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75-AAA-aac sing-pho "assam" jingpho, singpo; including dowaniya community (Arunachal Pradesh; Assam) 2
75-AAA-aad enkun "standard china" jinghpo, part of "china" jingpho (Yunnan)
75-AAA-aae shidan part of "china" jingpho Yingjiang county (Yunnan)
75-AAA-ab hka-ku hka-hku China (Yunnan)
75-AAA-ac kauri hkauri, gauri China (Yunnan)
75-AAA-ad dzili jili China (Yunnan)
75-AAB TAMAN net
75-AAB-a Taman Burma 4
75-AAB-aa taman Burma-NW. 4
75-B KADO+ GANAAN set LUISH
75-BA KADO+ GANAAN chain
75-BAA KADO+ GANAAN net
75-BAA-a Kado+ Ganaan China (Yunnan); Burma (Shan); also Laos
5
75-BAA-aa kado kadu, katu, kato, kudo, gadu Burma (Shan); China (Yunnan); also Laos-N.
5
75-BAA-aaa kado-A. Burma (Shan); China (Yunnan)…
75-BAA-aab asak sak (Shan) and/or (Yunnan)
75-BAA-aac thet that (Shan) and/or (Yunnan)
75-BAA-aad mawteik (Shan) and/or (Yunnan)
75-BAA-aae puteik (Shan) and/or (Yunnan)
75-BAA-aaf woni (Shan) and/or (Yunnan)
75-BAA-ab ganaan ganan China (Yunnan); Burma (Shan) 4
75-BAA-ac andro China (Yunnan) and/or (Shan)
75-BAA-ad sengmai China (Yunnan) and/or (Shan)
75-BAA-ae chakpa China (Yunnan) and/or (Shan)
75-BAA-af phayeng China (Yunnan) and/or (Shan)
page 548 The Linguasphere Register 1999 / 2000 edition
76= RUNGIC phylozone
covers the "Rung" reference area, part of the "Tibeto-Burman"
affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("Sino-Indian") continental affinity; comprising 4 sets of languages (= 9 outer languages) spoken by communities in continental Southeast Asia,
between the upper Brahmaputra and upper Salween basins:
76-A NUNG+ NORRA 76-B JIARONG 76-C QIANG+ DZORGAI 76-D P'UMI
China; Burma; India 5
76-A NUNG+ NORRA set NUNGISH
76-AA NUNG+ NORRA chain
76-AAA NUNG+ RAWANG* net
nung+ rawang, ganung+ rawang, hka-nung, kha-nung, ganung an
extended continuum of progressively divergent idioms, treated provisionally as 2 outer-languages
76-AAA-a Nung+ Tulung* China (Yunnan); Burma (Kachin; Shan)
4
76-AAA-aa nung anung, anoong, nong, anu, nu, noutzu, nusu, lu, lutzu, lutze Nu-jang… Salween valleys list of dialects to be completed (up to 16)
76-AAA-ab tulung trung, drung, dulung, dulong ¶speakers divided ethnically between Drung and Nung communities ("nationalities")
China (Yunnan) 3
76-AAA-ac kwinpang kwingsang transition < [76=] Rawang China (Yunnan)…
76-AAA-b Rawang* Ch'opa, in [79=] Hanyu (Chinese): kiu-tze, chiu-tse, qui-ze, in [77=] Lisu-W.: ch'opa; including krangku including up to 100 idioms (to be
ascertained), in a continuum with [76=] Nung+ Tulung Latin script
Burma (Kachin); China (Yunnan; also Tibet); India (Arunachal Pradesh)
5
76-AAA-ba mut-wang rawang-C., including "literary" rawang list of dialects to be confirmed
and extended, and perhaps to be partially re-allocated among the other three inner-languages of the Rawang outer-language
Burma (Kachin); China (Yunnan; Tibet); India (Arunachal Pradesh)
76-D P'UMI set PRIMMI, part of qiang+ p'umi grouping
76-DA P'UMI chain
76-DAA P'UMI net pumi, primmi, pruumi, p'ömi, ch'rame, taoba, including jing-hua
76-DAA-a P'umi-N. Muli… Yanyuan… Kulong… also Ninglang counties China (Sichuan; also Yunnan); Myanmar*
4
76-DAA-aa p'umi-N. including 5 idioms; perhaps also including reclassified [77=] Muli (at present classified under [77=] Hsifan)
China (Sichuan; also Yunnan); Myanmar*
4
76-DAA-b P'umi-S. Lanping… Weixi… Yongsheng… Lijiang… also Ninglang counties China (Yunnan) 4
76-DAA-ba p'umi-S. including 5 idioms China (Yunnan) 4
page 550 The Linguasphere Register 1999 / 2000 edition
77= IRRAWADDIC phylozone
covers the "Burmese+ Lolo" or Bama+ Nasö grouping, part of
