leader nominated from either party.
Machiavelli notes that a Prince can defend against hostile nobles since they are few, but
not against the people since they are many. To defend against hostile nobles or
subordinates one must nurture those who are loyal and eliminate those with loyalty ties
elsewhere. Winning the heart of the people is essential in all cases, since they are needed
in times of attack.
There are no fixed rules for gaining the peoples loyalty, varying as they do with each
situation. Simply, they dont want to be oppressed. Machiavelli has in mind the many
common folk and businesses that flourish under a benevolent Prince. The rules for
gaining loyalty of each group and individual will necessarily vary. Securing that loyalty
remains the best foundation of strength for an excellent leader, and not fear.
Relying on ministers or other officials can be a problem in times of attack, since
mobilisation can take too long or even be refused. Maintaining loyalty between a Prince
and his subjects is essential for effective leadership.
(Realising loyalty counts for effective leadership seems somehow opposite to the
pragmatic viewpoint. People get paid, so they should just do their job, do what they are
instructed. Yet this is not enough, and has never been enough to sustain loyalty. This
principle has driven companies and governments alike to support People Development
programs. Maintaining credibility, and the case for need by employees for their leader,
will help to secure their cooperation in times of crises)
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X How Strength of All Principalities Should be Measured
There are two types of defence capabilities: those who can call upon and command an
army to defend themselves in most battles, and those who cannot, relying on the walls of
the city and their defensive position to maintain security. A Prince who has no enemies in
the people, can hold a secure territory against most insurgents, by reputation they are
virtually untouchable. (A good business example of this is the favored monopolies of
Coca Cola or Walt Disney, and how difficult these two are as competitors for anyone
trying to enter their markets). Giving loyalty also creates obligation by those who give it
even after they experience a loss, paying part of the price gives way to a willingness to
continue to support the initial investment made until the transaction is completed.
(Market leaders create loyalty and will find it easier to keep it than those going in second
or third, resistance to change plus the wish to collect against the investment back deepens
loyalty over time).
XI On Ecclesiastical Principalities
These are territories governed by the Church. The Princes in these places are subjugated
to the Church. The Church can spread its power through these Princes by providing them
with much needed funds and resources. This way the Prince can serve the ends of the
Church but be removed from the Church, employing normal war and combat strategies.
This way the Church can act though it was a ruler, acquiring territories and expanding its
influence.
The chapters so far above from Machiavelli, cover the types of territories, their different
situations and conditions. In the business environment these territories equate to
marketplaces. The prince translates to a business leader, especially the CEO. Machiavelli
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moves on in the next series of chapters, to discuss the troops and special forces required
to enable offensive and defensive moves to be made.
XII On the various Kinds of Troops & Mercenary Soldiers
Machiavelli notes that armies of mercenaries are a very poor choice of defence. Once
they win for you, you become their prisoner. They are strong in public but weak in battle.
They always seek to runaway to fight again another day...that is their business. So they
cannot be relied upon at all to be loyal or successful. (I trust that Machiavelli doesnt put
consultants into the category of mercenaries. I guess that he makes keen observations
about using contractors for core processes in your business, whose loyalty is more acutely
focussed elsewhere and not to you.)
XIII On Auxiliary, Mixed and Citizen Soldiers
Time and again Machiavelli cites examples from Italian, Roman and European history to
show that troops composed of citizens were the most loyal, with those comprised of other
peoples troops also more likely to change positions to their advantage rather than yours.
He uses Switzerland as a fine example of a country comprising inner strength in defense
and armory, and thus presenting a strong face to the outside world. Means to assemble
such a force are easy when the citizens believe in the cause (not someone elses war
unaffecting your own territory) and are loyal to their Prince.
XIV A Princes Duty concerning Military Matters
Machiavelli deduced that the leader or Prince must take up defence, indeed war, as his
sole profession. Neglect of this art is the primary reason for the fall of states. A Prince
who claims to lead cannot do so without respect of his soldiers (like the looming position
in Indonesia again). This he gains through knowledge and practice of the arts of war.
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Machiavelli knows that good fortune greets the prepared mind and ill fortune is
conquered by the equally prepared mind. Any Prince should not ignore practising the art
of war. (In the global markets of today one can say that the new battlefield is the internet;
the new markets are global ones, reachable, penetrable by anyone from anywhere).
Machiavelli advises his Prince to take up study of others war and combat strategies, as a
life-long learning matter. He advises that imitation is a survival strategy that relies on
knowledge of past history and success in battles. To sharpen your wits and hone them on
the experience of others who were great before you is a mark of self respect as well as
respect for others. Your people and your troops will respect you, for your applications in
this regard. Observing differences in current conditions also remains paramount.
XV On those things for which men, and particularly Princes, are praised or
blamed.
