UNIVERSITY STUDENT 'S SELF-PERCEPTION OF SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO SEX AND TO ORDINAL POSITION THESIS Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE By Carol Ann Brennan Skelton, B. S. Denton, Texas May, 1977 -"I - 45,-7 s'
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UNIVERSITY STUDENT 'S SELF-PERCEPTION OF SELECTED
CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO SEX
AND TO ORDINAL POSITION
THESIS
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
North Texas State University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
By
Carol Ann Brennan Skelton, B. S.
Denton, Texas
May, 1977
-"I -
45,-7 s'
Skelton, Carol Ann Brennan, University Student's
Self-Perception of Selected Characteristics Related to Sex
and to Ordinal Position. Master of Science (Home Economics),
May, 1977, 107 pp., 13 tables, bibliography, 25 titles.
Nineteen selected self-perception characteristics of
university students were related to sex and to ordinal
position. The 60 selected males and 120 selected females
were enrolled during the summer of 1976 at North Texas State
University in Denton County, Texas.
A self-rating, group-administered instrument was
originated for collecting information. Ordinal positions
were only child, first-born with later siblings, intermedi-
ate, and last-born. The intermediates had the most positive
self-perceptions. Of the males, intermediates were highest
and only children lowest. Of the females, only children
reported more positive self-perceptions. Females had more
positive self-perceptions than males. Effects of ordinal
positions tended to depend on the child's sex.
Further study was recommended utilizing a larger, more
varied population.
0 1977
CAROL ANN BRENNAN SKELTON
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLESi....... . ....... *... .. iv
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ................. .. 1
Review of LiteratureStatement of the ProblemPurposes of the StudyDefinition of TermsLimitations
II. PROCEDURE .. *................... .......... 16
III. ANALYSISOFDATA..... ................. 21
Self-Perception of StudentsSelf-Perception by SexOrdinal PositionSex and Ordinal PositionMales by Ordinal PositionFemales by Ordinal PositionMales and Females by Ordinal Position
IV. CONCLUSIONS ....................... ........ 85
Self-Perception by SexSelf-Perception by Ordinal PositionMales by Ordinal PositionFemales by Ordinal PositionSelf-Perception by Sex and Ordinal PositionRecommendations
I. Numbers and Percentages of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas1976, by Ordinal Position and Sex . . . . . 24
II. Classification of 180 Selected UniversityStudents, Denton, Texas 1976 . . . . . . . 24
III. Age Range of 60 Male and 120 FemaleSelected University Students, Denton,Texas 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
IV. Marital Status of 60 Male and 120 FemaleSelected University Students, Denton,Texas 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
V. Response Choices of 60 Male and 120 FemaleSelected University Students, Denton,Texas1976, by Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
VI. Response Choice Totals and Percentages of60 Male and 120 Female SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas1976, by Sex ...... . . .. . .. . . 33
VII. Self-Perception Responses of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
VIII. Highest and Lowest Means of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
IX. Self-Perception Responses of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position and Sex . . . . . . . . 54
X. Self-Perception Means of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position and Sex . . . . . . . . 71
XI. Highest and Lowest Means of 60 SelectedUniversity Males, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position . . . . . . . . . . 79
iv
v
Table Page
XII. Highest and Lowest Means of 120 SelectedUniversity Females, Denton, Texas1976, by Ordinal Position . .. . ..... . 80
XIII. Highest and Lowest Means of 60 Male and120 Female Selected University Students,Denton, Texas 1976 by Ordinal Positionand Sex................... . . . . . . . . 81
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCT ION
A descriptive study of selected self-perception
characteristics of the university student is necessary to
obtain a basic foundation for understanding the self-concept.
Such a study is necessary for the reason that the self-
rating of specifically defined self-perception characteris-
tics by the university student can provide insight into the
student's concept of self. Felker states that "self-
evaluation can contribute to the maintenance of a positive
self-concept" provided that the evaluation is both realistic
and accurate (7, p. 75). Authoritative findings regarding
self-perception of selected university students are essen-
tial if relevant information is to evolve concerning self-
perception as related to sex and ordinal position.
In the past, many individuals have investigated spe-
cific characteristics in young children and related the
characteristics to ordinal position. Research information is
inadequate concerning traits in university students, self-
perception of the traits, and the relationship of self-
perception to sex and ordinal position. Child development
authorities are in general agreement that personality is
partially shaped by one's order of birth into a family
(20, 21).
1
2
Self-perception of the college-age individual has been
investigated by Bigner (4) and Koenig (11) during the past
decade. For the purposes of assessing self-attitudes Kuhn's
Twenty Statements Test was administered in each of the
inquiries. Subjects were asked to complete the statement
"I am" in twenty spaces. First-borns in the Koenig study
evidenced a greater need for social affiliation than did
later-borns and the Bigner investigation concluded that
self-description is influenced by sibling position. The use
of a more clearly defined instrument for the self-rating of
selected characteristics and a more extensive categorization
of subjects indicates the possibility for a new understand-
ing of self-perception related to ordinal position, and thus
a need for further study.