the "Tibeto-Burman" affinity within the "Sino-Tibetan" ("Sino-Indian") continental affinity; comprising 3 sets of languages (= 27 outer languages) spoken by communities in continental
Southeast Asia, centered on the Irrawaddy river and its tributaries:
77-A BAMA+ LAWNG 77-B NASÖ+ AKHA 77-C BAI+ DALI*
Burma; China; Laos; Thailand 7
77-A BAMA+ LAWNG set "WIDER"-BURMESE, "burmish", "burman"
77-B NASÖ+ AKHA* set "WIDER"-YI, "wider" 'lolo', 'loloish'
77-BA NASÖ+ THONGHO* notional chain
"NARROW"-YI, nyi, gni, i, ichia, manchia, mantzu; including socially
(but not linguistically) distinct "black" yi (no-su, of 'free'-status)… "white" yi (of former 'serf' status) #Yi is a generic term in [79=] Han-yu, now accepted also by speakers of all or some of the languages
concerned notional chain, based on application of the name Yi traditional Yi syllabic script(s), used for ritual texts
77-BAA THONGHO+ LIANGSHAN* net
sichuan-yi, yi-N., "independent" yi, 'lolo'-N.
77-BAA-a Thongho+ Liangshan
Dau He valley: Ebian Yi autonomous county… Liangshan ("Cool Mountain") range… with expansion (often as slave-raiders) into
Guizhou (Bijie… Qianxi… Guiyang) component idioms to be confirmed and located
China (Sichuan; also Tibet; Yunnan; Guizhou)
6
77-BAA-aa thongho China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-ab paki-shan China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-ac kang-siang-ying China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-ad kiao-kio China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-ae nee China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-af laichau China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-ag tudza China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-ah nuoku China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-ai liang-shan Liangshan range China (Sichuan…)
77-BAA-aj p'ou-la China (Sichuan…)
77-BAB DIAN-DONGBEI* net part of yi-E., 'lolo'-N. 5
77-BAB-a Dian-Dongbei China (Yunnan)
77-BAB-aa dian-dongbei China (Yunnan)
77-BAC DIAN-QIAN+ PAN* net
part of yi-E. China (Yunnan; Guizhou; Guangxi); perhaps also Vietnam
5
77-BAC-a Dian-Qian+ Pan Weining Yi-Hui-Miao autonomous county… Dafang autonomous county… Hezhang county… Pan county… Baise county
China (Yunnan; Guizhou; Guangxi)
77-BAC-aa dian-qian China (Yunnan; Guizhou; Guangxi)
77-BAC-ab pan Pan county: Pan-Xian… China (Guizhou)
77-BAD DONGSHAN+ DAYAO* notional net
yi-C.+ yi-W. notional net, pending further data bilingual < [79=] Han-yu
5
77-BAD-a Dongshan+ Xishan yi-W. including Chuxiong Yi autonomous prefecture*… China (Yunnan)
77-BAD-aa dong-shan Dongshan (location near Cheng-Hai lake to be confirmed) China (Yunnan)
77-BAD-ab xi-shan Xishan (Kunming>W. or an identical place-name elsewhere?) China (Yunnan)
77-BAD-b Dayao+ Nanhua yi-C. Dali Bai… Chuxiong Yi autonomous prefectures… Simao district
China (Yunnan) 5
77-BAD-ba da-yao China (Yunnan)
77-BAD-bb nan-hua China (Yunnan)
77-BAE NASÖ+ AXI* notional net
yi-S.+ yi-SE. notional net, pending further data
77-BAE-a Nasö+ Luquan China (Yunnan) 4
77-BAE-aa nasö shui-nosu, nosu, nasu including Kunming: Hetaojing («Walnut-
Basket») village China (Yunnan) 3
77-BAE-aaa ko-p'u kopu (Yunnan)
77-BAE-aab ulu (Yunnan)
77-BAE-aac weining (Yunnan)
77-BAE-ab luquan Luquan county (Yunnan)
page 552 The Linguasphere Register 1999 / 2000 edition
covers the "Karen" or Pwo+ Sgaw set, part of the "Sino-
Tibetan" ("Sino-Indian") continental affinity; comprising 1 set of languages (= 12 outer languages) spoken by communities
in central Southeast Asia:
78-A PWO + SGAW
The Karen set constitutes an independent component of the "Sino-Tibetan" affinity, and is no longer considered part of the intermediate "Tibeto-Burman" affinity.