Machiavelli deals with the methods and procedures for handling subjects and friends, by
his Prince. His primary rule here is pragmatism. To quote him: Hence it is necessary for
a Prince who wishes to maintain his position to learn how not to be good, and to use this
knowledge or not to use it according to necessity.(p52)
The aim of the Prince must be his survival. Virtue and vices are measured against this
standard, rejected if they lead to his downfall, practiced if they lead to his safety and
well-being.
(One might balk here at the callous nature of this proposition, but it appears quite true to
say that in Ancient China they practiced this and still do today to a great extent. There is
remarkable similarity between the two schools of behavior.)
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XVI On Generosity and Miserliness
Generosity is a virtue. So says everyone but Machiavelli! He knows that it can lead to
loss of resources, overspending and ruin. He disdains it in favor of effective preparations
for war, for defence, and for enterprises that will build his state. Remember, if it leads to
destruction of the state, then it cannot be held up as a virtue.
Machiavelli quickly identifies the path to hatred from generosity for a Prince. Once you
start you cannot suddenly stop, unmet expectations will lead to despite and then hatred.
Hatred in men is the major cause of a leaders downfall. Avoid this at all costs, but yet
balance this with the need to be effective. The Prince has a role to play, securing and
maintaining the State; this cannot be achieved by goodwill or good actions all the time.
XVII On cruelty and mercy, and whether it is better to be feared or the contrary
Machiavelli realistically notes that it may be necessary to show some signs or examples
of mercy to prevent greater loss and misery. Examples enable loyalty and unity to be
strengthened.
New states once occupied must be cruel to implement change but he must always seek to
be merciful rather than cruel.
In answer to the question is it better to be loved or feared he states that it better to be
both! If the Prince can only have one, it is better to be feared. Ingratious, deceivers,
chameleons and advantage takers, these are the characteristics of all men, he explains by
looking at the course and records of European history. Men will turn upon you unless it is
also to their advantage to stay with you. Machiavelli notes that fear of punishment is
stronger than love, since love is held together by a chain of obligation that can be broken
when it suits, but fear remains and cannot be shaken off.
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Fear can breed hatred and thus must be delivered carefully. He cites Hannibal as one
clear example of the ability of fear to bring together different groups of soldiers from
many different states and bind them together so strongly that he could accomplish so
much through their loyalty. It was fear that drove that loyalty. (One might say that this
does translate into business in several ways: leadership of the market through fear of the
competition is a seriously useful strategy. All government industries use this strategy to
first dominate and then control the market by dividing it up themselves. Applying this to
employees say, seems to require a longer bow, perhaps only because the exigencies of
war and combat require much higher forms of loyalty than does business or employment.
There are alternatives in employment.)
XVIII How should a Prince Keep his Word?
It is here that Machiavelli transcends loyalty and identifies the highest form of leadership:
one sees from the experience of our times that the princes who have accomplished great
deeds are those who have cared little for keeping promises and who have known how to
manipulate the minds of men by shrewdness (p58).
Sounds like a Chinese sayingcan you think of one dear reader?
Machiavelli notes that the Centaur, half-man, half-horse teaches a great ruler. He must
learn to appeal to and use both strengths. He must be like the lion, ready to frighten the
wolves, but like the fox who can detect the traps. Pragmatism rules here, keeping your
word is subject to advantage or disadvantage created.
Machiavelli cleverly notes the difference between using such deception every time and
appearing to have this power but not always using it. The Prince must be flexible of
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strategy according to the needs of the situation and such as affairs require him to act. He
confirms five virtues: mercy, faithfullness, integrity, kindness and religion. But that any
of these is subject to the situation. And the final result is the standard always. Did it work
to preserve and secure or did it lead to disaster and loss. The many will judge, the few
will change, so that what the Prince does will be assessed by the many people rather than
the few nobles or others. In this way the market and to a certain extent the employees of a
company and a nation have greater power than the shareholders.
XIX On Avoiding Being Despised and Hated
These are important leadership qualities for a Prince to use to secure his tenure. He can
use the love and loyalty of the people to drive fear into his enemys hearts and minds. He
can use success to build alliances externally as well as protect himself internally. Keeping
the common people contented and the nobleman too if there any, is a singularly important
goal for any prince. Creation of the parliament in France is a good example of creating
suitable structures to deal with various needs and demands from both nobleman and
people. Companies create bureaucracies to keep the management tasks and employee
tasks separate, and then create focus groups to bring their customers into the company.
These separate structures reflect a similar strategy as that of Machiavelli. So do Boards
and Executive committees of companies. He notes that in imitating others traits or
strategies a leader should be careful to use only what the situation needs and no more,
blind imitation is as deadly as the failure to avoid old mistakes.
XX On whether fortresses and many things that Princes employ every day are
useful or harmful
Covering the crucial rules here, Machiavelli notes that if the ruler finds his people
unarmed, then he should arm them. He will immediately win their loyalty and support; of
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course you cannot arm them all, so use those you have armed to influence those who are
not.