The study was undertaken to obtain information regarding
the identification of selected self-perception characteris-
tics from a selected group of university students attending
North Texas State University in Denton County, Texas during
the summer of 1976. The purposes of the investigation were
to consider the degree of occurrence of the selected charac-
teristics and to provide a comparison by sex and a compari-
son by ordinal position: only child, first-born with later
siblings, intermediate, and last-born.
Review of Literature
"Self-Perception," the self-constructed instrument used
in the collection of self-perception information, was
3
designed as a result of the review of literature because of
the yielding of pertinent information concerning self-
perception, self-concept and self-evaluation (Appendix A).
A self-designed instrument was necessary to elicit the type
of information desired. Specific personality traits listed
as desirable in a mature, well-adjusted individual were
repeatedly mentioned in the review of literature. Traits
mentioned most often were selected as self-perception items
by the individual conducting the study. Degrees of desira-
bility of each trait were then selected for the self-rating
choices of each item.
To facilitate the review of literature and the purposes
of discussion, the material was divided into five categories:
Social Adjustment, Emotional Adjustment, Common Sense, Per-
sonality Adjustment and Morality. Social Adjustment includes
Friendship, Friendliness and Cheerfulness, Sense of Humor,
Communication, Cooperation, Loyalty and Trust, and Accepting
tion and Handling Conflicts. Common Sense encompasses
Facing Reality, Responsibility, Decision-Making and Problem-
Solving, Perseverence, Timeliness and Philosophy of Life.
Personality Adjustment includes Acceptance, Confidence, and
Improvement. Morality, the final item for discussion, was
considered as a separate category because the review of
literature revealed that morality implies a standard of be-
havior different from those of the aforementioned items (9).
4
Social Adjustment
Learning socially approved behavior is a necessary
developmental task of childhood (9). As a child grows older
and daily contacts with others increase, the need for social
adjustment becomes evident. Social adjustments are a
necessity if harmonious relationships are to exist (10,
p. 353).
Cheerfulness, a socially desirable trait, enhances a
person's attractiveness in the other person's eyes (10,
pp. 298-299). According to current sources, friendliness
toward others, interest in others and the enjoyment of the
company of others are also highly desirable attributes (9,
12, 16). Hurlock suggests that qualities of extroversion
and gregariousness, both indicative of a cheerful, friendly
individual, have a high incidence of frequency in second-
borns and last-borns, while introversion has a high inci-
dence of frequency in first-borns and middle-borns (9,
p. 481). Schwendiman, Larsen and Parks also report that
second-borns are more cheerful than first-borns (17).
An extroverted individual would be more experienced in
intercommunication than would an introverted individual.
Good communication techniques are important if a rapport is
to exist between two people. An open, tactful, discreet
approach to communication can enhance an already attractive
personality (8, 16),. The ability to listen is also an asset
to good communication (13).
5
Several sources are in agreement that a sense of humor
is an admirable trait in any personality (2, 9, 10, 13, 16).
Information is inadequate concerning the possible relation-
ship between sense of humor and ordinal position, yet it has
been reported that siblings are very influential in the
formation of characteristics of a fellow sibling (19, 20).
Research indicates that if a child has no siblings that
child will be influenced by the personality of the parents
(20), thus disclosing a possible explanation for recogniza-
ble similarities of characteristics among members of the
same family.
Three findings reported by Landis and Landis (13)
relate to friendships. Self-centeredness and selfishness
are clearly definable as negative qualities which hinder
harmonious interpersonal relationships. An individual
habitually exhibiting such traits will undoubtedly have
difficulty maintaining friendships. Conversely, a mature
person, interested in meeting the needs of others in
interpersonal relationships, will increase the likelihood
of satisfying friendships.
A cooperative attitude exemplifies a willingness to
work with others in a total effort, regardless of the
absence of personal rewards and acknowledgement (16).
Weiner reports that first-borns display a tendency toward
independence and high achievement (21). As a result of
6
one's need for high achievement, a competitive attitude may
prevail, thus inhibiting cooperation with others (9).
An individual's capacity for loyalty and trustworthiness
may well be governed by his genuine concern for others. The
person continually looking out for himself before considering
the needs or feelings of others may have the loyalty and
trust of only a very few persons. Authoritative findings
relating characteristics of loyalty and trust to ordinal
position are inadequate, yet sources reveal that traits of
loyalty and trust are highly desirable in any human being
(9, 12, 16).
The acceptance of authority has been reported to be
difficult for high school students (16). Though the same
research study did not relate the acceptance of authority
to ordinal position, concurrence exists among several
sources that first-borns tend to be more conforming than
later-borns (9, 11, 23). A study by Bragg and Allen (6)
revealed that females generally conform more than males, and
that all first-borns tend to be influenced more than later-
borns by adults in authority. The acceptance of authority
and the ability to request assistance from persons in
authority, when needed, are qualities of a mature individual
(12).
Emotional Adjustment
Emotion implies an overt quality of behavior. The
characteristics of expressing emotion and handling conflicts
7
have been classified as Emotional Adjustment because of the
overt behavior often involved in each. Lawton has described
the "well-adjusted" person as being able to display affection
and anger in an appropriate and acceptable manner (15). A
cold, rejecting disposition is as undesirable as a disposi-
tion that is easily angered and frustrated. Warmth, affec-
tion, anger, frustration, and tension are common emotions
that, when expressed constructively, can intensify the
satisfaction of interpersonal relationships (14, 16).
