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NAME INDEX
Abendroth, Wolfgang (1906–85), Germanjurist and political scientist 394
Adams, John Bertram (1920–84), Britishnuclear physicist 540, 545
Adenauer, Konrad Hermann Josef(1876–1967), German statesman 403
Adhemar, Joseph Alphonse (1797–1862),French mathematician 479
Adler, Alfred (1870–1937), Austrianpsychologist 389
Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund (1903–69),German philosopher 289, 290, 384, 385
Albee, Edward (b. 1928), Americanplaywright 30
Alfred the Great (849–899), king ofWessex 4
Allegre, Claude (b. 1937), French politicianand scientist 567–8
Althoff, Friedrich (1839–1908), PrussianMinister of Culture 18
Althusser, Louis Pierre (1918–90), Frenchphilosopher 392, 408
Arber, Werner (b. 1929), Swissmicrobiologist and geneticist 454
Aries, Philippe (1914–84), French historian411
Aristotle (384–322 BC), Greek philosopher4, 7
Aron, Raymond (1905–83), Frenchphilosopher, sociologist and politicalscientist 380, 388
Attlee, Clement (1883–1967), Britishstatesman 77
Baader, Andreas (1943–77), leader RoteArmee Fraktion (= Baader–Meinhofgroup) 298
Bacon, Francis (1561–1626), Englishphilosopher, scientist and statesman 9
Balibar, Etienne (b. 1942), Frenchphilosopher 392
Bar, Christian von (b. 1952), German jurist422
Barlow, (James) Alan (Noel) (1881–1968),public servant 75
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Association of Universities and Colleges inCanada (AUCC) 570–1
Association of University Teachers (AUT)196, 200–1
associations (of university staff) 199–201,210
political role 201social significance 200
astronomy 432astrophysics 434, 443Athens, University of 305–6Atomic Energy Authority 544AUCC see Association of Universities and
Colleges in CanadaAustria 46, 130, 330, 568
accession to EU 559–60accreditation body 254course structure 255, 257degrees 337economics, teaching of 404–5faculty structure 245funding system 258–9graduate employment 342, 343; female
354growth in student numbers 41, 61management structure 144
Ministry of Science and Research 35Nazi educational policies 198non-university institutions 62, 63,
251–2student/graduate numbers 324, 325student migrations to 219student movements 287, 296–7
AUT see Association of University Teachersautogestion, as rallying principle of French
movement 291autonomy, university 28–9, 34–5, 115
increasing 563–4loss of: in former Yugoslavia 559; in
Soviet bloc 86of management 137–40(perceived) threats to 118in post-1968 France 107–8in post-war Germany 80relationship with management 131–2in staff appointments 174
Azerbaijan 311–12
‘baby boom’ 162–3, 211, 227baccalaureat see school-leaving
examinationsbachelor’s degree 254–5, 335
downgrading of value (in exact sciences)445
equivalence 339–40, 366in medieval universities 6–7non-university 338status/employment value 255–6in US colleges 21
Baden-Wurttemberg (Germany), Universityof 394
Barcelona (Spain), University of 402Basel (Switzerland), University of 396behaviourism 390, 392, 393, 395, 397Belarus 117Belfast, Queen’s University 253Belgium 37
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
medical studies 505ministries of higher education 35non-state sector 55–6non-university education 55, 56–7rectors’ conference 100research council 98student movements 279, 288, 293–4,
302, 303student numbers 324; by subject 327student/university expansion 41, 50, 262teaching conditions 192wartime resistance movement 32, 33
Belgrade (Serbia), University of 131, 558Berkeley, Cal., student activism 14Berlin
Free University 44, 84, 289, 395School of Engineering 242University of see Humboldt University,
BerlinWall, fall of 553, 557–8 (see also Soviet
bloc, impact of collapse)Bern (Switzerland), University of 396‘Big Science’ institutions (EU) 438–9,
538–41Bilbao (Spain), University of 402biological sciences
availability of training 459challenges facing 457–8cost–benefit analysis 464costs of research 464divisions 451–2early retirements of academics 463educational resources 465–7graduate employment 470–1historical development 451–2impact of environmental movement
Bologna Process 117, 120, 139, 262, 366,565, 567, 571–4
Bordeaux (France), University of 379Bosnia, political upheavals 558BP 543‘brain drain’ 134, 448Bretton Woods Treaty (1944) 399Brigate Rosse (Red Brigade) 298–9Bristol (UK), University of 428‘British disease’ 234British Journal of Medical Education 499British Medical Association 515British Transport Commission 544Brno (Czech Republic), Masaryk
University 565Brussels, Free University of 55, 294, 401Brussels Pact (1948) 24, 94Buckingham (UK), University of 240–1Budapest (Hungary) 7
University of Sciences 244Bulgaria 46–7, 103, 208
rectors’ conference 100restrictions on university curriculum 38screening bodies 87student/university expansion 50
business administration, schools of 55business studies, as university subject 404
Cadarache (France) 539California Institute of Technology
(CalTech) 532Cambridge University 188
admissions policy 219collegiate system 16, 214earth sciences 477exact sciences 428faculty structure 243, 244migrations to 270political science 392radio telescope 541science park 547social sciences 383staff traditions/background 174, 175teaching methods 248, 257; innovations
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Capenhurst (UK) 539car travel/parking, provision for 154Carlsbad see KarlsbadCarnegie Foundation Survey 191Catholic Church, as organizing power 62Catholic universities, support for New Left
302–3CCC see Council for Cultural CooperationCEA see Commissariat a l’energie atomiqueCEC see Commission of the European