History, he cites, is full of stories of new armies created this way as a means of securing
loyalty trust and support. When taking over a neighboring state, it will be necessary to
disarm that state and secure it using your own forces kept near to your home. He
discusses the idea of divide and conquering, advising us that it never works in the longer
term since divided houses or states cannot be ruled. He suggests that it may be better to
create opportunities for the Prince to demonstrate his leadership by crafting an hostility
and defeating it. Then it can become news that brings friends together and warring parties
into a common perspective about their leader.
He notes suspect people in power, have been used by Princes for their good, but it does
not always work. Problems of power sharing, and controlling these individuals can be
significant disadvantages. He concludes that this tactic is entirely circumstantial. Those
who change allegiance due to earlier dissatisfaction will be hardest to build loyalty with.
It is better to build loyalty from his enemys people, the occupying peoples, rather than
apparent friends on the inside. This has interesting implications for succession planning
and hiring and promotion decisions that are most frequently made from those we like.
Another principle he cites from his historical observation is that using fortresses to
protect people is also circumstantial. He notes that fortresses are good for his people
whom he is more afraid of than foreigners are, whereas not having fortresses is best when
he has the love of the people.
XXI How a Prince Should Act to Acquire Esteem
Great undertakings and examples of unusual talent are clearly effective ways to
demonstrate leadership and gain esteem.
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This may include grand schemes to overthrow other lands (markets), operating in
different spheres, keeping his subjects busy with one or another whilst he makes moves in
another still. Creating winning streaks as he proceeds. Making grand events of local good
or evil will also impress the masses. (This might be translated into efforts like corporate
sponsorship, or building champions in the public service through special award events).
Being clear about his allegiances, stating to everyone what they are helps everyone to be
happier. Being as good a friend as you are enemy clears everyones mind about your
stance. Aid from friends is only possible when you are clear to them that you remain only
their friends. Remaining neutral is mostly a poor strategy, unless like Switzerland, every
one knows how well equipped you are and does not dare to move against you.
Going down with a friend is a stronger position to rise up from than going down alone
with no allies. He notes that this is a choice and not an obligation, unlike joining the
winning side this situation just creates obligation not friendship or loyalty.
Rewarding talent and moderating taxes is an important strategy for a prince. These acts of
leadership show love for the people as well for their talent. Maintaining the dignity of his
position over and above everything will win hearts and minds of the people. Helping all
the while to celebrate special eventsjust like the mosaic culture here in Singapore.
XXII On the Princes Private Advisers
Advisers can be judged by their co-advisers. Look at the co-advisers and judge the
intelligence of the adviser by his choice.
If the adviser thinks more about himself than you then you and he are doomed. You will
never be able to trust him, nor his advice.
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For good advisers, reward them well, put them in your debt, honor them and share
responsibilities with them. Do not overwhelm him in reward or duties, rather let him
perform so that he can also manage when changes come.
XXIII On How to Avoid Flatterers
Teach your advisers and subordinates to tell you the truth, such that there is no room left
for falsehoods such as flattery. Demonstrate your listening skills well, such that staff will
open up to you and tell you the truth. Act on their feedback and demonstrate that you
have listened. Express decisions firmly once made and do not change them. The Prince
must be able to tell what is good advice and what is not; otherwise he will not last long.
He must seek counsel when he needs it, and not otherwise.
XXIV Why Italian Princes Have Lost their States
Newly arrived leaders are much more closely watched than existing ones. Good deeds
build better loyalty than simple inheritance does, so that performing well creates
opportunity to build the strongest form of support.
Forgetting the rain in good times as Machiavelli says, is a common failure in Princes. Not
making hay while the sun shines is the reason that most states were taken. Idleness in
peaceful times is a strategic loss of opportunity. Preparing for war is the most important
task in peace times apart from building the people. If you build and cannot defend, all is
lost, and then if you defend but do not build eventually you will have nothing worth
defending.
And losing by escape when all else fails, may be the only means but it can also be
fruitless. Since it does not use your own resources but makes you dependent upon others,
at their mercy. (An interesting interpretation of Strategy 36 of the 36 Strategies also by
Prof. Wee).
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To quote Machiavelli on this matter: And those methods alone are good, are certain, are
lasting, that depend on yourself and your own ingenuity. (p. 81)
This cautions all in business to be careful about alliances, partnerships and similar
structures that involve sharing of ownership and responsibility by leaders and their teams.
XXV On Fortunes Role in Human Affairs & How She Can Be Dealt With
Living as if there was only fortune will lead to loss of state and dominion. Living as if
matters can be influenced and controlled prepares one for events precipitated by fortune.
Whether natural or man-made events, either of these is influenced by fortune and can be
met with preparations. Acting in tune with his times is a better strategy than not doing so.
