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Meaning in Life and Psychological Well-Being in Pre-Adolescents and AdolescentsNeerpal Rathi and Renu Rastogi Indian Institute of Technology, RoorkeeThis study examined meaning in life and psychological well-being in male and female students of pre- adolescence and adolescence periods. A total of 104 students were randomly selected from various schools. Of these, 54 students were from class 12 and 50 students from class 9. Two questionnaires, one Personal Meaning Profile (PMP) by Wong and another Well-Being Manifestation Measure Scale (WBMMS) by Masse et al. were administered on the subjects. It was hypothesized that there will be significant differences in the perception of life as meaningful and psychological well-being of different groups of students. t-test was applied to analyze the data. Besides discussing the results, applied aspects of a meaningful life and psychological well-being are also discussed. Keywords: Meaning in Life, Psychological Well-Being, and Adolescents

Adolescence is a very critical and important stage in the development of human being. Most of the physiological, psychological, and social changes within the person take place during this period of life. The period of adolescence can be looked upon as a time of more struggle and turmoil than childhood. Adolescents have long been regarded as a group of people who are searching for themselves to find some form of identity and meaning in their lives (Erikson, 1968). They struggle to find a meaning of self. Having meaning or purpose in life can solve the identity crisis that a person normally faces during this period. Meaning in life typically involves having a goal or a sense of unified purpose (Baumeister, 1991; Ryff, 1989). Recker, Peacock and Wong (1987), defined meaning as it refers to making sense, order, or coherence out of ones existence and having a purpose and striving toward a goal or goals. More recently Wong (1998) defined meaning as an individually constructed, culturally based cognitive system that influences an individuals choice of activities and goals, and endows life with a sense of purpose, personal worth, and fulfillment. Thus the role of meaning in an adolescents life can be a central point for a successful transition into adulthood. And an adolescent may derive meaning from a variety of sources. According to Wongs (1998) Personal Meaning Profile, these sources may be achievement, relationship, religion, self-transcendence, selfacceptance, intimacy, and fair treatment. Psychological well-being is a relatively complex notion with a variety of components

that may contribute to it. Ryff (1989) extensively explored the meaning of psychological wellbeing and the definition closely paralleled with the Well-Being Manifestation Measure Scale (Masse, Poulin, Dassa, Lambert, Belair & Battaglini, 1998b) that was used in this study. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, January 2007, Vol. 33, No.1, 31-38. 32

The dimensions of well-being those were focused and operationalized are: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life and self-acceptance. All of these factors can be considered as key components that make up the definition of psychological well-being. Therefore, adolescents who exhibit strength in each and every of these areas will be in a state of good psychological well-being, while adolescents who struggle in these areas will be in a state of low psychological well-being. There are various factors that affect adolescents level of psychological well-being. Several studies have shown that the quality of relationship within families, especially with parents is a major determining factor of psychological well-being in adolescents (Shek, 1997; Sastre & Ferriere2000; Van Wel, Linssen & Abma 2000). Some other key factors that may contribute to a higher or lower level of psychological well-being in adolescents are stress (Siddique & DArcy, 1984) physical health (Mechanic & Hansell, 1987) and both popularity and intimacy in peer relationships (Townsend, McCracken & Wilton, 1988). The importance of meaning in life and commitment to personal life satisfaction and psychological health has been well established (Erikson, 1982; Ledbetter, Smith & VoslerHunter1991; Ryff, 1989; Stephen, Fraser & Marcia, 1992). Studies have shown that seeking meaning and fulfillment acts as a significant protector against emotional instability, and as a warrantor of psychological health and well-being (Lukas, 1991). Meaning in life has been found to be a strong and consistent predictor of psychological well-being (Zika & Chamberlain, 1987). Shek (1992) conducted a study on Chinese secondary students and found that students who scored highest in terms of quality of existence as well as purpose of existence also scored highest in psychological well-being.