CommunitiesCentral Electricity Generating Board 544Central European University (CEU) 560Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), funding
of student organizations 281, 282,293
Centre europeen pour l’enseignementsuperieur (CEPES) 103, 150, 567
Centre for Educational Research andInnovation (CERI) 149–50
Centre national de la recherche scientifique(CNRS) 107, 175, 180, 187, 193–4,265, 380, 446, 543
centrifugation 453CEPES see Centre europeen pour
l’enseignement superieurCERI see Centre for Educational Research
and InnovationCERN see Conseil europeen pour la
recherche nucleaireCEU see Central European Universitychairs see professorschemistry 193, 424, 436
curricular design 445decline in numbers 536inorganic 429interaction with other sciences 433,
441–2theoretical 428
chemotherapy 486CHER see Committee for Higher
Education and Research; Council ofEurope
Chicago, University of 27, 375‘Children’s University’ 20‘chiliastic utopianism’ 300–1China 22chromatography 452–3chromosome research 454–5CIA see Central Intelligence Agencyclass (social)
diminishing connection with academicachievement 213
and resistance to expansion 210and university entrance 211–13, 223–32
(see also social selection)climate change/research 474, 478–80, 482,
483–4Club of Rome 536Cluj (Romania), King Ferdinand I
University 85CNAA see Council for National Academic
AwardsCND see Campaign for Nuclear
DisarmamentCNRS see Centre national de la recherche
scientifiquecognitive science 432cold war, mirrored in student
organizations 283College of Dutch University Rectors 90colleges of advanced technology 165collegiate universities 9, 214Cologne University 244, 384, 407
Cologne School (sociology) 385colonies, universities in 22
see also North AmericaColumbia University, New York 377–8Columbus Programme 566Comecon see Council for Mutual
Economic AssistanceComenius programme for school education
121Comett see Community Programme for
Education and Training forTechnology
Comite national d’evaluation (France) 159command economy, impact on higher
education 36–40, 46, 49–50commerce, schools of 55Commissariat a l’energie atomique (CEA)
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
cost 534EU research projects 541resource management 156role in medical studies 521role in science teaching 469role in scientific research 434–5students’ skills, curricular incorporation
of 249–50timetabling 157see also information technology;
Internet; personal computerscondensed matter physics 434Confederation of European Union Rectors’
Conferences 26, 118–19, 121–2, 563,569
Conference des recteurs des universitessuisses 90
Conference of Baltic University Rectors560
Conference of Danubian Rectors 560Conference of European Rectors (CRE) 24,
Conference of Ministers of HigherEducation of Socialist Countries 103
Conference of University Administrators(CUS) 150
conscription 88Conseil europeen pour la recherche
nucleaire (CERN) 98, 438–9, 440,441, 540
consortia, formation of 149consultancies 547‘consumer’ side of education 266continental drift 476, 478Continental Europe (distinguished from
UK)attitudes to students 257–9completion rates 257–8technology, study/research 531–2undergraduate/postgraduate division
256contract law 421contracts
first academic appointments 172growth in role/scale 145
handling by national consortia 149cooperation, inter-university 89–95
within Eastern Europe 102–3across EU 93–4, 120–1scientific 98–101Soviet restrictions on 94–5
CopenhagenRoskilde University 249University of 295, 391
Corpus iuris, as qualification 7correspondence (between scholars), as
academic forum 9Cosenza (Italy), University of 52–3cosmology 434, 443cost–benefit analysis 157council(s) see governing bodyCouncil for Cultural Cooperation (CCC)
24Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
(Comecon) 95, 556Council for National Academic Awards
(CNAA) 254, 337Council of Europe 24, 93–4, 99, 117, 339,
399, 569see also Committee for Higher Education
and Research; Council for CulturalCooperation
Cracow (Poland) 7CRE see Association of European
Universities; Conference of EuropeanRectors
credits, course system based on 168, 253,270, 271, 336, 560
crime rates 487crisis management 152–3critical path analysis 157Critical Theory 386‘critical universities’, establishment of 290,
294Croatia 100
political upheavals 558‘Croatian Spring’ (1971) 310Cuba 103cultural capital theory 212cultural change, impact of 267–9cultural studies, departments of 247–8Curie Institute 265curricula
‘baroque’ features 240debates on 241design 157developments in organization 132–3diversification 263, 264Eastern vs Western models 213–14,
246–7evolution 238–42, 272–3extent of regulation 335–6
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curricula (cont.)impact of changes in staff structure
246–7impact of governmental policies 273impact of research 263–6medical 520overloading 88post-war reform 529professional relevance 338, 356, 359–61,
444–5; reforms in line with 360–1,366–7
reorganization 571responsibility for 243–53social influences 274specialization 239–40, 255, 263standardization 336student role 266–9
CUS see Conference of UniversityAdministrators
customers, demands of 135CVCP see Committee of Vice-Chancellors
and PrincipalsCyprus 100Czech Republic 61, 100, 565Czechoslovakia 103, 212
admissions policy 219division of students by subject 327non-university education 57, 63, 64political division 269post-1956 reforms 101–2post-war reconstruction 46, 208–9rectors’ role in administrative structure
Dartmouth College (USA) 28DEA see Diploma of Advanced Studiesdegrees
attempts at standardization 339–41(see also European Union); limitedsuccess 340–1