covers the "Chinese" or Han-Yu set, part of the "Sino-Tibetan"
("Sino-Indian") continental affinity; comprising 1 set of languages (= 16 outer languages) spoken by communities
throughout East Asia, centered on the Huang-He ("Yellow River") and Yangtze basins:
79-A HAN-YU
including 3 arterial languages: Putonghua (Mandarin); Wu;
Yue (Cantonese)
The English term "dialect" has in the past been used inappropriately to describe the major components of "Wider
Chinese", which are here classified as a net of 16 outer-languages, divided into 69 inner-languages (and subsequently into 429 "dialects", in the Register's usage of that term and on
the basis of presently limited knowledge).
Although degrees of spoken inter-intelligibility vary greatly within each outer-language, and are generally low among
outer-languages, communication within China is facilitated by a common writing system and by the universal teaching of Putonghua (the standard form of "Mainstream Chinese" or so-
called 'Mandarin') as the language of national education.
Mainstream Chinese, or Putonghua in the wider sense, is the language with the largest number of primary speakers in the
world, serving as the official national language of the most populous nation-state. At the end of the 20
th century, the title
of "most spoken language in the world" can be taken to
alternate between Mainstream Chinese and English within each 24-hour cycle, depending on whether China is "asleep" or "awake". Mainstream Chinese is one of two languages in
the world to have reached an estimated total of one billion primary plus alternate voices by the end of the 2
nd millennium.
Bangladesh; Bhutan; Burma; India; Japan; Laos; Kazakhstan; Kirghizstan; Malaysia; Nepal; North Korea; Pakistan; Singapore; South Korea; Thailand; Vietnam; plus worldwide diaspora, including:
Australia; Brazil; Brunei; Canada; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cuba; Fiji; France; French Guiana; French Polynesia; Guam; Guatemala; Guyana; Indonesia; Jamaica; Kazakhstan; Kirghizstan; Madagascar; Mauritius; Mexico; Mongolia; Mozambique; Nauru; Netherlands; New Zealand / Aotearoa; Panama; Papua New Guinea; Paraguay; Peru;
Philippines; Portugal; Réunion; Samoa; Seychelles; South Africa; Surinam; Trinidad; United Kingdom; USA; Vanuatu; Venezuela
9
79-A HAN-YU set "WIDER"-CHINESE, "sinitic"
79-AA HAN-YU chain
79-AAA HAN-YU net #in language-names below, -hua =«language»
79-AAA-a Wen-li Classical-Chinese written from c.–1800 in Chinese script China; Korea; Vietnam (former
79-AAA-b Pu-tong-hua Mainstream-Chinese, han-yu-N., pei, bei, bai, "wider" mandarin, "chinese"-N. #putong-hua, potin-hua, p'u-t'ung-hua =«commonly understood language». This term has become established in 20th
century communist China to describe the official northern Chinese language (hitherto known in English as Mandarin) which is the national language of education and administration in China. The term
Putonghua is applied here in a wider sense to describe the northern Chinese language in general, i.e Northern Han-yu (replacing the wider use in English of the term Mandarin)