Common Sense
Items classified as Common Sense are facing reality,
responsibility, decision-making and problem-solving, per-
severance, timeliness, and philosophy of life.
The ability to accept reality is a trait of the well-
adjusted individual (15, p. 213). Landis and Landis
indicate that one's acceptance of reality is a sign of
emotional maturity (13, pp. 57-58). A flexible, compromis-
ing person will have far less difficulty accepting things
that cannot be changed, than will the person taking refuge
from reality in wishful thinking and fantasy (5, 15).
The characteristic of responsibility has been cited by
Landis and Landis (13) and Barrett-Lennard (3) as a maturity-
related trait. An individual acting responsibly can be
depended upon to carry a task through from start to comple-
tion even under difficulty (16, p. 12). A degree of
independence is apparent when one is self-directing and can
8
take responsibility for his own actions (3, p. 100).
Hurlock specifically cites the trait of responsibility as
characteristic of the first-born child, while citing
irresponsibility as a characteristic of the last-born child
(9, p. 481).
The ability to think independently seems necessary if
one is to make decisions and to solve problems with a
minimum of conflict, worry and advice-seeking (15, p. 213).
Barrett-Lennard reports that a mature person makes cautious,
prudent decisions, and admits to an error in judgement
without a loss of self-respect (3). A well-adjusted person
abides by his own decisions and learns from defeats (15,
p. 213). Weiner (21) cites independence and Hurlock (9)
cites shrewdness as qualities of the first-born, both of
which may well contribute to decision-making and problem-
solving abilities.
Ryder has defined perseverance as the striving for
goals (16). Poor self-awareness may allow one to be unre-
alistic concerning personal limitations (2, 3). Persistence
in reaching goals despite setbacks (9), patience, and a
knowledge of personal assets and limitations (2, 3) can
contribute to a high degree of perseverance in an individual.
Weiner states that first-borns tend to be more oriented
toward achievement (30, p. 89), thus indicating a possible
higher degree of perseverance in first-borns.
9
A sense of propriety and timeliness may well have to be
learned through one's personal experiences. The postpone-
ment of temporary satisfaction and gratification is not
always a simple task. Lawton states that the well-adjusted
person can postpone immediate gratification and also act
upon things that may be momentarily unpleasant (15). It was
stated previously that first-borns in the Koenig study (11)
evidenced a greater need for social affiliation than did
later-borns. Hurlock also suggests that the first-born has
a need for affiliation (9). The need for affiliation implies
a need for membership or association with a group. Such a
need may inhibit one from the postponement of gratification
if such is not fitting at the time with the behavior of the
group.
Writers have inferred that the individual, continually
resorting to wishful thinking, may be unable to face the
realities of life. The same may be stated about the person
clinging to the past. A person's contentment with his
assigned role in life reflects an optimistic philosophy of
life. It seems likely that the same contented person would
look forward to the pleasures that life brings with each age
level (15, p. 213), rather than revert to the past for
security and comfort. A study by Altus (1) revealed that
first-borns tend to be better satisfied with assigned sex
roles in life than do later-borns.
10
Personality Adjustment
Wylie states that one's feelings of self-acceptance
embody a conscious recognition of one 's own shortcomings and
failings (22). The self-accepting individual with good
emotional adjustment tries to see himself as others see him
(12). Hurlock states that the first-born child, the middle
child and the last-born child each suffer from feelings of
either inferiority or inadequacy (9, p. 481). A person with
a high level of self-acceptance will have self-respect
despite recognized and admitted faults (22).
Self-acceptance and confidence in oneself imply an
inner sense of well-being. Feelings of insecurity and
inadequacy may cause a person to be less self-reliant and
more dependent on others. Belief in oneself and feelings
of self-assuredness seem to enable an individual to function
independently (9). Weiner states that first-borns tend to
be more independent than later-borns (21, p. 89), while
Hurlock implies that the intermediate child is more inde-
pendent than the first-born child (9). The self-confident
individual can perhaps function independently as a result of
the absence of fear of personal limitations (10).
Criticism, when offered in a constructive manner, may
generate change. Feelings of self-acceptance embody a
conscious recognition of one's own shortcomings. Serious
self-evaluation or criticism from others may reveal such
shortcomings. Regardless of the manner in which a person is
11
made aware of personal shortcomings or undesirable traits,
it is the mature individual who can change such character-
istics in the interest of self-improvement (13).
Morality
The quality of a person's moral behavior is governed by
the absence or presence of internal control (9, p. 375; 18,
p. 364). Such internal control is referred to by Hurlock
(9) and Sears and his associates (18) as the conscience. An
individual possessing high standards (18) of behavior and a
sense of right and wrong is considered to have learned moral
behavior (9). The personalities of the first-born child and
the middle child, according to Hurlock (9), are prone to
behavior disorders, thus indicating a possible problem in
learning moral behavior.
Though the review of literature yielded either direct
or indirect relationships of specific personality traits to
ordinal positions of birth, it seems important to reiterate
that many relationships which appear to be solid may only be
strong tendencies.
Statement of the Problem
The problem of the study was to compare the self-
perception of selected university students enrolled in North
Texas State University during the summer, 1976 with selected
characteristics.