certification 336–8course structure 254–5impact on social selection 320levels of 335occupation-specific 255respective value, debates on 340right to grant 253–4, 337–8stages of study 336status/employment value 255–6structural reforms 338–41
title designations 337see also bachelor’s; doctorates;
Habilitation; master’s degree;‘terminal’ degrees
democracy/ies, university systems under21
democratization (of universities) 108–9,126
dual meanings 108–9in Eastern Europe 142flaws in process 110–12impact on law faculties 416legal enforcement 188of staff structures 188, 245–6student movements’ calls for 312–13,
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and definition of university 43–4downgrading of value (in exact sciences)
445honorary 557as requirement for university teaching
259–60in sociology 372, 377from Soviet academies 39university monopoly on 193see also Habilitation; postdoctoral
research/trainingdoctors (medical)
compulsory retraining 496contracts with UK Department of Health
515contribution to health education 488migrations to/from UK 499–500, 501professional requirements 489–90, 495protests by 497–8public attitudes to 488see also health care; medical students;
medicinedropout rates 224, 258–9
in medicine 519dual institutional model (of higher
education) 357–8Dubrovnik, Croatia 558duration of courses 226, 469–70
concerns expressed about 338extension 340as indicator of achievement 340
Early Modern universitiescurriculum 8role in European society 8–10study perspective (horizontal vs vertical)
8–9earth science see earth system science;
geologyearth system science 474, 480–3East Berlin see BerlinEast Germany see German Democratic
RepublicEastern Europe
academic relations with West 117admissions systems 116delayed response to Western trends 142educational legislation 117graduate employment 334involvement in EU integrative
programmes 565low academic salaries 186
national identities, resurgence of 562post-cold war reconstruction 59,
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
350pessimism regarding 330–2, 363, 470in physical sciences 444–5preparation for 319–20pressure on universities 362–3, 366–7recruitment criteria 334relationship with field of study 348,
350–3responsibility for 364role of professional bodies 341, 353selection criteria 349, 354–5student expectations 320, 470–1suitability to qualifications 347–50in technology 545–6transition to, duration/complexity
341–2, 343, 470universities’ adaptation to changing
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
European Centre for the StrategicManagement of Universities (ESMU)150
European Coal and Steel Community 399,542
European Commission see Commission ofthe European Communities
European Conference of Ministers ofEducation 116–17, 118, 119
European Congress 93European Convention on the Equivalence
of Certificates of Secondary Education1953 99
European Convention on the Equivalenceof the Time of Study at University1956 99
European Convention on the Recognitionof Academic Degrees and Diplomas1959 99
European Council of Economic Ministers118
European Course Credit Transfer System(ECTS) 121, 271, 560, 564–5, 569,572
European Foundation for ManagementDevelopment (EFMD) 158–9
European Graduate College, Florence 25European Higher Education Area 64–5European Molecular Biology Organization
525European Research Common Action
(EURECA) 26, 120European Roundtable of Industrialists 361European Science Foundation (ESF) 26,
120, 440, 482, 525European Space Agency 440, 540–1European Space Research Organization
(ESRO) 98, 540European Space Vehicle Launcher
Organization (ELDO) 540European Strategic Programme for
Information Technology (ESPRIT) 26,120
European Student Information Bureau(ESIB) 569
European Union/Community 24–6, 135–6,202
application of qualitative criteria 122categorization of diplomas 339–40Common Educational Policy 29conference of education ministers 25–6,
30definition of university 554development of university systems 60–1directives on academic recognition 339enlargement 235–6establishment of guidelines 25
funding agencies 542–3harmonization 239; of degrees 30,
99–100, 118, 339–41, 366, 420; ofmedical accreditation 505–6, 514;opposition to 121, 563; problems of271–2; of undergraduate studies 120
integrative strategies 559–60, 561–2,572–4 (see also ‘Europeanization’)
inter-university cooperation 93–4law: convergence of systems/studies
420–2; establishment of generalprinciples 421; European Law School,calls for 420–1; historical research421–2; rules on contract law 421
management initiatives 159medical research programmes 525mobility programmes 26, 115–16,
collaboration of research groups 439collective research 435–7common culture 429curricula/course structure 444–6defined 424divisions between 426–8; erosion/
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exact (mathematical) sciences (cont.)European role in global developments
425–6, 447expansion in resources/personnel
(1960–75) 426, 447focus on research 425future challenges 447–9global collaboration 441hybrid subdisciplines 431–2increasing cosmopolitanism 440–1industrial involvement 435, 437,
440; in research 442–4interdisciplinarity 428, 429–35,
436international exchanges/collaborations
429, 437–41‘levelling off’ period (1975–95) 426major research centres 428–9multi-author papers 435–6new research technologies 430–1overlap with other sciences 432post-war reconstruction period
(1945–60) 425–6, 429, 437staff requirements 437subdivisions 428summary of post-war developments
446–7textbooks 429
examinationsadministration 197national (for university admission)
218–19role in degree structure 252–3;
diminishing 250students’ selection of date 257–8see also school-leaving examinations