Hypotheses Based on the review of literature and past studies, the following hypotheses have been formulated for verification of this study through empirical investigation: 1.There is a significant difference between male and female students on the subscales of Personal Meaning Profile (PMP). 2.There is a significant difference between male and female students on the subscales of Well-Being Manifestation Measure Scale (WBMMS). 3.There is a significant difference between students of pre-adolescence and adolescence periods on the subscales of PMP. 4.There is a significant difference between students of pre-adolescence and adolescence periods on the subscales of WBMMS. 5.There is a significant difference between male and female students of adolescence period on the subscales of PMP. 6.There is a significant difference between male and female students of adolescence period on the subscales of WBMMS. 7.There is a significant difference between male and female students of pre-adolescence period on the subscales of PMP. 8.There is a significant difference between male and female students of pre-adolescence period on the subscales of WBMMS. Method Sample The sample consists of total 104 students from various public schools. Out of these students, 34 boys and 20 girls were from adolescence period (class 12th) and 31 boys and 19 girls were from pre-adolescence (class 9th) period. Finally questionnaires were distributed to students and they were asked to give responses according to the instructions provided in the questionnaire. Mean age of pre-adolescents and adolescents was 13.9yrsMeaning in Life and Psychological Well-Being 33

and 17yrs respectively. Age range was 1215yrs for pre-adolescents and 16-18yrs for adolescents. Instruments Following instruments have been used in this study: Personal Meaning Profile (PMP): This scale was developed by Wong (1998) for the purpose of measuring meaning in life. This is

a 57-item scale consisting of seven sub-scales; these are achievement, relationship, religion, self-transcendence, self-acceptance, intimacy, and fair treatment. The validity and reliability of the scale is quite high, with an overall Cronbachs alpha coefficient of 0.93 and 0.94 respectively. Well-Being Manifestation Measure Scale (WBMMS): For measuring psychological well-being, WBMMS developed by Masse et al. (1998b) was used. The scale consists of 25-items with six factors. The six factors or subscales of the WBMMS are: control Meaning in Life and Psychological Well-Being of self and events, happiness, social involvement, selfesteem, mental balance, and sociability. Masse, Poulin, Dassa, Lambert, Belair, & Battaglini (1998a) found an overall Crobachs alpha of 0.93 for the questionnaire, and a range of 0.71 to 0.85 on the subscales. Results and Discussion In order to test the postulated hypotheses, t-test was applied and t-values for different groups were obtained: Hypothesis 1 While testing the hypothesis 1 it was found that males and females differ significantly on the subscales of relationship (t-value 4.05significant at .01 level), self-acceptance (tvalue 3.00-significant at .01 level), intimacy (tvalue 2.63-significant at .01 level), and fair treatment (t-value 2.89-significant at .01 level). Results showed (table 1) higher mean scores by females than males on all of the subscales of PMP. Results showed that females have higher tendency towards relationship, selfacceptance, fair treatment, and intimacy than that of males. No significant difference was found on the subscales of achievement, religion, and self-transcendence between males and females. Hypothesis 2 In the second hypothesis results showed that female and male students differ significantly on self-esteem (t-value 2.65Table 1: Means, Standard Deviation, and tvalues of Males and Females On the Subscales of PMP and WBMMS. N = Male 65; Female 39 Subscales of PMP Mean SD t-valueAchievement M 85.815 12.511 1.87 F 90.128 9.119 Relationship M 46.569 7.875 4.05** F 52.41 5.575

Religion M 46.83 7.612 1.67 F 49.564 8.786 Self-Transcendence M 41.646 6.692 1.52 F 43.743 6.946 Self-Acceptance M 29.932 5.5 3.00** F 32.948 3.946 Intimacy M 24.969 5.536 2.63** F 27.743 4.586 Fair Treatment M 18.8 3.067 2.89** F 20.794 3.894 Subscales of WBMMS Control of Self M 13.6 3.086 0.67 and Events F 14 2.675 Happiness M 19.784 3.038 1.71 F 20.769 2.432 Social Involvement M 16.123 2.348 0.5 F 16.384 2.843 Self-Esteem M 14.2 2.469 2.65** F 15.461 2.113 Mental Balance M 14.507 2.845 2.24* F 15.743 2.499 Sociability M 16.169 2.211 0.51 F 16.41 2.424

