7 th Grade World History Review. The Roman Empire Section 1: Uncovering the Remote Past Historians find evidence about the past in myths, primary sources,

7th Grade World History Review

The Roman EmpireSection 1: Uncovering the Remote Past• Historians find evidence about the past in

myths, primary sources, secondary sources, and material culture.

• Romans have left historians with a wealth of documents and artifacts to interpret. Pompeii offers an especially rich variety of material culture.

• Historians are always questioning their views of the past.

The Roman EmpireSection 2: The Empire at Its Height• The Roman Republic lasted from 510 B.C. until

31 B.C., when Octavian became the first emperor of Rome.

• During the Pax Romana, the Roman Empire expanded to include Western Europe and most of the region bordering the Mediterranean Sea.

• By the third century, the Roman Empire had become too large to rule easily.

The Roman EmpireSection 3: The Western Empire Collapses• The Roman Empire had many social and

economic weaknesses.• The Huns and the Goths threatened the

Roman Empire.• The Western Empire came under the power of

the Franks and Germanic rulers.

The Roman EmpireSection 4: The Lasting Contributions of Rome• Many countries have legal systems based on

Roman law and speak languages based on Latin.

• A large network of roads helped unify the empire. Public water and sewer systems were very sophisticated.

• At first, Christianity was a persecuted religion. Later, Christianity helped to unify the empire.

The Byzantine EmpireSection 1: The Survival of the Eastern Empire• Power in the Roman Empire shifted to the East

under the emperor Constantine.• Constantinople’s location made it the center

of trade in the East and made it easier to defend.

• Justinian enlarged the Byzantine Empire and transformed the city of Constantinople.

The Byzantine EmpireSection 2: The Division of the Christian Church• The Eastern Church, ruled by patriarchs, was

well organized.• The Byzantine emperor controlled the Eastern

Church. The pope in Rome controlled the Western Church and had political influence in Western Europe.

• The Eastern and Western Christian civilizations moved apart because of political, cultural, and religious differences.

The Byzantine EmpireSection 3: Byzantine Civilization• Constantinople was a cultural and political

center. Byzantine civilization made important contributions to law, art, and architecture.

• The Byzantine Empire spread its culture and religion to the peoples of Eastern Europe.

• The Byzantine Empire shrank and eventually fell because of attacks from the outside and struggles from within.

IslamSection 1: The Origins of Islam• Islam arose in Arabia, a harsh land where

people lived according to tribal culture.• Muhammad, the founder of Islam and a

political and military leader, united most of Arabia under Muslim rule.

IslamSection 2: The Beliefs of Islam• Islam’s most sacred texts, the Qur’an and the

Sunnah, are believed to contain the word of God and the practices of Muhammad.

• One God, the individual soul, and the afterlife form the core beliefs of Islam.

• Muslims have religious duties called the Five Pillars: declaration of faith, prayer, alms-giving, fasting, and pilgrimage.

IslamSection 3: The Spread of Islam• In three phases, Islam was spread as far as

Europe, Africa, and Asia by military conquest and peaceful conversion.

• Islam is the second-largest religion today, with two main groups, the Sunnis and the Shiites.

The Islamic WorldSection 1: The Expansion of Muslim Rule• The caliphate reached it maximum geographic

extent under the Umayyads, who established the first Islamic dynasty.

• The Abbasid Dynasty oversaw the golden age of Muslim civilization as well as the breakup of the caliphate.

The Islamic WorldSection 2: Muslims’ Daily Life• Islamic law, or the Sharia, was developed from

the Qur’an and the Sunnah. It detailed rules of personal conduct in Muslim society.

• Social class, gender roles, and education gave order to Islamic society.

The Islamic WorldSection 3: The Growth of Cities and Trade• The Islamic world had many large, highly

developed cities with strong economies.• Traders traveled over land and by sea across

the Islamic world and beyond, spreading goods, ideas, and inventions.

The Islamic WorldSection 4: Islamic Achievements• The Muslim empire valued learning. Muslim

scholars’ work in philosophy, medicine, science, mathematics, and geography influenced future civilizations.

• Muslim art, architecture, and calligraphy are noted for their use of patterns and the absence of human forms.

• The folk tales and poetry of the Muslim world were based on an oral tradition.

The Rise of West African EmpiresSection 1: Sub-Saharan Africa• The Sahara acted as a barrier between

Mediterranean and West African peoples.• South of the Sahara, the landscape shifts from

the dry Sahel to grasslands to rain forests.• West Africa’s resources included minerals,

plants, animals, and people.

The Rise of West African EmpiresSection 2: Ghana• Ghana was founded by the Soninke people in

the western Sudan.• Traders from North Africa crossed the Sahara

to exchange salt for Ghana’s gold.• The Muslim Almoravids invaded Ghana and

controlled it for a decade. Ghana never regained its previous power.