exchanges, academic 89–90decrease 115–16East–West 117see also mobility; names of subjects
229–30funding 236impact on age structures 166–7impact on class distinctions 212impact on curricula 262impact on graduate employment 321,
364–5, 470
impact on staff structure/numbers163–5, 245–6
newsworthiness 233patterns of development 231–3resistances 209–10socio-economic objectives 328–9statistics 44, 46–52, 60–1
Fachhochschulen (FRG) 226–7, 329, 358,361
faculties/departmentsas basis of university structure 130–1,
239, 243; weakening 131, 168–9distribution of student numbers 325–7diversity of organization 244–5divisions between 130–1, 427–8financial responsibilities 152fragmentation 168–9loss of role in curricular development
248in medieval university 4, 9, 16, 243ordering by subject matter 169–70over-subscription 45ranking order 241rearrangements 243, 247–8resource management 151–2, 153strengthening 247see also heads of department
Faculty of Workers and Peasants,Greifswald 40
Falangists see Franco (index of names);Sindicato espanol universitario
FAST see Forecasting and Assessment inthe field of Science and Technology
361curricular reform 360degrees 337, 338distance learning 535division of students by subject 327geography, teaching of 409graduate employment 333, 343–4,
354–6; female 354history, teaching of 412Institute for Talent Research 96as international model 97–8medical studies 491–2, 503–4, 505, 514,
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
academics’ perks 186adaptation to Soviet system 82–4assimilation after reunification 62, 177,
558defections to West 83defence of German traditions 83history, teaching of 412post-war reconstruction 46–7, 81–4sociology 386staff structure 179student movements 284student/university expansion 50
German Rectors’ Conference 90Germany
admissions policy 219–20anthropology 407curricula, responsibility for 248decline of legal system 415degree awards 253–4diversity of Lander policies 177duelling fraternities 287economics, teaching of 398, 403–4educational ideology 356faculty structure 243, 244foreign students 22geological studies 482graduate employment 345–50, 351, 367,
Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
GI Bill see Servicemen’s Readjustment Actglaciation, geological investigations 478–80Glaxo 543globalization 22–6, 202–3Goodenough Report (1944) 498Gothenburg, University of 122Gottingen, University of 111, 384governance, university
adaptation to new requirements 145structure 140–1see also management
governing body, role in managementstructure 140, 141
government agencies, supra-national 542–3government(s) see state(s)grandes ecoles (France) 107–8, 175, 214,
rectors’ conference 100student migrations from 219student movement 305–6
Greifswald, University of 40Grenoble, Institut Laue-Langevin 439Grenoble Charter 286Groningen University 392, 400
Habilitation 167, 176–7, 179, 259–60,335, 340
habitus, sociological concept of 381Hamburg (Germany), University 384,
407Harvard University 27, 376–7, 413Harwell (UK) 539heads of department, resource management
responsibilities 151, 153health care
assessment of quality 511costs 490demand for 488–9, 490as human right 488international prioritization 491patterns of delivery 489–90personal responsibility, diminishing
awareness of 488professionals, increasing range/
specialization 487, 489 (see alsodoctors (medical); nursing)
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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-36108-8 - A History of the University in Europe: Universities since 1945, Volume IVEdited by Walter RueggIndexMore information
ISC see International Student ConferenceItaly 130, 212, 330, 568
age structure 166class system 213course structure 253curricula 336, 571degrees 337economics, teaching of 402geology 473graduate employment 344, 347,
348–9history, teaching of 412medical studies 505Ministry of Higher Education and
Research 35new foundations 52–3non-state sector 55–6non-university education 57post-war policies 75professorial appointments 173proportion of universities to other
support for European University 99teaching methods 250
tuition fees, importance to universityeconomy 258–9
IUCD see International Union of ChristianDemocrats
IUS see International Union of StudentsIUSY see International Union of Socialist
Youth‘ivory tower’, university as
criticism/demolition of concept 3, 15–21,158, 163, 360
evolution of image 16as nineteenth-century ideal 16–17
IYCS see International Young CatholicStudents
Japan 22, 212, 216European competition with 114private universities 214
Jena (Germany), battle of (1806) 31JET see Joint European TorusJewish teachers/students
Nazi expulsions 198, 384Soviet bloc campaign against 307
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore 27Joint European Torus (JET) 438, 539–40Joint Research Centres 443, 542–3Joint Study Programme 555–6junior staff 172–3
duration of appointments 172–3progression within institution 173promotional opportunities 167, 251–2relations with undergraduates 268role in teaching structure 248–9
Jussieu University 267
Kaiserslautern, University of 52Kanzler see registrarKarlsbad (Germany) agreement (1819) 12Kazakhstan 311–12Keele (UK), University of 293, 392Kharkov (Ukraine), University of 283Kiel (Germany), University of 244, 384,
404Kiev (Ukraine), University of 283, 397KISZ see Communist Youth AssociationKlagenfurt (Germany) 245
University of Educational Sciences 244knowledge, growth in 132–3, 167–8, 273,
366–7, 460, 537–8Koln see CologneKondratieff cycle 58Konigstein (Germany), Agreement (1949)
80–1, 393Kosovo 310, 559
La Palma (Canary Is.), NorthernHemisphere Observatory 439
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labour marketefficiency, as driving force for expansion