**p< 0.01; * p< 0.05 PMP - Personal Meaning Profile, WBMMS - Well-Being Manifestation Measure ScaleNeerpal Rathi and Renu Rastogi 34

significant at .01 level) and mental balance (tvalue 2.24-significant at .05 level) subscales of WBMMS. On the other hand no significant difference was found between males and females on other subscales of WBMMS. From the results (see table 1) it is apparent that mean score of females (though very little in some cases) are higher than that of males. Femalesshowed a little higher score than male on subscales of mental health and selfesteem. Hypothesis 3 At the time of testing hypothesis 3, some differences were observed between students of pre-adolescence and adolescence periods on subscales of PMP (see table 2). Though differences were there in the mean score of male and female students, but these differences were not found to be significant at any level of significance. Hypothesis 4 Here also no significant difference was found between students of pre-adolescence and adolescence periods on any subscale of WBMMS (see table 2). Analysis of mean scores showed higher mean score (though very small in number) by adolescents than those of preadolescents on the subscales of control of self and events, mental balance and sociability.

While on the subscales of happiness, social involvement, and self-esteem pre-adolescents score higher on means than adolescents. Hypothesis 5 By analyzing the results of males and females of adolescence period, we found that mean scores of females are higher than that of males on all subscales of PMP (see table 3). Difference is significant on the subscales of relationship (t-value 2.54- significant at .05 level), self-acceptance (t-value 2.22-significant at .05 level), intimacy (t-value 2.13-significantat .05 level) and fair treatment (t-value 3.00significant at .01 level). While on other subscales no significant difference was found at all. Hypothesis 6 In testing sixth hypothesis we found that male and female students of adolescence period do not differ significantly in their mean scores on any of the subscales of WBMMS (see table 3). Between females and males no significant difference was found at all. On this scale the mean scores of females were higher than that of males on all subscales except the social involvement subscale. Table-2: Means, Standard Deviation, and tvalues of Students of Pre-Adolescence and Adolescence Periods on the Subscales of PMP and WBMMS. N = Adolescence 54; PreAdolescence 50Subscales of PMP Mean SD t-value Achievement A 86.463 13.307 0.89 PA 88.48 9.192 Relationship A 47.888 8.522 1.21 PA 49.7 6.465 Religion A 47.388 8.666 0.6 PA 48.36 7.585 Self-Trans A 42.666 7.633 0.36 cendence PA 42.18 5.913 Self-Acceptance A 30.222 5.193 1.7 PA 31.96 5.038 Intimacy A 25.092 5.889 1.83 PA 27 4.553 Fair Treatment A 19.074 3.874 1.43 PA 20.06 3.046 Subscales of WBMMS Control of Self A 13.925 3.318 0.63 and Events PA 13.56 2.467 Happiness A 19.814 2.965 1.26 PA 20.52 2.712 Social Involve A 16.148 2.558 0.3 ment PA 16.3 2.533 Self-Esteem A 14.574 2.559 0.43 PA 14.78 2.261 Mental Balance A 14.518 3.094 1.74 PA 15.46 2.314

Sociability A 16.444 2.682 0.85 PA 16.06 1.766

**p< 0.01; * p< 0.05 A = Adolescence, P.A. = Pre-AdolescenceMeaning in Life and Psychological Well-Being 35

Table 3: Means, Standard Deviation and tvalues of Males and Females of Adolescence Period on Subscales of PMP and WBMMS. N = Males 34; Females 20Subscales of PMP Mean SD t-value Achievement M 85.205 14.735 0.9 F 88.6 10.449 Relationship M 45.735 9.209 2.54* F 51.55 5.735 Religion M 46.794 8.689 0.65 F 48.4 8.756 Self-Trans M 42.176 8.269 0.61 cendence F 43.5 6.525 Self-Acceptance M 29.058 5.365 2.22* F 32.2 4.323 Intimacy M 23.823 5.859 2.13* F 27.25 5.418 Fair Treatment M 17.941 3.567 3.00** 21 3.684 Subscales of WBMMS Control of Self M 13.735 3.629 0.54 and Events F 14.25 2.769 Happiness M 19.47 3.202 1.11 F 20.4 2.479 Social Involve M 16.294 2.316 0.54 ment F 15.9 2.971 Self-Esteem M 14.117 2.567 1.74 F 15.35 2.412 Mental Balance M 14 3.265 1.63 F 15.4 2.623 Sociability M 16.294 2.668 0.53 F 16.7 2.754