But adapting to the changing conditions and times is the superior strategy. For two men
who use the same strategy, one can reach and the other does not. Equally, two men, one
of who uses good strategies prospers and one who uses evil strategies and prospers
depending on the times and conditions prevailing. As a general trend, risk-taking over
caution is preferred because fortune is a woman who must be subdued. She is fickle, like
chance it always meets the prepared better than the unprepared.
XXVI An Exhortation to Liberate Italy from the Barbarians
In this final chapter Machiavelli uses all of his earlier principles to show how Italy should
be liberated from the various regional states and their rulers that currently occupy them.
He cites Livys historical works as follows:
Only those wars that are necessary are just, and arms are sacred when there is no hope
except through arms.
These exhortations seem to have only minor application to the business world since the
boundaries of war are so much vaster than that of business. Our expectations of business
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are more clearly defined and more widely communicated. Business is subject to the
written laws; war is less so, at least at this point in history.
One can better see now the origins of Machiavellis works. Their scope and application to
business cases especially to leadership has been pursued by a number of writers. Michael
Leeden (1999) identifies many useful messages and rules about the nature of man, about
leading men and applications to modern business and politics. He identifies the following
key messages for leaders today:
1. Loyalty is necessary for motivation in an age where choice is enabled
2. War is more common than times of peace, preparing for war, on the battlefield, at the
ballot box or in the marketplace are likely to be defeated
3. Luck favors the prepared and the skillful
4. Communication, including secrecy and deception are important tools for leaders
5. Preparing and inspiring new leaders to meet the challenges arising is a noble and
important act, since this has widest impact on the largest number of people.
Lets move now to Sun Tzus Bin Fa.
Scope of Strategies: Sun Tzu
Here we can place Sun Tzu in his context as the greatest oriental military strategist ever.
He has written a complete set of instructions for military success, defining his case this
way: Know your enemy, know yourself, and your victory will not be threatened. Know
the terrain, know the weather; and your victory will be complete. (p.3)
Supporting these principles, Sun Tzu recommends tactics that involve two or more rings
up to five for best military effect: ground, water, fire, wind and void. Together with rules
for deception, use of surprise and much more that we shall review briefly here reflect a
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much more detailed treatise on military strategy than Machiavelli has produced. I find
Sun Tzus works much more thorough, and complete like comparing an encyclopedia or
complete workshop manual with a novel. None the less Machiavelli has many serious
points to make about human nature and leadership survival that are useful and
fundamentally important. They are similar in many ways to the rules of engagement by
Sun Tzu. His focus however is more detailed and complete as it addresses the steps to
winning wars, equally applicable in the market as on the battlefield.
Sun Tzus Strategies in Sun Tzu: War and Management
In this book he begins by defining a sequential process for choosing your battle strategy:
Situational Strategy
Formulation of Goals and Strategies
Evaluation of Strategies
Implementation of Strategies
Strategic Controls
Sun Tzu notes, like Machiavelli does, that each leader or Governor must either be busy
consolidating his territory or preparing to expand into new territories. Sun Tzu equally
states that knowledge of and preparing for war are essential survival tasks. He goes on to
advise on how to prepare for war in detail. At this point it is worthy to note one limitation
of this comparison between these two books. Machiavelli has another work also titled
Art of War. It may even be speculated as to the possible links between this work and
Sun Tzus! The Prince however is not directly aimed at encompassing exact
prescriptions for war making. I am interested here about lessons in principle and their
application to business, such as can be explored in this short work, from both writers. So
far we see many more convergences in principle, a remarkable result from such different
branches of human history and geography, at different times!
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Sun Tzu identifies that all of these must be assessed when planning military strategy:
7 Dimensions Moral Influenceof Ruler
Ability of General Advantages of Climate &Terrain
Execution of Laws &instructions
Numericalstrength of troops
Training of officers & men
Administrationof rewards &
punishment5 Factors
Moral influenceClimateTerrainGeneralshipDoctrine
Prof. Wee collapses these into eight categories, by overlapping various common issues. I
have left this true to the original perspective put by Sun Tzu, to show his deliberate
separation of these aspects. The generation of principles and their application to different
levels of people are separated by Sun Tzu.
This provides us with a clear distinction with Machiavellis work. In The Prince,
Machiavelli is addressing his remarks to the single leader as Head of State. This post is
seen to be a leader of the battle front or general as well as the figurehead or Emperor role.
For Sun Tzu these roles are performed by different people with different perspectives and
distance from the front of the battle. In business we face many instances where the
battlefront is quite remote from the headquarters, where the local markets are very
different from the home-base market. Like the distinction between the owner of the
company or Chairman of the Board versus the Chief Executive. In these cases we must
behave like the general in Sun Tzu or like the Prince in Machiavelli where these both
have strategies for the battlefront, and not for the Emperor.