209gender ratios, shift in 220relationship with educational systems
220–1, 273, 328–9language teaching, new methods 249–50laser technology 431Latin America 22, 54, 566, 571–2Latvia 100, 310–12Latvian Academy of Agriculture 37Lausanne (Switzerland)
school of engineering 242University 260
law 130–1, 244, 414–22case-study method 416celebrated cases 420convergence of European systems
419–20difficulty of courses 417–19graduate employment 351–2links with economics 401, 402national character 414–16, 419–20, 422new fields 418popularity with students 416–17private, study of 418professional training 417public, study of 418rapidity of change 418–19reduction of course options 417specialization 419teaching methods 249, 416teaching of, combined with legal practice
414underfunding of faculties 416
law and economics movement 419laws see legislation; litigation; managementlecturer, rank of 245lectures 190, 239
optional attendance 257Leeds (UK), Metropolitan University 247–8legislation
compliance with 145health and safety 154proliferation, impact on law studies
418–19rapid changes in 112see also names of countries/laws
Leicester (UK), University of 383Leiden (Netherlands), University of 294,
392, 492Leipzig (Germany), University of 384Leningrad (Russia)
Leonardo da Vinci programme seeCommunity Programme for Educationand Training for Technology
Leuven (Belgium), Catholic University 55,288, 293–4, 299, 302, 312–15
library usage, pre-/post-Internet 468–9licentiate’s degree 6–7, 340Liege (Belgium), University of 294‘life cycle’, of fields of study 434life expectancy, increasing 487–8lifelong learning 336, 359, 555, 570
see also ‘third age’Limburg, University of 249Lingua programme (for the promotion of
foreign language skills) 121, 271Linz (Austria), University 245Lisbon Recognition Convention (European
Convention on the Recognition ofQualifications concerning HigherEducation in the European Region1997) 103, 567
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499–500public attitudes to 488–9redefining of objectives 491specialization 486, 488, 489; young
doctors’ preference for 505universities’ contribution to 526working conditions 486, 499, 500see also doctors (medical); health care;
nursingmedicine, study of
aims/objectives, debates on 512breakdown of system (1950s) 493–5certification 505clinical facilities, selection of 510costs 507–11, 515, 521course structure 492, 520criticisms 512, 513–14disillusionment among graduates
problems of implementation 514–16research 523–6; concentration of
resources 525; evaluation 524; funding523–5; international collaborations
525; national organizations 523;spread across departments/areas 524
responsibility for funding 509–10sources of pressure for change 503–5specialized colleges/academies 37, 492,
496–7, 517specialized courses 495, 516; student
preference for 512–13staff structure 245, 517strengthening of universities’ role 497–8student–teacher relationships 517–18teaching methods 491–4, 517, 520–1teaching staff: incomes outside university
186; numbers 516–17technological advances 507three-stage structure 496, 497see also medical students
medieval universitiesalternatives to 7completion rates 7criticisms 7curriculum 6–7degree structure 6–7guilds 200key values 5–6marketing 20models for 4–6, 553openness 6prescribed texts, attitudes to 6revival of ideals 271social function 7, 16sources, attitudes to 5–6student unrest 147study norms 5teaching posts/ideology 168see also faculties
Memorandum on University Education inthe European Union (1991) 26
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impact on management 135impact on social sciences 378, 393, 395impact on teaching 198, 199, 256‘inheritors’ (1980s) 313, 314key features 301legacy 312–16managerial responses 147–8media attention 148medical students’ protests 502, 504–5nature 299–303in non-democratic countries 303–12occupation of university buildings
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ParisAcademie royale des sciences 9Dauphine University 401–2Ecole des hautes etudes en sciences
sociales (EHESS) 380Ecole libre des sciences politiques 391Ecole nationale d’administration 13, 32Ecole pratique des hautes etudes 380,
410
World Conference on Higher Education(1998) 567
Paris University 553800th anniversary celebrations 567–8appeal to staff/students 188, 265–6division into specialized institutions
112–13foreign students 22management 160medical faculties 492, 502, 508as model for academic world 4, 12, 20social sciences 379–80student unrest 14, 105–6, 219, 233, 291,
504‘party schools’ 86passive learning, challenges to 249,
250–1Pasteur Institute 265patronage, role in academic appointments
172Pax Romana see International Movement
of Catholic StudentsPecs (Hungary), Medical University 506performance indicators 153persistent inequality (of educational
opportunities) 211–13historical background 212–13
personal computers, use of 534–5Perugia (Italy), University of 292pharmaceutical industry, contribution to
medical research 486pharmacy, study of 183‘Philadelphia chromosome’ 454Philips 543philosophy, study of 130–1, 243, 244
in East Germany 83photocopiers, development/academic
importance 535photosynthesis 455physical sciences 424–5Physical Society 427physics 424, 428, 432
curricular design 445decline in numbers 536interaction with other sciences 433new research technologies 430subdivisions 434–5theoretical 428see also names of subdivisions e.g. high
energy physicsPhysikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt
544PISA see Programme for International
Student AssessmentPisa (Italy), University of 292planning, corporate