**p< 0.01; * p< 0.05 Hypothesis 7 Between males and females of preadolescence period a significant difference was found on the subscales of achievement (tvalue 2.02-significant at .05 level), relationship (t-value 3.41-significant at .01 level) and selfacceptance (t-value 2.01-significant at .05 level) of PMP scale (see table 4). On rest of the subscales no significant difference at any level was found. Mean scores on all subscales of PMP are higher among female students than that of male students. Table 4: Means, Standard Deviation, and tvalues of Males and Females of PreAdolescence Period on the Subscales of PMP and WBMMS. N = Male 31; Female 19Subscales of PMP Mean SD t-value Achievement M 86.483 9.705 2.02* F 91.736 7.415 Relationship M 47.483 6.114 3.41**

F 53.315 5.406 Religion M 46.871 6.37 1.81 F 50.789 8.885 Self-Trans M 41.064 4.434 1.73 cendence F 44 7.535 Self-Acceptance M 30.871 5.578 2.01* F 33.736 3.445 Intimacy M 26.225 4.951 1.55 F 28.263 3.587 Fair Treatment M 19.741 2.081 0.94 F 20.578 4.194 Subscales of WBMMS Control of Self M 13.451 2.406 0.39 and Events F 13.736 2.621 Happiness M 20.129 2.86 1.31 F 21.157 2.386 Social Involve M 15.935 2.407 1.3 ment F 16.894 2.685 Self-Esteem M 14.29 2.397 2.01* F 15.578 1.804 Mental Balance M 15.064 2.22 1.56 F 16.105 2.378 Sociability M 16.032 1.601 0.14 F 16.105 2.051

**p< 0.01; * p< 0.05 Hypothesis 8 Finally, results of males and females of preadolescence period were analyzed on WBMM scale. Results of both groups showed that on self-esteem (t-value 2.01-significant at .05 level) subscale of WBMMS males and females differ significantly (see table 4). While on other subscales no significant difference was found with reference to these two sexes. By having a look on mean scores of males and females on subscales of WBMMS it was found that the mean scores of females were higher than that of males on all subscales.Neerpal Rathi and Renu Rastogi 36 Meaning in Life and Psychological Well-Being

The aim of the present study was to have a look on meaning in life and psychological wellbeing of different groups of students especially with reference to gender and grade of students. In our study it was found that meaning in life is highly correlated with psychological well-being (see table 5). This shows that if a person perceives his or her life to be meaningful then he or she will feel more psychologically well off than those who do not perceive their life to be meaningful. Some studies also show the similar results while evaluating the relationship between meaning in life and psychological well-being (Debats, Drost & Prartho, 1995; Shek, 1992; Zika & Chamberlain, 1987; Recker, Peacock & Wong 1987). In the present study it was found that

adolescents did not score significantly higher than pre-adolescents on subscales of PMP and WBMMS. Similar results were also found by Weber (1996). In his study scores of grade twelve students were not significantly higher than grade nine students on psychological well-being. A reason for the good psychological well-being of pre-adolescents may be that they have not started to take things very seriously and also that they do not have high pressure for their career formation. On the subscales of PMP females scored higher than that of males. In some other studies similar findings were observed. For example, Anderson (1999) found that the quality of salient parent-child and peer relationships significantly predicted adolescent relationship identity for girls but not for boys. Also, Beutel and Marini (1995) found that adolescent females were more likely than males to indicate that finding purpose and meaning in life is extremely important. Thus it can be said that there can be various factors such as developmental level of person, family and social environment and relationships, schooling, career orientation, grade and gender that influences meaning in life and psychological well-being of persons. Limitations It is felt that there are two main limitations of the study. First limitation is concerned with the sample size of the study. A sample of 104 students is not sufficient for any generalization on all students of similar age groups. Further Table 5: Correlation among the Subscales of Main Scales: Subscales of Well-Being Manifestation Measure Scale Achievement .499** .368** .232** .599** .328** .182 Relationship .426** .547** .284** .583** .412** .467** Religion .229* .413** .177 .166 .068 .178 Self-Transcendence .423** .357** .244* .438** .336** .124 Self-Acceptance .282** .368** .163 .287** .351** .304** Intimacy .210* .382** .110 .290** .271** .263** Fair Treatment .254** .244** .187 .438** .205* .096 **p< 0.01; * p< 0.05Subscales of Personal Meaning Profile Social Involvement Control of Self and Events Happiness Sociability Self-Esteem Mental Balance Neerpal Rathi and Renu Rastogi 37