The Rise of West African EmpiresSection 3: The Rise of Mali• After the fall of Ghana, Mali became a

powerful empire in West Africa.• Mali had a rich trade with countries in North

Africa.• The religion of Islam was an important

influence in Mali.

West African CivilizationSection 1: The Growth of Islam in West Africa• The Songhai Empire expanded under Muslim

rulers. It was the largest empire in West Africa.

• Timbuktu was a center of Islamic scholarship.• Arabic became the language of law, learning,

and business.

West African CivilizationSection 2: West African Society• West African societies were organized

according to complex systems of kinship and class.

• Slaves made up the lowest caste in West Africa. However, slaves had some important rights.

• Trade was a central part of life in both villages and cities.

West African CivilizationSection 3: Storytelling and the Arts of West

Africa• West Africans passed on their history and

morals through an oral tradition.• Music, dance, and sculpture played key roles

in transmitting West African culture.• West African cultures from the past have

influenced modern African, European, and American societies.

The MayasSection 1: The Rise of the Mayas• Maya civilization thrived in the southern

lowlands of Mesoamerica.• For hundreds of years, Classic Maya civilization

had a rich and vibrant culture.• Warfare, food shortages, disease, and other

factors contributed to the decline of Maya civilization.

The MayasSection 2: Maya Society• Maya society was roughly divided into two

groups, nobles and commoners.• The extended family was the basic unit of

Maya society.• The king’s authority was based on alliances,

military power, and the favor of the gods.

The MayasSection 3: Maya Achievements• Maya writing used a complex system of 800

glyphs.• The Mayas were sophisticated astronomers

and mathematicians.• Maya buildings were impressive examples of

architecture that were covered in elaborate, painted sculptures.

The IncasSection 1: The Rise of the Incas• The peoples of the central Andes adapted to

the harsh terrain by developing terrace farming and breeding hardy animals.

• The Inca Empire had its birth in southern Peru in the valley of Cuzco.

• The Inca Empire grew quickly to cover a vast region that included millions of people.

The IncasSection 2: Inca Society• Inca society was organized according to a strict

hierarchy. Each person’s role was defined by the state.

• All property in the Inca Empire was communal. There were few extremely wealthy or poor Incas.

• The Incas worshiped many gods and believed the Sapa Inca was a descendant of a god.

The IncasSection 3: Inca Achievements• The Inca government was highly organized and

efficient.• The Inca people obeyed strict rules but were

guaranteed food, clothing, and shelter.• The Incas built sophisticated roads and

buildings. They also excelled at metalwork and textile weaving.

The AztecsSection 1: The Rise of the Aztecs• The Valley of Mexico offered fertile land and a

mild climate.• The Aztecs founded Tenochtitlán on an island

that provided good farmland, easy travel, and safety from attack.

• The Aztecs established a large empire in Mexico.

The AztecsSection 2: Aztec Society• Aztec society was divided into two main

classes: nobles and commoners.• The Aztec government depended on tribute

from conquered states.• The Aztecs practiced human sacrifice to

appease the gods and to control their subjects.

The AztecsSection 3: Aztec Achievements• Tenochtitlán was a thriving city with

impressive public and private buildings.• The Aztecs created works of art using precious

metals, colorful stones, and feathers.• The Aztecs highly respected orators for their

ability to recite stories, poems, and legends.

China’s Golden AgeSection 1: The Tang and Song Dynasties• From their capital at Chang’an, the Tang

expanded China’s borders, strengthened the government, and promoted the arts.

• The Song era was one of good government. Scholar-officials rose to the top of society.

• After a barbarian invasion from the north, the Song moved south and prospered.

China’s Golden AgeSection 2: Religion and Thought in China’s

Golden Age• Daoism, a philosophy of following the way of

nature, became a religion by the Tang era.• Pure Land and Chan Buddhism were popular in

China. Some Daoists and Confucianists strongly opposed Buddhism.

• Confucian philosophy and religion stressed the importance of social order.

China’s Golden AgeSection 3: Advances in Farming, Technology,

and Trade• Improved farming techniques enabled the

population to double quickly, but changes in land tenure made some farmers poor.

• Technological inventions led to increased literacy and expanded overseas trade.

• Advances in farm production, transportation, and a money economy led to growth in trade and industry.

China Under the Mongols and the Ming

Section 1: The Mongol Ascendancy• The Mongols, united under Genghis Khan,

conquered a vast portion of Asia.• Genghis Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in

China and encouraged foreigners to come there.

• Marco Polo spent seventeen years in China and shared his knowledge of China with Europe on his return.