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306–9student numbers 324views on role of university 102wartime destruction 528wartime resistance movement 32, 33, 74women academics 182working-class students 39
political economy, shift to right 316political science 244, 386–98
conceptual uncertainty 386–7evolution as university subject 387–8,
391–7key issues 388–90left-wing tendencies 389numbers of teachers 387–8(perceived) need for study 387psychological approach 389–90
political/social change 220–1, 263–5impact on management 146impact on teaching/research 274;
negative 263–4; positive 264–5role of university in 135see also ‘new student movement’
political theory/ies, development/implications 264, 273
see also under Soviet bloc
politicization (of university staff/teaching)197–9
coinage of term 198polytechnics 104, 113, 165, 329
course structure 361curricula 58degree awards 337dividing line from universities 42staff association 200student numbers 228–9teaching conditions 193upgrading to university status 49, 63,
174–5, 247–8, 254, 358, 482Porto (Portugal), University of 122Portugal 7, 46
accession to EU 555course structure 255degree awards 254growth in student/institution numbers
Charles University 243, 244Coup (1948) 279IUS Congresses (1946/56) 278–9, 280‘Spring’ (1968) 307University 278
Prague Convention 1972 102–3, 339president see rectorpress offices, introduction of 19printing, development of 7Pristina (Kosovo), (unofficial) University of
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private sector, funding of universities/colleges 236, 266
see also researchprivate universities 214privatization 54–5, 59, 60–1, 240–1problem-based learning 249professors
abolition 170administrative duties 196–7age of appointment 188appointment 173–4; from within
university (Hausberufung) 173–4division from junior staff 172dress code 268of economics 404extraordinary 245female 182–3financial/social position (in East) 186guarantees 170–1honorary 180of medicine 517–18multiple salary scales 177, 188national variations 174–9‘one per subject’, dissolution of theory
168‘parallel chairs’ 169part-time 178, 185, 245professional experience outside academia
362proliferation 186proportion of teaching staff 175, 176,
177qualifications 259retirement age 178role in academic structure 239, 246,
265social status 202of sociology 384–5visiting (from abroad) 180working hours 192–3see also Ordinarius
Programme for International StudentAssessment (PISA) 23
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religion/religious studies (cont.)partitioning of universities by 243relationship with medieval scholastic
ethos 5–6separation from universities 87see also Catholic Church; Catholic
universitiesresearch
as basis of reputation 193, 459challenges to universities’ supremacy in
133collective 435–7costs 464evaluation 195, 524full-time employment in 180–1funding 426, 523–5, 541–3government-funded establishments 544impact on curricula 263–6international centres 438–9international programmes 23, 120–1medical 523–6movement of frontiers 444–5multinational teams 441originality, need for 264personal nature 193place in universities’ mission 262; shift in
emphasis 262–5preparation for careers in 425private sector funding 194pure vs applied 194, 241, 442–3, 524–5,
545relationship with teaching 169–70,
194–5, 444, 446role in academic careers 173, 180–1,
189, 193–4, 246, 256separation from teaching 170, 193–4,
265–6, 446small units, optimal use of 437–8Soviet policy 38–9‘strategic’ 443techniques 157technological requirements 134–5in technology 529undergraduate participation 264–5see also exact sciences
research centres/institutes 131, 133research councils 98resistance movements, relationship of
universities with 32, 33, 74resource management 150–5
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202new fields 432organization of faculty structure
244–5public attitudes to 163pure vs applied 241, 424–5, 427, 433–5,
441–2staff contracts 153state intervention in training 95–102study in Soviet bloc 86–7support staff 181–2teaching 190see also biological sciences; exact
sciences; physical sciencesscience parks 443, 547science research councils 98Scotland 254, 270, 335
medical studies 492SDE see Sindicato democratico de
estudiantesSDS see Sozialistische deutsche
Studentenbundsecond route see working classesSecond World War
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101–2politicization of academic system 87–8post-war reconstruction 46–7, 84–9, 162reconstruction, 1980s 216relations between academia and
authority 88, 101–2research institutions 180, 446restricted entry policy 45role of university in social system 36–7,
38–9, 102secondary education, need to
compensate for quality of 267separation of church and state 214shortage of data 163specialized universities 243–4staff structures 178–9staffing levels 164stagnation in growth rates 41, 44–5,
attitudes to European unity 92, 556–7degree awards 253dissolution 269division of students by subject 327employment policy 328enrolment levels 36–7European competition with 14growth rates 208health care 489international relations, impact on
student movement 279junior academic staff 172medical studies 496–7, 509, 518non-university institutions 36–7, 38policy in occupied Germany 76, 81–4political science 397–8post-war academic reorganization 13rectors’ role in administrative structure
142role in international student movement
278, 282staff structure 171, 178–9staff training 196
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Speyer (Germany), Academy forAdministrative Sciences 79
spin-off companies, creation of 147Sputnik 38, 328, 474SSRC see Social Science Research CouncilSt Gallen (Switzerland), University 396St Petersburg (Russia) see Leningradstaff, academic