the sample was drawn from a particular locality, it would be more acceptable and representative if the samples are taken from diverse localities with students of diverse backgrounds. Second limitation is related with the age group of students taken in the study. Age difference between two groups is not large enough to show a clear difference on the dimensions studied. Results are expected to be more diverse if the intake of boys and girls is of wider age range, from 11-12 years to 2021 years. Conclusion This study has provided an insight of the meaning in life and psychological well-being of students of early and late adolescence period. It has been well established by prior studies in this field, that a meaningful and purposeful life enhances the psychological well-being of persons. With a better understanding of meaning and psychological well-being within adolescents, various counseling or educational implications can be derived for assisting adolescents to develop holistically in terms of body, mind, and spirit as they venture into the world of adulthood. ReferencesAnderson, F. (1999). The prediction and correlates of adolescent relationship Identity (Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 60, 2382. Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Meanings of life. New York: Guilford. Beutel, A., & Marini, M. (1995). Gender and values. American Sociological Review, 60, 436-448. Debats, D., Drost, J., & Prartho, P. (1995). Experiences of meaning in life: a combined qualitative and quantitative approach. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 359-375. Erikson, E. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: Norton. Ledbetter, M.F., Smith, L.A., & Vosler-Hunter, W.L. (1991). An evaluation of the research and clinical usefulness of the spiritual well-being scale. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19, 4955. Lukas, E. (1991). Meaning-centered family therapy. The International Forum for Logotherapy, 14, 67-74. Masse, R., Poulin, C., Dasa, C., Lambert, J., Belair, S., & Battaglini, A. (1998a). Elaboration et validation dun outil de mesure du bien-etre

psychologique : Lemmbep. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 89, 352-357. Masse, R., Poulin, C., Dassa, C., Lambert, J., Belair, S., & Battaglini, A. (1998b). The structure of mental health higher-order confirmatory factor analyses of psychological distress and wellbeing measures. Social Indicators Research, 45, 475-504. Mechanic, D., & Hansell, S. (1987). Adolescent competence, psychological well-being, and selfassessed physical health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 28,364-374. Recker, G., Peacock, E., & Wong, P. (1987). Meaning and purpose in life and well-being: A life-span perspective. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 44-49. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is every thing, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069-1081. Sastre, M., & Ferriere, G. (2000). Family decline and the subjective well-being of adolescents. Social Indicators Research, 49, 69-82. Shek, D. (1992). Meaning in life and psychological well-being: an empirical study using the Chinese version of the purpose in life questionnaire. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153, 185-190. Shek, D. (1997). The relation of family functioning to adolescent psychological well-being, school adjustment, and problem behavior. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 158, 467-479. Siddique, C., & DArcy, C. (1984). Adolescents, stress and psychological well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 459-473. Stephen, J., Fraser, E., & Marcia, J.E. (1992). Moratorium-achievement (MAMA) cycles in life38

span identity development: Value orientations and reasoning system correlates. Journal of Adolescence, 15, 283-300. Townsend, M., McCracken, H., & Wilton, K. (1988). Popularity and intimacy as determinants of psychological well-being in adolescent friendships. Journal of Early Adolescence, 8, 421-436. VanWel, F., Linssen, H., & Abma, R. (2000). The parental bond and the well-being of adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 307-318. Weber, J. (1996). Meaning in life and psychological well-being among high school freshmen and seniors (Doctoral dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 57, 2912. Wong, P. (1998). Implicit Theories of Meaningful Life and the Development of the Personal Meaning Profile. In P. Wong & P. Fry (Eds.) (1998). The human quest for meaning: a

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Received: June 23, 2006 Accepted: December 04, 2006 Neerpal Rathi ,Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee-247667, U. A., India. Email- [email protected] Renu Rastogi, PhD, Professor and Head, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee-247667, U. A., India. Email- [email protected] Authors are thankful to Pooja Garg for her valuable suggestions in writing this paper