12
Purposes of the Study
The purposes of the study were
1. To investigate the occurrence of nineteen selected
self-perception characteristics in selected
university students and to compare differences by
sex.
2. To investigate the occurrence of nineteen selected
self-perception characteristics in selected
university students and to compare differences by
ordinal position: only child, first-born with
later siblings, intermediate, and last born.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions were used in the study:
1. Characteristics: traits, qualities, features.
2. First-born with later siblings: chronologically,
the oldest of siblings.
3. Intermediate: any child other than the first-born,
last-born, or only child.
4. Last-born: chronologically, the youngest of
siblings.
5. Only child: an individual with no siblings.
6. Self-perception: self-concept, self-attitude,
self-image, self-evaluation, self-understanding,
self-awareness.
13
Limitations
The selection of the subjects itself and the small
number of cases involved in some ordinal positions could
limit the applicability of the study. The students con-
sisted of graduate and undergraduate men and women enrolled
in selected classes at North Texas State University during
the summer of 1976.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Altus, William D., "Sex Role Dissatisfaction, BirthOrder, and Parental Favoritism," Proceedings of theAnnual Convention of the American PsychologicalAssociation, VI (Part I), 1971, 161-162.
2. Bain, Read, "Making Normal People," Marriage and FamilyLiving, XVI (February, 1954), 27-31.
3. Barrett-Lennard, G. T., "The Mature Person," MentalHygiene, XLVI (January, 1962), 98-102.
4. Bigner, Jerry J., "Sibling Position and Definition ofSelf," Journal of Social Psychology, 84 (August,1971), 307-308.
5. Bossard, James H. S. and Eleanor Stoker Boll, TheSociology of Child Development, 3rd ed., New York,Harper and Row, 1966.
6. Bragg, Barry W. and Vernon L. Allen, "Ordinal Positionand Conformity: A Role Theory Analysis," Sociometry,XXXIII (December, 1970), 371-381.
7. Felker, Donald W., Building Positive Self-Concepts,Minneapolis, Minnesota, Burgess Publishing Company,1974.
9. Hurlock, Elizabeth, Child Development, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1972.
10. _, Child Growth and Development, NewYork, McGraw-Hill, 1970.
11. Koenig, Frederick, "Definition of Self and OrdinalPosition of Birth," Journal of Social Psychology, 78(November, 1969), 287-288.
12. Landis, Judson T. and Mary G. Landis, Building YourLife, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964.
13. , Youth and
Marriage, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-HallInc., 1957.
14
15
14. Langdon, Grace and Irving W. Stout, These Well-AdjustedChildren, New York, John Day Company, 1951.
15. Lawton, George, Aging Successfully, New York, ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1946,
16. Ryder, Verdene, "Family Life Education: HelpingStudents to Know Themselves," Journal of HomeEconomics, 67 (January, 1975), 8-14.
17. Schwendiman, Gary, Knud S. Larsen, and Chris Parks,"Birth Order, Aggression Training and Authoritarian-ism," The Psychological Record, XX (Winter, 1970),69-71.
18. Sears, R. R., Eleanor E. Maccoby, and Harry Levin,Patterns of Child Rearing, New York, Row, Petersonand Company, 1957.
21. Weiner, Irving B. and David Elkind, Child Development:A Core Approach, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,1972.
22. Wylie, Ruth C., The Self-Concept, I (revised), Lincoln,Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1974.
23. Yando, Regina, Edward Zigler, and Susan Litzinger,"A Further Investigation of thettEffects of BirthOrder and Number of Siblings in DeterminingChildren's Responsiveness to Social Reinforcement,"The Journal of Psychology, 89 (January, 1975),95-111.
CHAPTER II
PROCEDURE
The study investigated the self-perception of a
selected group of university students attending North Texas
State University in Denton County, Texas during the summer
of 1976. The purposes of the investigation were to consider
the degree of occurrence of selected self-perception charac-
teristics and to provide a comparison by sex, and a compari-
son by ordinal positions: only child, first-born with later
siblings, intermediate, and last-born. "Self-Perception,"
the self-rating instrument used in the collection of data,
was designed to elicit information regarding each individual
student, and each student's self-perception (Appendix),'
The format of the self-constructed instrument was
formulated for purposes of ease in both reading and self-
rating. A separate answer sheet was utilized to facilitate
later ease in tabulation and organization (Appendix).' , The
"Self-Perception" rating scale was developed by utilizing
the methods reported by Good and Scates (1). The validity
was judged in light of various types of evidence.
1. The questions are relevant to the subject andsaturated with the subject. A minimum of threereliable sources were utilized for establishmentof the statements.
16
17
2. The instrument does cover many facets of thesubject, and there is no duplication of the items.Items used are those most often mentioned in thereview of literature.
3. As a result of construction, revision and pretest-ing, the statements are clear and unambiguous.
4. The responses show a range of variation. Sometimesthe range is not large and at other times it isgreater.
Thirteen sources were used in originating the instrument.
The questionnaire was designed, and child development
specialists reviewed the questionnaire and recommended
revisions prior to pretesting. Revisions were made by the
individual conducting the study, then the instrument was
pretested. Pretesting of the instrument was conducted under
the supervision and in the presence of the individual con-
ducting the study. University students enrolled at North
Texas State University in Denton County, Texas during the
Spring Semester, 1976, participated in the pretesting
situation. Modifications were made in the questionnaire
after the pretesting.