associations 199–201attitudes to management 126attraction into management side 158attraction of chosen career 186–7career structure 171–3changes affecting 162, 163decline in prestige 163dismissal 170; for political reasons
198–9, 215, 559evaluation/development 173, 195–6expansion in numbers 163–5, 516–17;
staff, administrative/managerialcommercial experience 147daily routine 129–30explosion of numbers 112length of appointments 128tension with academics 127
staff structure 170–9, 245–6changes in 171–2, 180–2, 188–9division between senior and junior staff
172; diminishing 246guiding principles 170impact of expansion 245–6regulation 172, 188–9
Stamokap School 392standardization see curricula; degrees;
European UnionStanding Conference of Rectors and
Vice-Chancellors of the EuropeanUniversities see Conference ofEuropean Rectors (CRE)
state(s)attitudes of representatives to
universities 126bureaucracy 112changing relationship with universities
334funding: of medical research 523–4;
reluctance to provide 210; of students207, 234–5; of universities 113–14
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state(s) (cont.)increased cooperation with universities
104investment in scientific research 460–4professional use of university resources
130representation in university
administration 140–1role in scientific training 95–102
state control of universities 4, 11, 135admissions 218–19decreasing 137–40, 240–1, 334retention/increase in wake of 1968
protests 109, 112retention within EU 239in Soviet bloc 35–6, 39, 86, 215–16(supposed) calls for 433
statutes, medieval 4, 5Stockholm (Sweden)
school of engineering 242University 295
Strasbourg (France), University of 243Strathclyde (UK), University of 392structuralism 392, 407–8Studenckie komitety solidarnosci (SKS) 308student movements 276–8
‘86’ surge in activism 314activists’ role 277conflict between ‘student-as-such’ and
wider political involvement 278–9,280, 281–2, 285–6, 287–8, 313–15
defined 276in democratic West 285–8dissatisfaction with national organs
281–2enabling factors 276–7European meetings 281–2in (ex-)Soviet bloc 116, 215–16formation of alternative unions 313–14international cooperation 278–83‘Leninist turn’ 297–9loss of faith in 297, 298–9medieval 553mutual influence 277–8myth of unity 283, 288–9opposition to anti-democratic regimes
283–5, 304–6relationship with wider political
movements 277–8right-wing orientation 287, 296–7shift in objectives (1970s) 299‘syndicalism’ 285–6see also ‘new student movement’
‘student syndicalism’ see under studentmovements
student–teacher ratios see under staff,academic
student unrest (1960s) see ‘new studentmovement’
studentsaccommodation 257(anticipated) reduction in numbers 233approach to management 126attitudes in aftermath of war 529career choices, confusion over 268choice of subject 351, 354, 464–5, 504counselling 197, 362decreasing numbers at succeeding stages
224degree of autonomy 27–8, 108, 132–3,
251, 257–8, 268distribution by field of study 325–7evaluation of teaching staff 196former, proportion of population 323gender ratios see womengrowth in numbers 41–8, 104, 156,
international organizations 278–83migrations 258, 270minimal supervision (in Continental
system) 258national variations in numbers 324–5personality, shaping of 356proportion of age group 220, 221–2,
229–30, 233, 234, 321–2, 334–5representation on governing bodies 106,
109–11, 116, 129, 293role in curricula 266–9social position, changes in 315–16
studium generale 81subsidiarity, principle of 121Suez crisis (1956) 293suppliers, relations with 145surgery 486Sussex (UK), University of 131, 154, 247Sverdlovsk (Russia), University of 283Sveriges forenander studentkarer (SFS)
286, 295Sweden 212
accession to EU 559–60admissions policy 218–19course structure 336curricula 114, 360degrees 337departmental structures 243economics, teaching of 400exact sciences 446faculty structure 244geology 473
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tabula rasa, theory/practice of 76Taiwan 212Tartu (Estonia), University of 311
Tbilisi (Georgia), University of 283teacher training 341
job opportunities 352teaching and research units (France) 107teaching (school), graduate employment in
352teaching (university) 189–93
as agent of growth 201conditions 191–2criticisms 192debates on 189–90ethos, difficulty of establishing 273–4evaluation 196interactive technologies 250methods 190–1, 248–51range of communication styles 252responsibility for 243–53in teams 250workload 192–3
technical/technological colleges 424–5diversity 241–2in France 42–3, 553–4in Soviet bloc 38upgrading to university status 49see also colleges of advanced technology;
non-university institutionstechnology, as field of study
career prospects 545–6funding 536–7, 541–3graduate employment 545–6joint degrees 532military backing/relevance 533, 542negative attitudes to 536new chairs/departments 533, 547participants’ role in society 546post-war growth 530–3postgraduate degrees 532practical component 533process of development of ideas 546–8proportion of student population 530–2specialization 532–3student pressures 535–7technical infrastructure 533–5universities’ role in global developments
544–8wartime priorities 529
technology, developments in 134–5impact on biological sciences 465impact on estate management 155impact on exact sciences 442impact on medical studies 507, 522impact on teaching conditions 191role of non-university organizations
547–8role of universities 544–8see also computers; information
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tenure 163, 178abolition 174impact on age structure 166, 188impact on staff representation 111reduction in 153