China Under the Mongols and the Ming

Section 2: The Ming Dynasty• The Ming Dynasty restored centralized rule to

China. China saw itself as the center of the world.

• China launched huge maritime expeditions that reached west to India, the Middle East, and Africa.

• China withdrew from official contact with other nations, though foreign trade continued to thrive.

China Under the Mongols and the Ming

Section 3: China’s Influence on the World• Confucianism and Buddhism spread from

China to influence Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.• Chinese inventions such as paper, gunpowder,

and the magnetic compass changed life in European countries.

The Rise of JapanSection 1: Land of the Rising Sun• Japan consists of a chain of islands with a wide

range of climates.• People from the Asian mainland settled Japan

over time.• Japan adapted the Chinese writing system to

its own language. It also embraced Buddhism when that religion arrived from Korea.

The Rise of JapanSection 2: The Age of Emperors• Local clans and their leaders controlled early

Japan.• The Yamato clan gained power over Japan

through wars and marriage alliances.• Prince Shotoku introduced Japan’s first

constitution. He borrowed heavily from China to create a strong, centralized government.

The Rise of JapanSection 3: The Development of Feudalism• Japanese ruling society was based on rank, not

merit. The court moved to Kyoto to avoid increasingly powerful Buddhists.

• After a long war, Minamoto Yoritomo became the first shogun of Japan.

• Feudalism emerged in Japan. Samurai served daimyo, who ruled like minor kings.

The Rise of JapanSection 4: Japan Under the Shoguns• Samurai followed a strict code of honor in

which loyalty to the lord was most important.• Japan repelled two Mongol invasions with

help from what they called a kamikaze, or divine wind.

• Tokugawa Ieyasu ended a long period of instability. He established his capital at Edo.

Japan’s Golden AgeSection 1: Japan’s Cultural Flowering• The development of a simpler form of writing

made composing poetry, journals, and other literature easier.

• Women writers produced some of the most important literature of the Heian period.

• Buddhism influenced painting, sculpture, and architecture.

Japan’s Golden AgeSection 2: The Development of Japanese

Buddhism• Buddhism became widely practiced in Japan

by the Heian period. At the same time, the practice of Shinto continued.

• Some Buddhist sects emphasized prayers, ritual, and separation from society as essential to enlightenment.

• Other forms emphasized individual effort. Buddhism became increasingly popular.

Japan’s Golden AgeSection 3: Japanese Society• The basis of Japanese society was the clan.

The welfare of the group was more important than individual needs.

• Buddhism and Confucianism emphasized ideas of harmony and unity. They viewed women as inferior.

• The economy grew because of increased numbers of artisans and merchants and through expanded trade.

A New Civilization in EuropeSection 1: Europe in the Early Middle Ages• Europe, which has a varied topography, is part

of the Eurasian landmass.• The Middle Ages is the period from 500 to

1500, after the Roman Empire and before the Modern Age.

• Charlemagne built an empire that covered most of central and western Europe.

A New Civilization in EuropeSection 2: The Spread of Christianity in Europe• The rise of monasteries and religious orders

strengthened Christianity.• Missionaries carried Christian beliefs

throughout Europe.• Eventually, most peoples of Europe were

united under one Christian faith.

A New Civilization in EuropeSection 3: The Development of European

Feudalism• Various groups of invaders entered western

Europe between 800 and 1000.• Outside attacks and a weak central

government caused the feudal system to develop.

• The manor formed the economic foundation of European feudalism.

Medieval Conflicts and CrusadesSection 1: Popes and Rulers• Charlemagne established a Christian kingdom

with close ties to the Church.• Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor,

but this practice later caused problems.• A power struggle between Henry IV and Pope

Gregory VII revealed conflicts between the pope and emperor in the Holy Roman Empire.

Medieval Conflicts and CrusadesSection 2: Kings, Nobles, and the Magna Carta• In 1066, the Normans conquered Anglo-Saxon

England and transformed English life and the English language.

• The Magna Carta and English law limited royal power and guaranteed basic rights.

• Parliament was formed to advise the king and limit his power.

Medieval Conflicts and CrusadesSection 3: Religious Crusades• European Christians launched the Crusades to

capture the Holy Land from the Muslims.• The religious fervor of the Crusades led to the

persecution of Muslims, heretics, and Jews.

Medieval Conflicts and CrusadesSection 4: Christians and Muslims in Spain• Muslim Spain had a highly advanced

civilization.• The Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Spain

and brought the growth of Christian kingdoms.

• Spanish Muslims and Jews were persecuted during the Reconquista.

A Changing Medieval WorldSection 1: The Revival of Trade and Towns• Farming innovations led to an increase in the

food supply, which led to population growth.• Increases in trade resulted from increases in

population and wealth. A banking system and the growth of towns followed.