The self-perception instrument used in the collection
of data consists of twenty-seven items, the first eight of
which were designed to elicit descriptive information only:
position, twin, and adopted. The remaining nineteen self-
perception items were selected for the purpose of personal-
ity self-rating by selected university students.
18
University students participating in the study received
verbal and written instructions for completion of the self-
rating instrument and answer sheet. Students were directed
to select the answers that corresponded with the correct
self-information on the rating scale, and to circle the
appropriate number on the separate answer sheet. A self-
rating of one was considered to be the lowest and least
desirable score while a self-rating of three was considered
to be the highest and most desirable score and behavior.
The following verbal instructions were read prior to
the distribution of the rating scales and answer sheets:
Good morning. Your cooperation will be greatlyappreciated in the development of my thesis. Pleasecomplete the rating scale following the directions atthe top of page one.
Your identity will be of no use to me in my research,therefore it is unnecessary for you to write your nameanywhere on the rating scale or answer sheet.
The following verbalization was made after the completed
answer sheets and the rating scales were collected:
Thank you for these ten minutes of your time, and thankyou Dr. /Mr. /Ms.
Because a high percentage of returns was desirable, the
questionnaires were completed in the presence of and under
the supervision of the individual conducting the study.
Basic sources of data for the study were 180 university
students enrolled in selected Home Economics and Education
courses at North Texas State University in Denton County,
Texas during the summer of 1976. Male and female graduate
19
and undergraduate students participated, and the ages of
the subjects ranged from seventeen to fifty years. The
total population of the study was a combination of Caucasian,
Black, Latin American, and other ethnic backgrounds. Par-
ticipating students were either married, single, divorced,
widowed, or separated (broken or troubled marriage).
Information was gathered regarding the possible status of a
student's being a twin or as having been adopted. Informa-
tion regarding each student's ordinal position--only child,
first-born with later siblings, intermediate or last-born--
was also collected.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Good, Carter V. and Douglas Scates, Methods of Research,New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954.
20
CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The self-perception of a selected group of university
students attending North Texas State University in Denton
County, Texas during the summer of 1976, was investigated in
the study. The purposes of the investigation were to con-
sider the degree of occurrence of selected self-perception
characteristics and to provide a comparison by sex, and a
comparison by ordinal positions--only child, first-born with
later siblings, intermediate, and last-born. Information
regarding each individual student, and each student's self-
perception, was gathered through the use of a self-rating
instrument. (See Appendix.)
Basic sources of data for the study were 180 university
students enrolled in selected Home Economics and Education
courses at North Texas State University in Denton County,
Texas during the summer of 1976. Both male and female
graduate and undergraduate students participated in the
responses. The ages of the students ranged from seventeen
to fifty years and the total population was a combination of
Caucasian, Black, Latin American, and other ethnic back-
grounds. Students participating in the study were either
married, single, divorced, widowed, or separated (broken
21
22
or troubled marriage). Information was gathered to deter-
mine the number of twins and adopted students participating
in the study. Information was also gathered regarding each
student's ordinal position--only child, first-born with
later siblings, intermediate, or last-born.
"Self-Perception," the instrument used in the collec-
tion of self-perception information, was constructed and
designed as a result of the pertinent information yielded in
the review of literature concerning self-perception, self-
concept, and self-evaluation. Thirteen sources were used in
originating the instrument. The questionnaire was designed
and revised after evaluations were secured. Pretesting of
the instrument was conducted under the supervision and in
the presence of the individual conducting the study. Uni-
versity students enrolled at North Texas State University in
Denton County, Texas during the Spring Semester, 1976, par-
ticipated in the pretesting situation. The responses and
evaluations were examined, and modifications were made so
that the questionnaire could be utilized with large groups.
Twenty-seven self-rating items were included in the
questionnaire. The first eight items were designed to
elicit specific descriptive information regarding each in-
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higher means from males in 3 of the 4 ordinal position cate-
gories. The highest mean score computed was achieved by the
male only children, while the lowest mean score was achieved
by the female first-borns. Male and female only children
and male intermediates generally felt more adept at communi-
cation skills than other participants in the study. (See
Table X.)
The highest mean score tabulated on the self-perception
item of Cooperation was achieved by both the female only
children and the female intermediates. The low mean score
tabulated for Cooperation was achieved by the male only
children. Males in three ordinal position categories had
lower means than females in the same groups. Of all groups,
male first-borns, female only children and female intermedi-
ates felt more cooperative than other groups. (See Table X.)
73
Males had both the lowest and the highest mean scores
on Loyalty and Trust. The male only children had the lowest
mean and the male intermediates had the highest mean. Of
all groups, the male intermediates felt they were more loyal
and trustworthy than other groups. (See Table X.)
On the self-perception item of Accepting Authority,
females in three of the four ordinal position categories had
higher means than males in the same categories. The male
only children had the lowest mean, score computed, and the
female intermediates had the highest mean score. Overall,
the male first-borns and the female intermediates felt they
were better able to accept authority than other groups.
(See Table X.)