AUTHORSAuthors must submit their articles in soft copy, either on CD or E-mail to: [email protected] along with one print out. The soft copy must be provided in MS Word. Prospective authors are requested to see (page 143) the information for authors printed in this issue and adhere to the general format of articles published in JIAAP. JIAAP does not permit an author to submit the same paper simultaneously for consideration to other journal/s. An undertaking to this effect should be submitted along with the MS. Authors may be expected to provide their raw data if required during review process. Unpublished tests/questionnaires if used in the study should be submitted along with the manuscript. Articles which do not conform to JIAAP guidelines and format will not be entertained.Meaning in Life and Psychological Well-Being

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Measurement of the psychological well-being of adolescents: The psychometric properties and assessment procedures of the how I feelJournal Publisher ISSN Issue DOI Pages Subject Collection SpringerLink Date Journal of Youth and Adolescence Springer Netherlands 0047-2891 (Print) 1573-6601 (Online) Volume 6, Number 3 / September, 1977 10.1007/BF02138937 229-247 Behavioral Science Tuesday, September 27, 2005

Anne C. Petersen1, 2

and Sheppard G. Kellam2

(1) Laboratory for the Study of Adolescence, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center, Chicago, USA

(2) (3)

Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago, Chicago, USA Social Psychiatry Study Center, 950 E. 61st Street, 60637 Chicago, Illinois

Received: 15 February 1977

Abstract The assessment procedures and psychometric properties of the How I Feel (HIF), an instrument used to assess psychological well-being in a population of Black adolescents are described. The audiovisual mode of presentation obviates problems related to reading skill; in addition, it standardizes the administration of the instrument. The How I Feel appears to measure reliably and validly several multi-item constructs representing psychological well-being. These constructs relate to other instruments and constructs in meaningful and interesting ways. A major result of our validity studies is that there appear to be two major components of psychological well-being, psychopathology and self-esteem. Research presented in this paper is from the Social Psychiatry Study Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago and was supported by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA-00787). Received her Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. Main research interests are biopsychosocial development in adolescence, especially for girls, and applications of statistical and psychometric methods to problems in longitudinal research. Received his M.D. from University of Maryland. His psychiatric residency and research training was at Yale University and National Institute of Mental Health. Main research interests are long-term studies of social adaptation, psychological well-being (including psychopathology), and social structure and processes of the family and other social fields such as the psychiatric ward.

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Article: Parenting Characteristics and Adolescent Psychological Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study in a Chinese Context.Article from: Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs Article date: February 1, 1999

Author: SHEK, DANIEL T. L. | Copyright information

ABSTRACT. In this longitudinal study, the relationships between perceived parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being were examined in a sample of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents (N = 378). The results indicated that global parenting styles and specific parenting behaviors are concurrently related to hopelessness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, purpose in life, and general psychiatric morbidity at Time 03 and Time 2. Longitudinal and prospective analyses (Time 1 predictors of Time 2 criterion variables) suggested that the relations between parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being are bidirectional in nature. The results ... Next:

Psychological well-being in adolescence: the contribution of interpersonal relations and experience of being aloneAdolescence, Summer, 2006 by Paola Corsano, Marinella Majorano, Lorella Champretavy INTRODUCTION From the very origins of psychology, adolescence has been considered a difficult stage in the process of development into adulthood. It has been seen as a period of crisis characterized by profound change. In recent times some empirical studies have shown that in reality, the majority of adolescents go through this stage successfully without experiencing particular traumas, reporting a level of relative well-being (Bandura, 1964; Offer & Schonert-Reichl, 1992; Douvan & Adelson, 1996). The greater part of psychological reflection has been devoted to identification of the main factors which, at an individual and interpersonal level, contribute to the promotion and sustenance of adolescents' psychological well-being and those which tend to impede it. Recent literature has paid particular attention to the importance of interpersonal relations. Different studies recognize that satisfactory relations with parents and friends are connected to a more positive outcome in this stage of development (Hansell & Mechanic, 1990; Claes, 1992; Noom, Dekovic, & Meeus, 1999; Bina, Cattelino, & Bonino, 2004). As far as relations with peers are concerned, friendship is a major contributor to adolescents' psychosocial adaptation and constitutes an important protective element against deviant behavior, depression, and feelings of alienation (Schneider, Wiener, & Murphy, 1994; Bukowski, Newcomb, & Hartup, 1996). At the same time, the importance of the family's role has been recognized for its influence over adolescents' psychosocial adaptation and in avoiding deviant and risky behavior (Kirchler, Palmonari, & Pombeni, 1993; Seiffe-Krfenke, 1995; Meeus, Helsen, & Vollebergh, 1996; Cattelino & Bonino, 1999).