A Changing Medieval WorldSection 2: An Age of Faith• Europeans joined mendicant religious orders

and built Gothic cathedrals as expressions of religious devotion.

• Universities developed from cathedral schools. Trade gave scholars access to ancient texts.

A Changing Medieval WorldSection 3: The Breakdown of Medieval Society• Famine and the Hundred Years’ War struck

medieval Europe. New weapons ended feudal-style warfare.

• The bubonic plague spread along trade routes. A huge loss of life and dramatic social changes followed.

The RenaissanceSection 1: The Origins of the Renaissance• Economic and social changes began to break

down the feudal order.• Secular learning began to weaken Church

control over education.• These trends gave rise to the Renaissance,

which began in prosperous Italian city-states.

The RenaissanceSection 2: New Ways of Viewing the World• Renaissance thinkers revived the classical

ideas of ancient Greece and Rome.• This “new learning” helped produce three new

viewpoints: humanism, secularism, and individualism.

• Artists began to produce work based on secular themes, in a more realistic style.

The RenaissanceSection 3: The Spread of New Ideas• Scholars and students spread the Renaissance

ideas across Europe.• Key thinkers in northern Europe — such as

More, Erasmus, and Rabelais — used Renaissance ideas to promote reform.

• The development of printing and advances in literacy helped spread Renaissance ideas.

The RenaissanceSection 4: The Renaissance Legacy• Renaissance art, architecture, and literature

left a legacy for the modern world.• Artists and architects like Brunelleschi,

Leonardo, and Michelangelo revived classical forms and developed new techniques.

• Writers such as Dante, Shakespeare, and Cervantes helped develop language and literary forms that influenced world literature.

The ReformationSection 1: The Origins of the Reformation• Abuses by the Catholic Church generated

criticism and dissent in Europe.• The ideas of Protestant reformers spread,

giving rise to the Reformation.

The ReformationSection 2: The Counter-Reformation• Catholic reformers started new religious

orders that improved the Church’s reputation and attracted new followers.

• The Council of Trent answered Protestant challenges and affirmed Church authority.

The ReformationSection 3: The Division of Christendom• Lutheranism and Calvinism spread through

much of northern Europe. Henry VIII formed the Church of England.

• Catholics and Protestants fought wars throughout Europe. Catholicism remained strongest in southern Europe.

The ReformationSection 4: The Political Impact of the

Reformation• Protestant-Catholic wars increased the power

of Europe’s secular rulers.• Europeans turned to new forms of

government after the Reformation.

The Age of ExplorationSection 1: The Voyages of Discovery• Improved maps, navigation tools, and ships

made possible the explorers’ ocean voyages.• Oceangoing explorers revealed the extent of

Africa, the existence of the Americas, and a western sea route from Europe to Asia.

The Age of ExplorationSection 2: The Conquest of the Americas• The rich Aztec and Inca empires fell to Spanish

conquistadors.• The colonization of New Spain and Peru

enriched Spain and devastated Aztec and Inca cultures and populations.

The Age of ExplorationSection 3: The Planting of Colonies• Europeans set up trading posts, colonies, and

missions around the world.• European exploration and colonization

resulted in a worldwide exchange of plants, animals, peoples, diseases, and ideas.

The Age of ExplorationSection 4: The Origins of Modern Capitalism• At the end of the Middle Ages, capitalism, a

new type of economic system, arose in Europe.

• Mercantilism, an economic theory based on overseas trade, also emerged in Europe.

Revolutions in ThoughtSection 1: The Origins of the Scientific

Revolution• The ancient Greeks applied reason to studies

of the natural world. Muslim scholars later preserved much of this science.

• During the late Middle Ages, Europeans combined Greek and Muslim science with Christian teachings.

• Renaissance humanism, global exploration, and new scientific tools sparked renewed interest in science.

Revolutions in ThoughtSection 2: The Rise of Modern Science• Beginning with Copernicus in the 1500s,

scholars proved that the sun is the center of the universe.

• Newton reinforced the sun-centered model of the universe by developing the law of gravity.

• The work of Bacon and Descartes led to the development of the scientific method.

Revolutions in Thought• Section 3: The Enlightenment• Enlightenment thinkers developed key ideas

about natural rights, balanced government, and the social contract.

• Enlightenment thinkers applied reason to the study of society and the economy.

Revolutions in ThoughtSection 4: The Influence of Enlightenment Ideas• American colonial governments were

influenced by English law and Enlightenment ideas.

• Inspired by these principles, colonial leaders signed the Declaration of Independence and separated from Great Britain.

Revolutions in ThoughtSection 5: Linking the Past and Present• Many ideas and values from the Scientific

Revolution and the Enlightenment continue to influence the world today.

• Enduring religious institutions and political systems shape our lives.