Expressing Affection yielded higher means from females
in all ordinal position categories. The low mean score
tabulated for Expressing Affection was achieved by the male
only children and the high mean score was achieved by the
female only children. Of the 60 male participants, the male
first-borns felt better able to express affection appropri-
ately than other male groups. Of the 180 participants, all
females felt better able to express affection than did males
in the study. Female only children felt best able to
express affection. (See Table X.)
Male only children had the highest mean score computed
on the self-perception item of Handling Conflicts, and female
last-borns had the lowest score. Males in 3 ordinal
74
position categories had higher means than females in the
same categories. Overall, males in the study felt they could
handle conflicts better than did the females. Of all groups
in the study, male only children, male last-borns, and
female intermediates felt better able to handle conflicts
than other groups. (See Table X.)
Facing Reality yielded a high mean score achieved by
the male intermediates and a low mean score achieved by the
male only children. The highest mean achieved by the female
participants was achieved by the female only children.
Generally, the male intermediates and the female only chil-
dren indicated they felt better able to face reality than
did the other groups. (See Table X.)
Male only children had the lowest mean, and male last-
borns had the highest mean, on the self-perception item of
Responsibility. The three highest means tabulated were
attained by the male last-borns, the male intermediates, and
the female only children, indicating that they felt them-
selves to be more responsible than did the other groups.
(See Table X.)
Male participants had higher means than females in all
ordinal position categories, on the self-perception item of
Decision-Making and Problem-Solving. The high mean score
tabulated was attained by both the male intermediates and
the male last-borns, and the low mean was attained by the
female first-borns. Overall, the male intermediates and the
75
male last-borns felt more positive about making decisions
and solving problems than all other groups. Of the 120
female participants, the last-borns felt better able to make
decisions and solve problems than did females in other
groups. (See Table X.)
The highest possible mean score, 3.00, was achieved
by the male only children on Perseverance. Males in 3 of
the 4 ordinal position categories achieved higher means than
females in the same categories. The lowest mean tabulated
for Perseverance was achieved by the female first-borns.
Among the female participants, the only children had a
higher mean than other groups. Of all groups, the male only
children and the female only children felt higher levels of
perseverance than other groups. (See Table X.)
The male intermediates and the female only children
had the highest mean computed for the self-perception item
of Timeliness. The lowest mean tabulated was attained by
the male only children. Generally, the male intermediates
and the female only children felt their behavior to be more
timely and appropriate than did other participants. (See
Table X.)
The self-perception item, Philosophy of Life, yielded
a high mean score attained by the female only children, and
a low mean score attained by the male only children. Among
the male participants, the intermediates had a higher mean
than males in other ordinal position categories. Overall,
76
the female only children and the male intermediates felt a
more positive philosophy of life than did other participants.
(See Table X.)
Females in 3 of the 4 ordinal position categories had
higher means than males in the same categories on the self-
perception item of Acceptance. The highest mean tabulated
for Acceptance was achieved by the male intermediates, and
the lowest mean tabulated was achieved by the male only
children. Among the females, the only children and the
intermediates felt more self-accepting than the other fe-
males. However, of all groups, the male intermediates felt
a higher level of self-acceptance than all other groups.
(See Table X.)
On the item of Confidence, male only children had the
lowest mean score, and female only children had the highest
mean score. Males had higher means than females in 3 of the
4 ordinal position categories, indicating that the males
felt more self-confident than the females. Of all groups,
the female only children and the male intermediates felt
more self-confident than other groups. (See Table X.)
Males in 3 of the 4 ordinal position categories had
lower means than females in the same categories on Improve-
ment. The highest mean computed was attained by the male
intermediates, and the lowest mean computed was attained
by the male only children. Of the 120 female participants,
the first-borns felt more capable of self-improvement than
77
other groups, and the only children and the intermediates
felt least capable of self-improvement. Of the 60 males,
the last-borns felt least capable of self-improvement. Of
all groups, the male last-borns and the female first-borns
felt more capable of self-improvement than other groups.
(See Table X.)
Morality yielded the highest possible mean score from
the male only children. The lowest mean score computed for
Morality was attained by the male last-borns. Of the fe-
males, the lowest mean score was also attained by the last-
borns. The three highest means tabulated for Morality were
attained by the male only children, the male first-borns,
and the male intermediates, thus indicating that the males
generally felt a more urgent sense of morality than the
females. Of the female participants, the first-borns felt
a more urgent sense of morality than females in other
ordinal position categories. (See Table X.)
Males by Ordinal Position
Sixty males participated in the study. Six were only
children, 20 were first-borns with later siblings, 15 were
intermediates, and 19 were last-borns. Of all males, the
male intermediates had higher means on more self-perception
items than the other groups. Intermediate males, therefore,
had more favorable self-perceptions than males in other
categories. The male only children received more lower
78
self-perception means than any other group, thus indicating
less favorable, more negative self-perceptions among the
male only children than other male participants. (See
Table XI.)
Females by Ordinal Position
A total of 120 females participated in the study.
Twenty-two were only children, 32 were first-borns, 33 were
intermediates, and 33 were last-borns. Female only children
had more higher self-perception means than the other groups,
thus indicating more favorable self-perception among the
female only children than among the other female partici-
pants. The female first-borns had more lower self-perception
means than other groups. The least favorable self-perceptions
among the females were recorded by the first-borns. (See
Table XII.)