Sun Tzu notes five critical competencies for a general: wisdom, sincerity, benevolence,
courage and strictness. These mirror both the writers who equally tell us of the
importance of building loyalty first and discipline second, and thus secure the hearts
minds and hands of the organisation. They build a foundation of trust between the leader
and his followers. They create a moral relationship between these two parties, and
equally define the standard of command.
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Usefully and in a very up to date way, Sun Tzu is speaking to us of change management,
responding to changing situations, of acting in response to changes and acting with clear
intent. This is his situational strategy, but there is much more to learn about the situation
from Sun Tzu.
We must consider the business cycles that operate in our domains where we operate.
There are many of relevance to a business: market cycles rise and fall in demand,
competition and industrial cycles, economic cycles currency, inflation, taxation and
output, political cycles regulations, security and favoritism, technology rise and fall
of various technologies, including influence of the internet. These are all very important
external factors that any CEO must respond to and strategise around. Both writers declare
the importance of opportunity created within a suitable context, and how the context can
determine to a large extent, the strategy used.
The terrain is both the physical location of business, fixing or enabling more or less
mobility for the company. It also defines the competition, sources of supply for labor,
management talent, and all other resource requirements needed by the business.
China is a very good example and so are India, Indonesia and many other SEA countries
with changing conditions and constraints imposed within their borders to business. Many
of my friends in the insurance sector suffered losses in Indonesia due to the economic
crisis, their exposures being very large to property and other classes of insurance risk
there.
The law of doctrine is of importance to business management. It is a fundamental one:
organisation and structure. Many management gurus argue that structure should follow
strategy. Machiavelli argues that organisation has several rules derived from the many
battles of history that he has researched. Advisers are given certain roles and limits on
their behaviors. Nobleman are managed differently from the masses whose concern is
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primarily free trade and a full rice bowl. Military are best ruled with a strong heart and a
strong and decisive will, he says.
Sun Tzu sees the primary role of organisation is to enable battle strategy to be effectively
implemented. He notes that order and disorder depend on organisation. He defines
organisation as creating a system of rank, methods of signalling and assignment of
responsibilities such that the strategy can be implemented. It can be through any number
of men; the principles remain the same.
Sun Tzu is also clever enough to identify the importance of playing to strengths in
business as on the battlefield. He defines strengths to encompass: capability, technology,
equipment and resources, mobility, and even simple properties such as size and reach
(wide or deep into markets). There are many examples of economies of scale, capability
and reach that create artificial monopolies. Sometimes for the good such as Microsoft
before the antitrust case in the USA, now a problem for this company. My own employer
TMP Worldwide who own Monster.com has 50% of the internet jobs market and can
wipe out the competition by sheer volume. 27,000 other competitors share the other 50%
market share!
Training as an essential part of military doctrine has its direct equivalent in business. This
aspect is not so well explored or defined in The Prince by Machiavelli, but is mentioned
in relation to developing local nobleman, local soldiers and local business men their
capabilities to perform to advantage to the Prince. He also saw, as Sun Tzu did, that
people development is vital investment in the future of security of a territory.
In terms of business as in an army, training determines readiness, as with Machiavelli, if
you are not in war then you had better be preparing for war. In business if you are not
equipping yourself to beat the competition, then they will soon defeat you.
Discipline is the controller of operations. It must be benevolent, but effective. Strong yet
soft, quick yet not cut throat. Napolean was a cut-throat and although he won many
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battles, he motivated through fear, a short term solution to both strategists. Using reward
and punishment systems in business is a major lever towards directing behavior in a
company. Matching these systems to then strategy, values and goals of the company ties
the company to its market more effectively than one who doesnt practice such
integration of systems. It is often said that systems drive behavior.
Ensuring alignment as I have discussed here is fully supported by both Machiavelli and
Sun Tzu. They are put forward as primary drivers of effective strategy for any company.
From effective corporate governance systems to compensation and benefits, to simple
disciplinary procedures, these are all-important aspects of managing an organisation,
noted by both writers about effective leadership and management.
Like Machiavelli in The Prince, Sun Tzu proposes that strategy is responsive to the
competitor, as well as to the conditions stated above.
The final concern of Sun Tzu is the desirability of war. He clearly states that war in not a
desirable option. He defines necessary parameters for war to be justified as a move:
definite advantages over the enemy, strong assurance of victory, the last resort when
other options have been tried and failed, and you have an invincible defence. In business,
going head to head with the competition, on price products or services or any other aspect
of your business is frought with dangers. Following these rules will help to minimise
your exposure to loss, and avoid being wiped out. From the number of businesses going
out of business, these rules are not followed very often. Sun Tzu promotes non-war
alternatives too: prepare & strengthen defenses, & consolidate resources. Machiavelli
advises that better non-war strategies include posting your representatives to live amongst
the locals and influence them, as well as reducing the need for the other side to wage war
against you by building alliances with others whom will exert their influence on your
competition for you.