A China (Mainland; Taiwan; Macao; Hong Kong); A Singapore; Malaysia (peninsula); A United Nations; migration>North Korea, South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Guam, Australia, Brazil, Paraguay
9
79-AAA-ba guan-hua Mandarin "Proper", kuan-hua =«official's language», traditional "imperial mandarin", "post-classical literary chinese", "vernacular literary chinese", part of "low" wenli from c 650: Chinese script
China
79-AAA-bb bei-jing-hua modern popular pei-ching-hua, bei-hua, pei-hua, bai-hua; hua-yu; han-yu "proper"; including guan-hua 2, kuan-hua 2 = "standard & near-standard chinese", "beijing mandarin", "modern literary chinese", part
79-AAA-bed tian-jin part of bao-tang, part of jilu+ beijing "transitional" "Grand Canal": Tientsin, Tianjin city Hai-he river-mouth
(Tianjin)
79-AAA-bee ding-ba part of bao-tang, part of jilu+ beijing "transitional" Juma-he basin Tang-he+ Zhulong-he basin "Grand Canal": Yongqing+ Jinghai+ Daicheng environs
(Hebei)
79-AAA-bef lai-fu part of bao-tang, part of jilu+ beijing "transitional" Huliu-he upper river: Guangling+ Yu-xian Juma-he upper river: Lai-yuan Dasha-he upper river: Fuping+ Quyang
(Shandong)
79-AAA-beg huang-le part of chang-hui Ziya-he confluence: Suning+ Xian-xian "Grand Canal": Botou+ Cangzou Majia-he lower river Huang-he delta: Zhanhua
(Shandong)
79-AAA-beh yang-shou part of chang-hui Huang-he left-bank: Binzhou+ Yangxin Huang-he
river (Huan-xian+ Qingyang) Qingshui-he upper river (Ningxia-Huizu-SE.) Pingliang Baoji Huang-he upper river Jingtai+ Jingyuan… Xining valley Laji-shan mountains Dunhuang
(Shaanxi; Gansu; Qinghai-E.)
79-AAA-bfq long-zhong Hulu-he upper river (Haiyuan+ Xiji, Ningxia-Huizu-SW.) Zuli-he
upper river (Huining) Wei-he+ Hulu-he confluence (Zhuanglang+ Tianshui) Qinling-shan-W. highlands (Tongren+ Kangle) Xiqing-shan-W. foothills Ledu valley Datong valley
79-AAA-bhb e-bei Han-shui river: Shiyan+ Suizhou Qianjiang; plus settlers in Anhui & Zhejiang
(Hubei-C.; settlements in Anhui-S.; Zhejiang-NW.)
79-AAA-bhc chang-he Li-shui river (Jinshi+ Cili) Yuan-jiang east river (Changde) (Hunan; Hubei border)
79-AAA-bhd chengyu-C. part of cheng-yu Chang-jiang upper river: Chang-jiang Hubei left-
bank (Yichang+ Jingmen) Chang-jiang right-bank (Enshi-Fuling) Chang-jiang Sichuan left-bank Wanxian+ Dianjiang Chongqing, Chungking city Tua-jiang middle river (Chengdu+ Yongchuan) Fu+ Jialing+ Qu-jiang basin (Nanchong+ Daxian) Micang+ Daba-shan mountains; plus Shaanxi enclaves (Liuba+ Shiquan)
(Sichuan-E.; Hubei-W.; also
Shaanxi enclaves)
79-AAA-bhe chengyu-SE. part of cheng-yu Sichuan-S. mountains: Litang-he upper river (Yanyuan) Jinsha, Yangtze+ Yalong-jiang river-bend (Dukou+ Dechang+ Huidong)
(Sichuan-S.)
79-AAA-bhf minjiang-C. part of guan-chi Chang-jiang upper river: left-bank+ Min-jiang river right-bank upstream from Jiangjin
(Sichuan-S. )
79-AAA-bhg minjiang-N. part of guan-chi Yanting+ Shehong enclave (Sichuan)
79-AAA-bhh minjiang-E. part of guan-chi Wuchuan+ Yinjiang enclave (Guizhou)
79-AAA-bhi minjiang-SW. part of guan-chi Xichang enclave (Sichuan-S.)
79-AAA-bhj renfu-NE. part of guan-chi Neijiang+ Zigong (Sichuan-CE.)