In contrast, however, little is known of how experiences of solitude are likely to affect adolescents' well-being. The universality of loneliness among adolescents has been recognized (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984; Goossens & Marcoen, 1999) but the greater part of research in this area has been limited to consideration of loneliness defined as social withdrawal and isolation, emphasizing the risk it poses to adolescents' ability to adapt. Many authors argue, indeed, that a preference for nonsocial behavior results in increasing unpopularity within adolescents' peer group, giving rise to a negative self-image and feelings of psyschosocial malaise (Younger & Boyko, 1987; Younger, Gentile & Burgess, 1993). A number of researchers describe solitary adolescents as passive, sad, and turned inward (Van Buskirk & Duke, 1991), experiencing greater stress (Cacioppo et al., 2000) and social anxiety (Goossens & Marcoen, 1999), and characterized by such problems as peer rejection and victimization (Boiving, Hymel, & Bukowski, 1995), shyness and social withdrawal (Kupersmidt, Sigda, Sedikides, & Voegler, 1999). Recent research by Seginer and Lilach (2004) also considered the effect of loneliness on adolescents' orientation toward the future, noting that lonely adolescents scored lower than socially embedded adolescents on future orientation variables applied to the relational and near future domains. It is important not to neglect the possibility, however, that different experiences of loneliness may be present during the normal growth process. Marcoen, Goossens, and Caes (1987), for example, have proposed a multi-dimensional conception of solitude, distinguishing two fundamental aspects of being alone: aversion to aloneness (unwanted isolation) and affinity for aloneness (voluntary isolation). Ammaniti, Ecolani, and Tambelli (1989), also emphasized that loneliness plays an important role during adolescence, marking different stages in the process of construction of an identity and gradual separation from parents. Ester Schaler Buchholz, an American psychoanalyst, who also studied this question, agreed that the capacity and need for aloneness are of particular importance for an adolescent involved in the process of separation and individualization and in the construction of an identity (Buchholz & Chinlund, 1994; Buchholz & Catton, 1999). According to this view alone time (time for one's self, Bucholtz, 1997) provides creative space, a time for rest as well as self-reflection and self-revelation, ideal for putting into practice the concept of moratorium suggested by Erikson (1950) and Marcia (1980). It was on the basis of these findings that it was decided to investigate how interpersonal relations and experiences of loneliness influence adolescents' psychological well-being. Two different aspects of being alone were taken into consideration: (1) the feeling of loneliness experienced in relations with parents and peer group members, and (2) adolescents' attitudes toward the experience of aloneness; that is, the positive or negative significance that adolescents attribute to being alone. We were particularly interested in learning if and how adolescents' feelings of loneliness with reference to parents and peer group members change with respect to age and gender. The second goal of the research was to investigate the quality of adolescents' interpersonal relations with mothers, fathers, and with both male and female peers, and to determine their importance in the promotion of psychological well-being and reduction of malaise (Hansell & Mechanic, 1990; Noom, Dekovic, & Meeus, 1999). The third goal of the research was to investigate whether there was a correlation between the quality of social relations and adolescents' attitude toward being alone.