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We have scoped the first element in the model of Sun Tzus Art of War, as conceived
by Prof. Wee Et. Al. There are four more stages used by these authors to put Sun Tzus
work into a more understandable and logical format.
The total picture is as follows:
Wee Et. Al. (1991)
Each one of these components is related to the same function in the business context by
the authors.
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Situational Appraisal
Formulation of Goals & Strategies
Evaluation of Strategies
Implementation of Strategies
Strategic Controls
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For example, the authors cite these approaches - SWOT, Boston Consulting Group
product portfolio matrix, as well as many actual case histories to show the application of
their model and the fit of the Arts of War to modern business management. This very
same strategy is adopted by Michael Ledeen, author of Machiavelli on Modern
Leadership to update and apply older material to todays business and management
context. Allowing for some license within this restructuring, both books: The Prince by
Machiavelli and Sun Tzus Art of War provide us with strongly similar perspectives
about management and leadership. The universality of managing and leading human
beings, of waging and winning wars on the battlefield as well as in the boardroom and
marketplace is clearly demonstrated by these two sources. One can conceive of still more
variety in human interactions and expectations say, in some remote African tribes or
Papua New Guinean highlanders. However these seemingly diverse sources of learning
represented by Machiavelli and Sun Tzu suggest that universality is stronger than
particularism when it comes to strategic management and leadership. My experience is
that the principles are the same but the context changes and therefore delivery must be
also be changed to fit. Like Sun Tzu and Machiavelli both advise, looking at the culture
(social terrain) and norms of those you need as troops is fundamental to successful
management. Loyalty derived from engaging the hearts of people, brings untold rewards
and benefits to any leader. It is unnecessary to do otherwise except in special
circumstances.
Summary and Recommendations
This has been only a preliminary analysis. We have shown and seen such remarkable
similarities between the two divergent sources of strategy for surviving, wining battles
and prospering.
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Clearly the two texts are very different in their purpose. Machiavelli has written a plea
for action to the head of State, and give him rules of action or a series of success
strategies. They do cover overlapping ground with Sun Tzu in areas of substance
including principles of loyalty, dealing with neighboring states, doing battle, and
surviving the nature of man, as a leader.
Sun Tzus work is much more detailed, focused on identifying the rules of engagement
on the battlefield. Prof. Wee Et Al have done great work to translate this into the
boardroom using analogy between the marketplace and the battlefield.
In future it would be wonderful to see even more comparative analysis in this domain.
More accurate comparison could be made between both authors works about war. Since
Machiavelli published many other letters, papers and even a title called Art of War in
1516; these sources need to examined and will provide even greater depth of analysis for
the researcher.
Secondly we need more work on the earlier records of battle across Europe, including
Livys historical analysis of Ancient Rome. This too can add more to our collective
understanding of the universal principals of leadership, management and corporate
strategy. That two such different cultural and epistemological sources can produce such
similar findings is truly another wonder of our world!
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Appendix 1: Detailed Comparative
Analysis of Sun Tzu and Machiavelli
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1. Detailed Comparative Analysis of Sun Tzu and Machiavelli
Nature of War:
win lose
take others resources and pilfer them
overcome ground/territory,
Business is a battleground:
Ground/territory = marketplace (war for marketshare), labor market (war for
talent), locations (regions, global versus local, strategic positions), boardrooms
(war for control & dominance of perspective etc Win/lose doesnt happen amongst competitors
Take others customers, supply and distribution channels and use them
From this perspective lets compare Sun Tzu and Machiavelli against different
management and leadership issues.
SUN TZU MACHIAVELLI COMMENT
Leadership 1. Responsibility is tooutcome & people,not Ruler, fully held
by leader
2. Loyalty to people isnatural defence of clear conscience, giveloyalty & buildloyalty of troops
3. Must constantly prepare for war even just by buildingdefenses
4. Differentiate and leadin offence, lead indefence too
1. Responsibility is tosurvival = people &self
2. Loyalty is the bestmotivator, build it
3. Must always prepare for war
4. All moves must be planned
They share thesame principlesof leadership.Esp. loyalty &focus.Principlesapply equally towar & business
leadershipKnow yourself & know yourenemy are twocommonprinciples toboth
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SUN TZU MACHIAVELLI COMMENT
5. Leader takescalculated risks,
makes fewer mistakes, withstandsstress, distancescompetitors anddominates ground
5. Leader is someone judged to be successful
by history, learn fromhistories success &failures too. Not justone battle but manysuccesses.