79-AAA-bhk renfu-S. part of guan-chi Yanjin (Sichuan-SW.)
79-AAA-bhl renfu-W. part of guan-chi Mianning (Sichuan-SW.)
79-AAA-bhm ya-mian part of guan-chi Ya'an+ Baoxing valley Dadu-he middle valley (Sichuan-SW. )
79-AAA-bhn li-chuan part of guan-chi Yunnan-NW. mountains: Lijlang Jianchuan Yunlong Eryuan Binchuan Lishe-he upper river (Dali)
(Yunnan-NW.)
79-AAA-bho bao-lu part of dian-xi Yunnan-NW. mountains Burma frontier Daying-jiang valley (Yingjiang ) Tengchong+ Luxi highlands (Nu-jiang valley: Changputong to Lushu) Burma enclave (Khugaung, Nmai-hka middle river) Nu-jiang valley (Luku downstream to Burma frontier) Burma enclave (Salween river-bend, west of Liangshan mountain) Lanchang-jiang upper valley (Weixi+ Shuijing) Lanchang-jiang right bank (Baoshan+ Yun-xian) Laobie-shan highlands (Zhenkang+ Yongde) Nanding-he valley
(Yunnan-NW.); Burma enclaves
79-AAA-bhp yao-li part of dian-xi Yunnan-NW. mountains: Lanchang-jiang upper valley (Chinese Mekong: Dêqên to Weixi) Lanchang-jiang left-bank (Yongping to Yanglie) Zhongdian Maer-shan mountains Xiangyun+ Yongren
(Yunnan-NW.)
79-AAA-bhq kun-gui Kungui-NW. (Yongsheng) Lanchang-jiang lower valley Babian-jiang valley West Yuan-jiang valley Lüzhi-jiang valley Chuxiong+ Yuanmou valley Dian-chi lake (Kunming+ Jinning) Fuxian-hu lake Luliang+ Qujing valley Niulan-jiang valley Ningnan valley Zhaotong highlands Xuanwei left-bank highlands Nanpan-jiang lower river Beipan-jiang Anshun+ Guiyang highlands Ziyun foothills
(Yunnan; Guizhou-SW. )
79-AAA-bhr qian-bei Weixin highlands Zhonghe+ Weining highlands Lupanshui valley Liuchong-he Bijie+ Dading highlands Zheng'an valley Wu-jiang upper river Songtao+ Tongren Huaihua
(Guizhou; Yunnan-NE.; Hunan-
NE.)
page 560 The Linguasphere Register 1999 / 2000 edition
79-AAA-bht cen-jiang Wu-ling-S. highlands: Qingshui-jiang middle river (Liping+ Rongjiang) Tongdao Jing-xian valley
(Guizhou-SE.; Hunan-SW.)
79-AAA-bhu gui-liu Tuoniang-jiang river Napo-Jingxi highlands river You-jiang upper river Hongshui-he lower river Hongshui-he river Long-jiang river Rong-jiang Liuzhou+ Wuxuan Luoqing-jiang river
Gui-jiang, He-xian
(Guangxi-N.)
79-AAA-bhv xiang-nan Xiao-shui river Xintian Chenzhou (Hunan-S.)
79-AAA-dbb su-hu-jia including shanqhae, "shanghainese" Yangtze-N. estuary (Halmen+ Qidong) Chongming-dao island Changxing-dao island Heng-sha island Changshu Wuxi Suzhou, Soochow city Shanghai city Nanhui Jiaxing
(Jiangsu-S.; Shanghai; Zhejiang-N.)
79-AAA-dbc tiao-xi including "remnant"-wu tai-hu (Guangde county) Changxing Huzhou Yuhang Dongtiao-xi river Xiaofeng
(Zhejiang-N.; Anhui-SE.)
79-AAA-dbd hang-zhou comprising 2 idioms Hang-zhou, Hangchow city (Zhejiang-N.)