Males and Females by Ordinal Position
The greatest number of higher self-perception means
were received by the female only children and the group did
not receive a single lower average. (See Table XIII.) The
female only children recorded more positive self-perceptions
than any other group. The female first-born seemed to have
a lower self-perception than any other group of women. The
intermediate born male recorded more positive self-perceptions
than any other group of males. The male only children re-
ceived more lower self-perception means than all other
79
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groups. The group also had a wider range in scores as evi-
denced by the fact that four of the highest means were
received by the male only children. The least favorable
self-perceptions and the widest range in perception were
recorded by the male only children. There is an indication
that self-perception by ordinal position is definitely af-
fected by sex differences. (See Table XIII.)
The self-perception mean for the 60 males was 2.43, and
the mean for the 120 females was 2.53. Fifteen of the 19
lowest means recorded by sex and ordinal position were re-
ceived by the males. The overall self-perception of the
females was more favorable than that of the males. (See
Table XIII.)
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Doren, Margaret Peterson, "Evaluation of Studies onBirth Order and Sibling Position," unpublished doc-toral dissertation, Department of Education, Univer-sity of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1972.
84
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSIONS
A review of literature revealed many indications that
order of birth does indeed affect personality. However,
past studies yielded information that was neither specific
nor conclusive regarding the self-perception of university
students, related to sex and ordinal position. A need for
further study was evident.
The study investigated the occurrence of 19 selected
self-perception characteristics in 180 selected university
students, and compared differences by sex and by ordinal
position. All self-perception information was gathered
through the use of a specially designed, group-administered,
self-rating instrument. (See Appendix.) Sixty male and
120 female graduate and undergraduate students enrolled in
various Home Economics and Education courses during the
summer of 1976, at North Texas State University in Denton
County, Texas, participated in the study. It is believed
that participants were honest in their self-ratings for the
reason that oral instructions were given prior to testing
to encourage anonymity.
85
86
Self-Perception by Sex
Sixty males participated in the study. Men held higher
self-perception scores than women in 8 of the 19 areas. The
males reported feeling more discreet, tactful, and adept at
disagreeing agreeably; more capable of handling conflicts;
taking responsibility; making decisions and solving problems;
and persevering in tasks despite difficulty. Males felt
more self-confident, self-disciplined and self-controlled,
and were found to be more apt to utilize self-evaluation
and changing undesirable traits than the females.
A total of 120 females participated in the study. Women
recorded more favorable self-perception than men in 11 of the
19 areas. The females felt friendlier, more cheerful, and
better friends to others than the males. The females also
were most able to laugh at themselves, and meet the troubles
and irritations of everyday life with a smile. Women per-
ceived themselves to be more cooperative, loyal, and trust-
worthy than the men. The women felt more capable of
accepting things that cannot be changed than the male par-
ticipants. When compared with the males, the females were
found to be more contented with assigned roles in life, and
to feel most able to work when working, play when playing,
and say "no" to harmful situations. Overall, the females
had a more positive self-perception than males.
87
Self-Perception by Ordinal Position
Of the 180 participants, 28 were only children, 52
were first-borns with later siblings, 48 were, intermediates,
and 52 were last-borns. Students who were intermediates
recorded higher more favorable self-perceptions than all
other groups.
The 28 only children received the most favorable scores
on 5 of the 19 items. The items were Communication, Perse-
verance, Timeliness, Philosophy of Life, and Confidence.
The only children felt less capable of laughing at themselves,
and meeting thel troubles and irritations of everyday life
with a smile than all other groups. However, the only
children felt more discreet, tactful, and capable of dis-
agreeing agreeably than other participants. Of all groups,
the only children reported feeling least loyal and trust-
worthy, and in conjunction with the last-borns, least able
to accept authority. An individual who can compromise, be
flexible, and accept things that cannot be changed, is more
likely to have less difficulty facing the realities of
everyday life. Facing reality was reported to be more
difficult for the only children than for any other group.
Making decisions and solving problems were most difficult
for the only children, yet the group felt more patient,
persevering, and knowledgeable concerning limitations, than
all other groups. The only children felt happier with
assigned roles in life, took more pleasure in the experiences
88
of each age level, knew how to work when working, play when
playing, and say "no" to harmful situations, more often than
other groups. It was also found that, among the only chil-
dren, feelings of self-assurance and self-confidence were
more prevalent, and feelings of self-acceptance were less
prevalent, than in other groups. Self-evaluating and
changing undesirable traits were least often practiced by
the only children.