‘terminal’ degrees 57terrorism see ‘new student movement’,
violence employed byTest Acts (UK 1870) 215Tetovo (Macedonia), (unofficial) University
of 559theological colleges see religiontheology, study/graduate employment 352‘third age’, increased role in society/
education 211, 487–8Tilburg (Netherlands), Catholic University
294, 302, 400Titan (moon of Jupiter), landing of
spacecraft on 475titles (academic), (diminishing) social value
186Torrey Canyon (oil tanker) 452Total Quality Management (TQM) 159totalitarianism 34‘tourism, academic’ 187TQM see Total Quality Managementtrade unions 135–6, 163
formation amongst university staff148–9, 246
transparency, in resource management 153Trento (Italy), University of 291–2, 382‘trickle-down theory’ 547Trier (Germany), University of 52, 154Tromsø (Norway)
medical school 506University of 154, 330
Tubingen (Germany), University of 79, 83tuition fees, increases in 299Tuning Project 565–6, 572Turkey 100
migrations from 269student/graduate numbers 324, 325
tutorials 190, 248, 251, 268
UCCA see Universities Central Council onAdmissions
UFC see University Funding CouncilUGC see University Grants CommitteeUlm (Germany), University of 503–4Ulster, New University of 253UMAP (mobility programme) 566Umea (Sweden), University of 52under-qualification, and graduate
employment 349undergraduates
distinguished from postgraduates 256staff/public attitudes to 256terminology 248see also students
‘Underground Universities’ see resistancemovements
Understanding the Earth (textbook) 481UNEF see Union national des etudiants
francaisunemployment
graduate: compared with non-graduate347; (feared) increases 316, 342–3,347; relationship with field of study351
in society at large 330–1, 334, 364UNESCO see under United NationsUnion national des etudiants francais
(UNEF) 286, 287, 291disintegration 298
unionization see trade unionsUnited Kingdom 212, 334
admission controls 258age structure 167anthropology 406–7attendance levels 58attitudes to expansion 163attitudes to modular system 270–1biological research/teaching 458, 460–4,
469–70career structures 171course structure 169–70, 253, 361degrees 335; awarding of 253–4, 337–8distance learning 238 (see also Open
University)doctorates 259economics, teaching of 399educational ideology 356equality of access 228–32evaluation procedures 562exact sciences 426, 427funding 15, 536–7, 541–2 (see also
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law studies 419, 422life expectancy 487mature students/curricular flexibility
336medical studies 492, 493–5, 497–501,
505, 506, 511, 514, 516, 517,518–19, 520–1, 522; costs 507;rebuilding of medical schools 499,508; responsibility for funding 509;slow pace of reform 501
non-university education 56–7, 58, 113,234, 241–2, 544 (see alsopolytechnics)
nuclear projects/capability 539policy in occupied Germany 76–7, 78,
university administration/management127, 131, 138, 139, 140, 142;assessment procedures 159; role ofregistrar 143–4; separation of roles ofofficers 151
upgrading of non-university institutions49, 63 (see also polytechnics)
women academics 182, 183see also Northern Ireland; Scotland
United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) 23–4, 92,103, 117, 158, 321–2, 324, 325–7,353, 377, 387, 567 (see also CEPES)
Institute for Educational Planning (Paris)23
Institute for University Education(Bucharest) 23
United States 212, 216adaptation of foreign university model
27–8admissions policy 219anthropology 407attitudes to European unity 92biological research 458campus design 257career structure 171Civil Rights movement 378Civil War 31comparisons with Europe 54, 548, 573course structure 168, 253, 336 (see also
credits)cultural studies 248definition of higher education 229degree of student autonomy 27–8development of education system 31European competition with 14, 114,
426, 441exact sciences 425–6, 429, 430, 437,
446exchange of ideas with Europe 156, 545geology 483global primacy in post-war world 373–4graduate schools 260history, teaching of 412as international model 3–4, 22, 26–9,
81, 214, 238, 245–6, 248, 253, 429,445, 554, 560
international relations, impact onstudent movement 279
land-grant colleges 550legal system/teaching 415–16, 419library usage 468–9medical litigation 488medical research 525medical studies 494, 513migrations to 499, 546
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central role in planned economy 209creation/foundation, distinction between
48–9critical function 319, 356decline in attractions 235definitions 16–17, 27, 43–4, 59, 86, 240,
241–2, 529–30, 554destruction 3, 13division into specialized units 37–8, 50,
104, 112–13, 243–4
funding 113–14geographical distribution 52–3growth in size 44, 134, 165ideological/social criticisms 10, 14,
234–6, 360 (see also ‘new studentmovement’; student movements)
increase in scale/complexity 132–3innovative function 319, 356, 554–5integrative function 554–5, 561–2(limits of) public visibility 17nature of organization 125–8; differing
views of 126; as pluralistic/fragmented126–7; shift over post-war period130
outnumbered by non-universityinstitutions 36–7, 61–3
scale of consumption of nationalresources 136–7
separation from everyday life 16–17social position/function 37, 38–9, 154,
232–3, 320–1, 364, 448, 550,554–5
social prestige 18–19, 130structure 130–2see also autonomy; expansion;
governance; management‘university system’
creation in Soviet bloc 36, 88–9evolution of concept 35, 201–2system-wide legislation 35
‘university type’ establishments 43Uppsala (Sweden), University of 18–19,
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