79-AAA-dbf yong-jiang-'mainland' part of yong-jiang Yong-jiang lower river (Ningbo-Zhenhai) Yong-jiang upper river Ninghai+ Chalu Xiangshan bay
(Zhejiang)
79-AAA-dbg yong-jiang-'insular' part of yong-jiang Yong-jiang offshore islands: Niutou-shan island Tantou-shan island Jiu-shan island Zhoushan-qundao archipelago Shengsi-qundao archipelago
(Zhejiang)
79-AAA-dc tai-gao part of "remnant"-wu-W., xuan-zhou China (Anhui) 4
79-AAA-dhh ou-jiang Ou-jiang offshore isles Luxi-dao island Damen-dao island Niyu-shan-W. island Dongtou-shan-W. island Beiji-shan island
(Zhejiang-S.)
79-AAA-di chu-qu part of wu-S. transition < [79=] Min-bei China (Fujian; Jiangxi) 6
79-AAA-dia long-qu long-qu "rural" Majin-xi river (Kaihua) Changshan-gang river Xin-jiang upper river Qu-jiang middle river Jiangshan-gang river Wuxi-gang river Zhengzhuang mountains Songxin-xi river Longquan-xi upper river Baishan-zu-W. mountains Qingyuan Pucheng
(Fujian-SW.)
79-AAA-dib long-qu-U. long-qu "urban", "taihu-ised" chuqu Quzhou city Shangrao city (Jiangxi-E.)
79-AAA-dic chu-zhou Xao-xi river Xuanping Da-xi river (Lishui-Qingtian) Longquan-xi lower river Xiao-xi river Baishan-zu-E. mountains Taishun
(Fujian-SW.)
79-AAA-e Xiang Hunanese China (Hunan; Guangxi) 7
79-AAA-ea xiang hsiang China (Hunan; Guangxi) 7
79-AAA-eaa chang-yi Zi-shui lower river (Yiyang) Xiang-jiang lower east river (Changsha) Xiang-jiang middle east river (Xiangtan+ Zhuzhou)
Xiang-jiang upper east river (Hengyang) Hongjiang
(Hunan)
79-AAA-eab lou-shao xiang-C., 'old' xiang Shuangfeng+ Loudi Zi-shui upper river Fuyi-shui river as far as Ziyuan Xiang-jiang upper west river (Guanzhou) Guan-jiang river (Wenshi)
79-AAA-gal xing-hua xingning, wuhua, part of yue-tai Lianhua-shan-N. mountains Xingning-jiang (Xingning) river Mei-jiang upper river (Wuhua upstream) Zijin hills Han-jiang upper river
(Guangdong)
79-AAA-gam jia-ying meixian, meixien, meihsien, meishan, hakka "standard", part of yue-tai Meixian city
(Guangdong)
79-AAA-gan hakka-SW.
hakka "southwest enclaves", including jiulong (at Kowloon) He-jiang
river Kowloon "New Territories" Mong-cai>W. (Vietnam frontier) (Guangxi; Guangdong); Vietnam adjacent
79-AAA-gar hakka-'émigré' Malaysia; Singapore; Indonesia; India (Calcutta); Australia (Darwin); Samoa; French Polynesia (Tahiti); USA (Hawaii); Panama; Jamaica; Trinidad; Surinam; Guyana; French Guiana; South Africa; Mozambique; Mauritius; Seychelles
79-AAA-gb ting-zhou tingchow, minxi-hakka, hakka-E. transition < [79=] Min-bei China (Fujian; also Guangdong)
79-AAA-gba ming-xi (Fujian)
79-AAA-gbb jiulong-xi Jiulong-xi upper river (Fujian)
page 566 The Linguasphere Register 1999 / 2000 edition
79-AAA-m Yue net "tai-ised chinese", part of "wider" yue China-S. (Guangdong; Hong Kong, Macau; Guangxi); migration> {Pacific; Indian Ocean; Australasia; Americas; Africa; Europe}
7
79-AAA-ma yue-C. guang-fou, guangzhou-hai, "wider cantonese", "china-S. counterstream chinese" Pearl river estuary & delta (Guangzhou, Canton; Hong-Kong; Macau) & hinterland; Xi+ Bei-jiang lower basin Chinese script; Latin script
China-S.; migration> Malaysia; Singapore; Indonesia
7
79-AAA-maa yue-F. "formal cantonese", "cultivated cantonese" Sanyi model China-S.…
79-AAA-mab guang-zhou "canton urban chinese" Guangzhou, Canton city (Guangzhou)