Fifty-two first-borns with later siblings received the
most favorable scores in the two areas of Improvement and
Morality, and tied for the highest score in the two areas of
Loyalty and Trust and Accepting Authority. The first-borns
had the lowest scores in the six areas of Friendship, Com-
munication, Cooperation, Responsibility, Timeliness, and
Philosophy of Life, and tied for the lowest position in the
area of Handling Conflicts. Hurlock (1) has stated that
introversion has a high incidence of frequency in first-
borns. First-borns in this inquiry felt less gregarious
and extroverted than all groups, thus indicating a tendency
toward introversion and lending support to Hurlock's state-
ment. An independent, achievement-oriented individual might
have difficulty cooperating in a total group effort. Weiner
(2) reports that first-borns have a tendency toward inde-
pendence and high achievement. First-borns perceived them-
selves to be less cooperative than all other groups, therefore
supportive of Weiner's statement. The first-borns and the
89
intermediates tied for the highest position in the area of
Accepting Authority. Each group felt equally competent of
complying even when in disagreement and seeking the help of
those in authority when it was needed. The first-borns tied
with the last-borns for the lowest position in the area of
Handling Conflicts. Each group felt least capable of con-
trolling temperament, and releasing tensions constructively.
Of all groups, the first-borns felt least dependable, and
least able to accept responsibility. Though the first-borns
were found to feel least capable of timely behavior, and
least contentment with their roles in life than other groups,
they were found to be most likely to utilize self-evaluation
and change undesirable traits. First-borns in the study
were found to feel more self-assured and more independent
than later-borns, thus supporting Weiner's statement that
first-borns tend to be more independent than later-borns (2).
A total of 48 intermediates participated in the study.
The intermediates received the most favorable self-percep-
tion scores in the seven areas of Friendship, Friendliness
and Cheerfulness, Cooperation, Expressing Affection, Handling
Conflicts, Facing Reality, and Acceptance, and tied for the
most favorable position in the three areas of Sense of Humor,
Loyalty and Trust, and Accepting Authority. None of the
lowest and least favorable self-perceptions were attained by
the intermediates. It was found that the intermediates tried
most often to meet and understand the emotional needs of
90
others in human relationships, and were more sympathetic,
gregarious, and extroverted than all other groups. The
intermediates and the last-borns tied for the highest posi-
tion in the area of Sense of Humor. Each group felt equally
capable of laughing at themselves, and meeting the troubles
and irritations of everyday life with a smile. Of all
groups, the intermediates felt most capable of carrying their
share of the load in any group activity, and taking interest
in the total effort. The intermediates tied with the first-
borns for the highest positions in the areas of Loyalty and
Trust and Accepting Authority. Each group felt equally
loyal, trustworthy, competent of complying even when in
disagreement, and seeking the help of those in authority
when it was needed. Expressing Affection, Handling Conflicts,
and Facing Reality were most easily managed by the interme-
diate participants. The intermediates were also found to be
more self-accepting than other groups.
Fifty-two last-borns participated in the study. The
last-borns had the highest and most favorable self-perception
scores in the two areas of Responsibility and Decision-Making
and Problem-Solving, and tied for the highest score in the
area of Sense of Humor. The group had the lowest and least
desirable scores in the four areas of Expressing Affection,
Perseverance, Confidence, and Morality, and tied for the
lowest score in the two areas of Accepting Authority and
Handling Conflicts. The last-borns tied with the intermediates
91
for the highest position in the area of Sense of Humor.
Each group felt equally competent of laughing at themselves,
and of meeting the troubles and irritations of everyday life
with a smile. The last-borns tied with the only children
for the lowest position in the area of Accepting Authority.
Demonstrating affection in acts that are fitting in amount
and kind was reportedly most difficult for the last-born
participants. The last-borns tied with the first-borns for
the lowest position in the area of Handling Conflicts. Each
group felt equal difficulty in controlling temperament and
releasing tensions. The last-borns reported feeling more
responsible, more capable of making decisions and solving
problems, but less persevering than all other groups. Last-
borns were more inconsistent in self-discipline and less
self-confident than all groups.
Males by Ordinal Position
Among the males, the six who were only children felt
more skillful in communication, handling conflicts, persever-
ing in tasks despite setbacks, and more self-disciplined
than others, but were found to feel more negative self-
perceptions than all other groups, in 15 of the 19 areas.
The areas were Friendship, Friendliness and Cheerfulness,
Sense of Humor, Cooperation, Loyalty and Trust, Accepting Au-
Koenig, Frederick, "Definition of Self and Ordinal Positionof of Birth," Journal of Social Psychology, 78 (November,
1969), 287-288.
Ryder, Verdene, "Family Life Education: Helping Studentsto Know Themselves," Journal of Home Economics, 67(January, 1975) , 8-14.
Schwendiman, Gary, Knud S. Larsen, and Chris Parks, "BirthOrder, Aggression Training and Authoritarianism,"The Psychological Record, XX (Winter, 1970), 69-71.
Sonstegard, Manford, "Life Style Identification and Assess-ment," Individual Psychologist, X (November, 1973),, 1-4.
Yando, Regina, Edward Zigler, and Susan Litzinger, "AFurther Investigation of the Effects of Birth Order andNumber of Siblings in Determining Children's Respon-siveness to Social Reinforcement," The Journal ofPsychology, 89 (January, 1975), 95-111.
Publications of Learned Organizations
Altus, William D., "Sex Role Dissatisfaction, Birth Order, andParental Favoritism," Proceedings of the Annual Conven-tion of the American Psychological Association, VI(Part I), 1971, 161-162.
107
Unpublished Materials
Doren, Margaret Peterson, "Evaluation of Studies on BirthOrder and Sibling Position," unpublished doctoraldissertation, Department of Education, Universityof Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1972.