Participants Participants were 330 adolescents of whom 162 were male and 168 female aged between 11 and 19 (M = 15.04, SD = 2.47). Students were from four different types of school in Northern Italy: an upper high school, a professional training institute, a technical institute for surveyors, and a middle school. A total of 18 classes were involved in the research: 6 classes in a middle-school and 4 classes in each upper high school. Participants were divided into three groups based on age. The first group (11 to 13) consisted of 103 students (56 males and 47 females). The second group (14 to 16) consisted of 115 students (57 males and 58 females), and the third group (17 to 19) was made up of 112 students (49 males and 63 females). Instruments Two instruments were used: the Louvain Loneliness Scale for Children and Adolescents (LLSCA) (Marcoen, Goossens, & Caes, 1987)--the Italian version, in preparation, by Melotti, Corsano, Majorano, & Scarpuzzi); and Test delle Relazioni Interpersonali (TRI)--Assessment of Interpersonal Relations (AIR) (Bracken, 1996)--Italian version (Janes, 1996). LLCA was used to obtain a complete evaluation of adolescents' perception of their own experience of loneliness. The test is made up of four sub-scales. In particular, two sub-scales are intended to measure feelings of loneliness with reference to parents (L-PART) and to peers (LPEER). In the first case, an evaluation is made of experiences of loneliness connected to the process of separation from parents and in the second sub-scale, loneliness is considered the type of isolation derived from separation from peers. This research instrument also seeks to investigate whether people attribute a positive or negative meaning to solitary experiences and if so, at what level. This effect is investigated by means of the other two sub-scales, A-POS and ANEG. The Italian version was used in this research. The four sub-scales contain 48 items--12 for each scale, expressed in the form of statements to which a response is requested using a four-point Likert scale (often = 4, sometimes = 3, rarely = 2, and never = 1). In the Italian version, scores range between 12 to 48 for each sub-scale. In general, a high score represents a strong feeling of loneliness with reference to peers (L-PEER) and the family (L-PART) and positive (A-POS) and negative (A-NEG) attitudes toward the experience of loneliness. The TRI on the other hand, evaluates the quality of relations of young persons with those most important to their lives: mothers, fathers, teachers, and their male and female peers. For the purposes of this study it was considered appropriate to focus on the family and peers; thus the scale evaluating relations with teachers was not used. Each scale was made up of the same 35 questions (the same for each stage) by which the quality of relations with different persons was evaluated. Responses were assessed on the basis of a fourpoint Likert scale (completely true = 4, true = 3, not true = 2 and completely untrue = 1). In those items formulated in negative form (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35), scores were assigned inversely (completely true = 1, true = 2, not true = 3, and completely untrue = 4). Each questionnaire was accompanied by a brief explanation of how the test was to be completed. Participants were asked to indicate their age and the school they attended. In order to ensure that the questionnaires were correctly filled out, the data were collected in the presence of the test administrators who made

themselves available to provide any clarification required. The time needed the completion of the questionnaires was 45 to 50 minutes.

RESULTS LLCA First we sought to investigate if and how adolescents' feelings of loneliness in the context of their families and their peers changed, and also depending on their age and gender. The average scores of participants were thus calculated in each individual LLCA sub-scale and then, using the score obtained in each scale as the dependent variable, a series of 3 (age group) x 2 (gender) ANOVAs were conducted. A description of the scores is contained in Table 1. Table 1 shows that the main effect is the age factor in the sub-scales L-PART (F(2, 324) = 3.28, p < .05); A-NEG (F(2, 324) = 5.3, p < .01) and A-POS (F(2, 324) = 7.47, p < .001). The post hoc analysis (Tukey's test with p < .05) shows a different trend in the different sub-scales. Indeed, in L-PART, the scores of the oldest group of adolescents (17 to 19) were only significantly higher than those of the youngest age group (11 to 13). Contrary trends are shown in the sub-scales relating to attitudes to loneliness. The oldest age group had the lowest A-NEG and highest APOS scores with respect to the other groups. Table 2 shows the gender factor as the main effect in the sub-scales L-PEER (F(1, 324) = 7.98, p < .01), and A-POS (F(1, 324) = 17.77, p < .001). In particular, the girls scored higher in both sub-scales. The analysis also indicates an interaction between gender and age (F(2, 324) = 3.32, p < .05) in the A-NEG sub-scale. Thus, in particular, in the youngest age group, the boys had a lower negative attitude as compared to the girls, while the contrary was true in the oldest age group. TRI First we sought to investigate changes in the participants' relations with father, mother and peers (male and female) with respect to age and gender as set out in the respective TRI sub-scale. Scores of participants in the individual TRI scales were therefore calculated by adding the scores obtained for the items of each sub-scale. The standard score was then calculated corresponding to each unprocessed score. Using the standard scores obtained in this way as dependent variables, a series of 3 (age group) x 2 (gender) ANOVAs were then conducted. A description of the scores is shown in Table 3. Table 3 highlights the age factor as the main effect in the TRI-father (F(2, 324) = 3.61, p < .05), TRI-male peers (F(2, 324) = 7.61, p