Sun Tzu isclearer in this
work, butMachiavelliswork is not hisArt of War,need more datafrom him
Organisation 1. Structure breeds behavior, so assign clear roles to ranks andestablish clear goals &strategies to achievethem
1. Establish goodadvisers
2. Allocate clear rolesto hold ground
3. Differentiate rolesof noblemen fromsoldiers
Differentcontexts but thesameprinciples:clear roles,division of labor and use of hierarchy
AchievingUnity
1. Leaders job needsto be highlymotivated, &enlightened
2. Set achievable &acceptable goals
3. Have clear &effectivecommunication
4. Unselfish conduct &sacrificial behavior,suffer with the troops
1. Must personallytake charge
2. Must seizeopportunity & meetit with capability
3. Must not substitute
fear for loyalty,leads to temporarygreatness, nothistorical greatness
Lead byexample orwalk the talk asthe west wouldsayall thesame gear herefor success in
leadership &unity, esp.building &maintainingloyalty
Strategy &Structure
They should follow eachother in that order, createclear strategy,communicate it clearly,win hearts andminds/hands will follow
Define strategy first andadapt organisation to fitcircumstances andsituation
Same here too!
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SUN TZU MACHIAVELLI COMMENT
SituationalAppraisal
1. Study climate,terrain, environment,
know enemy andones self,
2. Identify clear strengths &weaknesses for youand your enemy
3. Attack as a last resort
Look at culture,different kinds of states
and the ways of acquiring & rulingthem, establish your enemys position,resources, strength &doctrine beforedeciding to attack,consider past rule
before deciding your own tactics
Machiavelli hasto deal with
differentcultures, andprevious rulersas addedelements in hisappraisal thatSun Tzu doesnot appear toaddress,otherwise theyare the same
FormulatingGoals
1. Attack enemysstrategy
2. Disrupt alliances
3. Attack his army
4. Worst to besiegewalled cities, deriveclear advantages/nettangible benefits
1. Use your ownforces first, othersforces second
2. Can also win byinheritance
3. Take advantage of history, use the leastharmful way to gaincontrol
4. Consider the longer term in choosinggoals & strategiesas well asopportunity
These aredifferentperspectivesdriven fromdifferentsources andintentions,Machiavellitowards anhistorical roleof the Prince tomeet goodfortune well,Sun Tzu in thespecifics of war
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SUN TZU MACHIAVELLI COMMENT
Formulationof Strategies
1. Choosing battleground
2. Concentration of forces
3. Methods of attack
4. Direct & Indirectforces
1. Consider situation
2. Plan according tothat, usingdecisiveness,deception and speedto overcome allenemys includingspies
3. Adapt strategy tosituation: type of rule, type of acquisition, past
history of territory4. Plan for the long
term, & accordingto the level of risk
These are bothsimilar and
different: SunTzu is morespecific towardschoice of options,Machiavellileads ThePrince to look at the situationand adjust hisapproach, as
before said, SunTzu agrees withthis principaltoo.
EvaluatingStrategies
1. Compare action withresults & adjust
2. Compare plan withdoctrine, both yours& what you knowabout your enemy,
using spiesinformation etc.
3. Consider timing of actions
4. Define total businessspace to make sureall things areconsidered
1. Learn from history,& apply learnings tocurrent strategywhere theconditions &situation are similar
2. Look at results andaim for short termsurvival and longterm success
3. History is the final judge of allstrategies,meanwhileexpediency will do
There is a morecautious andcarefulplanningsequenceoffered by SunTzu comparedwith this work of Machiavelli,his other worksdo offer morespecificguidance in thisarea
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SUN TZU MACHIAVELLI COMMENT
ImplementingStrategies
1. Human aspects:leadership & morale,
communication &control (discipline)
2. Operational Aspects:move fast, be readyfor change, usedeception, capitaliseon opportunity,anticipate enemysmoves
3. Opportunities to win
Context and history arethe keys to
implementingstrategies:
Gaining loyalty ishardest in territorieswhere the language &culture is completelydifferent, in this case
better that you staythere to keep watch onthe people & respond toany threats
As you wouldexpect Sun Tzu
is more detailedthan ourcitations fromMachiavelli, yetboth reflectcommonprinciples of motivatingsupport forstrategy
StrategicControls
1. Use intelligencegathering tools incl.Spies
2. Build & maintainsecurity
Use distractions, createtensions between othersto move their focusaway from your territory, maintainsecrets even from your advisers and troops
Both emphasisethat strategicplans depend toa certain extenton surprise,and unclearmotive, thussecrecy andintelligence aretools that both
writersannounce asimportant toeffectiveleadership
Notes:
1. Context for The Prince involves many quite different languages, cultures, races,
religions and peoples. Arguably much more varied than Sun Tzus situation. He has
much greater uniformity by race, culture and language. Although they varied for Sun
Tzu, these variations were not as wide as across Europe. Essentially one country,
many systems for Sun Tzu; but one continent, many countries, states and different
peoples for Machiavellis Prince. The references to operating in different cultures is
therefore more important to Machiavelli than for Sun Tzu.
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2. The similarities far outweigh the differences in this more detailed analysis. It remains
starkly obvious that we have universal truths that apply across humanity as far as
leadership and management are concerned. The what of these issues remains
common, just the cultural context and practices, or the how is unique. The
implications here are for a common curriculum for management and leadership, a
core competency if you like. Next our focus must move to flexibility, adaptability and
other constructs that explain application across different cultures. These are both
psychological constructs as well as competencies for global leaders and managers
today. An ideal modern day Executive Development program would embrace both!
3. There remains great opportunity for more comparisons between these two writers
Machiavelli in particular draws many more principles in his other works including his
discourses and his Art of War. Secondly their translation into a business context
where the game allows win-win as well as win-lose, needs to be better understood.
4. Another interesting field of research suggested by these works and their startling
similarities is to consider other Chinese texts such as the 36 Strategies of the Chinese
or the Annals of the Three Kingdoms. Cross reference these with other historical
western works such as Livys historical works citing empires like Rome and Persia
will provide fertile ground for bringing forward the lessons of the past to modern day
management and leadership.
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Appendix 2. Business & Political Cases:
Comments from Sun Tzu & Machiavelli
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BUSINESS AND GLOBAL POLITICAL CASES:
CASE ONE: Petrol Wars In Singapore, ST April 10, 2001
A very interesting case of marketing strategy meets market share in a small geographic
location. Shell as the market share tiger is competing with its nearest rivals: Esso &
ExxonMobil. The regulator CASE, was pleased to see the discount war as the prices of
crude oil are falling. However each station would rather not discount and try to build up
its margin over these times to help to carry it across times when prices are higher.
And yet after they had agreed to a ceasefire in February, they were back six weeks later
doing it again. This similarity with the Israeli/Palestinian territorial dispute is strong. The
size of the discounts is also a measure of their determination to win: they are currently
offering 10 %. The local supplier SPC has been consistently offering 10% discount since
October last year. It will achieve better brand recognition by being consistent, just as
Machiavelli & Sun Tzu would say is necessary to secure loyalty. SPC is further
supported by being the lowest price in the industry; a position no doubt orchestrated with
government influence to push prices lower across the market. The remaining players can
only jostle for custom based upon some other more (or less) distinguishing aspects of
their marketing. For some it is brand loyalty derived from frequent user programs like
Shell & Mobil have or service standards such as each offer to try and out perform each
other (I often wonder though if this market cares about service since they dont give it,
they cant recognise when they have it or dont have it, anyway Shell again seems to have
the best service levels in my experience here). Trying to differentiate themselves, using
pricing given the geography of the location as justification, is reminiscent of situational
appraisal from Sun Tzu. It explains their actions in this locale, and yet also reflects
attempts to create and occupy other grounds that their competitors do not occupy.
Moving the grounds to suit each player is a recommended strategy of Sun Tzu (bring the
enemy to your ground, reach the battleground early to capture the best position and
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weaken the enemy) all of these are replicated in the marketing strategies of the petrol
business in Bukit Timah.
CASE TWO: USA-China Crisis ST every day for the past two weeks.
This case has all the hallmarks of a novice leader meeting an unknown cultural context
and having little or no idea how to achieve his goals there. G.W. Bush has no prior
exposure to foreign policy, eastern culture or the Chinese race. He has been entirely
unsuccessful in securing the cooperation of the Chinese and continues to put his foot in
his mouth diplomatically speaking. This result can be compared with Clinton who was
able to reach a close relationship with China they defined as a strategic partner. Bush
conceives of China as a strategic competitor. Interestingly this case reflects the shift
towards the centre by successive presidents. As they engage with China they learn a
softer form of language and a more inclusive style that reflects a growing acceptance of
the need for common ground. Shades of grey become the norm in bilateral relations so
that common interests of commerce and trade can flourish. This takes time to re-generate
for each successive president and his counterpart.
Sun Tzu would probably respect GW Bush for his circumspect engagement of China. He
is much more cautious of their presence and rightly so when one considers the potential
economic strength and wiley nature of the Chinese on political and economic levels.
Situational appraisal takes time, Sun Tzu reminds us that war (economic as well as
territorial) should not be prepared for lightly. Machiavelli would certainly expect Bush to
take a pragmatic look at their previous relationship and consider the relative strengths and
weaknesses of each party.
Build up of arms by China is another aspect of the equation alongside the size and wealth
of the population, ownership of the problems of economy, poverty, health and
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development all must be considered by Bush. Like Clinton and other recent politicians in
USA, Bush is moving business and economic opportunities to the centre of focus in the
political agenda with China. Pragmatism wins again! This is further supported by Jiang
Xiamens own home political territory. It is also frought with dangers with an
increasingly factionalised central political body. This forces Xiamen to turn to
peacemaker and soft solutions provider whilst ringing the most from the perceptions
created on the populist front with the masses. These are also concerns and interests for
Bush as he watches and tries to learn about another culture and political dynamic very
different (but also quite similar as we seen before) to his own.