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Chapter 7. Normative Leadership Theories

Transformational Leadership The term “transformational leader” was the product of

a book written by James MacGregor Burns, a former presidential advisor, political scientist, and historian

Moral commitments are at the heart of Burns’s definition of transforming leadership.

Transformational leaders focus on terminal values such as liberty, equality, and justice.

Transformational leaders are driven by duty, they are guided universal ethical principles

They are altruistic

© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Transactional Leaders

Transactional leaders emphasize instrumental values, such as responsibility, fairness, and honesty, which make routine interactions go smoothly.

Transactional leaders take a utilitarian approach, judging the morality of actions based on their outcomes.

Transactional leaders are concerned with protecting their interests rather than in promoting the interests of the group.

They are more likely to be controlling.© 2015 SAGE Publications, Inc.

Transactional Leadership

Leadership expert Bernard Bass and his colleagues found that transactional leadership has both active and passive elements:

Active transactional leaders engage in contingent reward and management-by-exception.

Passive–avoidant or laissez-faire leaders wait for problems to arise before taking action, or they avoid taking any action at all.


Transformational Leadership

According to Bass and Avolio, transformational leadership is characterized by the following: Idealized influence: They become role models for

followers and put followers’ needs above their own Inspirational motivation: motivate by providing

meaning and challenge to the tasks of followers and they arouse team spirit

Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders stimulate innovation and creativity.

Individualized consideration: act as coaches or mentors who foster personal development



Bass found that transforming leadership uses both transactional and transformational elements.

The transformational leader uses the active elements of the transactional approach (contingent reward and management-by-exception) along with idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.

Evidence from more than 100 empirical studies establishes that transforming leaders are more successful than their transactional counterparts.



Bass adopted the terms authentic and pseudo-transformational to distinguish between ethical and unethical transformational leaders

Authentic transformational leaders are motivated by altruism and marked by integrity; allow followers free choice, followers are viewed as ends in themselves

Pseudo-transformational leaders are self-centered; they manipulate followers for their own goals



Applications of Transformational Leadership

Start small Employ the full range of leadership

behaviors Recognize the universal appeal of

transformational leadership



Cautions of Transformation Leadership

Equating success with transformation Leader centric Fosters dependency



9 charismatic and transformational attributes universally associated with outstanding leadership: 1. Motive arouser 2. Foresight 3. Encouraging 4. Communicative 5. Trustworthy 6. Dynamic 7. Positive 8. Confidence builder 9. Motivational



Transformational v. Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders are more person centered; followers have a strong connection to the leader, approaching idol worship; their success as leaders is based on their personal characteristics; and are result focused

Transformational leaders raise the morality of both the leaders and followers; transformational leaders prescribe how leaders should act; and they are much less prone to ethical abuses


Servant Leadership

The basic premise of servant leadership is that leaders should put the needs of the followers before their own needs.

Servant leaders are less likely to cast shadows by taking advantage of the trust of followers, acting inconsistently, or accumulating money and power.


Servant Leadership

5 concepts that appear to be central to Servant Leadership 1. Stewardship: Being a servant leader means acting

on behalf of others. 2. Obligation: Servant leaders take their obligations or

responsibilities seriously. 3. Partnership: Servant leaders view followers as

partners, not subordinates. 4. Emotional healing: Servant leaders help followers

and organizations recover from disappointment, trauma, hardship, and broken relationships.

5. Elevating purpose: Servant leaders also serve worthy missions, ideas, and causes.


Servant Leadership

Applications of Servant Leadership

Focus on followers Act as a steward Cultivate self-awareness Pursue elevating purposes


Servant Leadership

Cautions of Servant Leadership

Seems unrealistic May not work in every context Poses the danger of serving the wrong

cause or offering unwise service The term servant carries a negative

connotation


Servant Leadership

5 Strengths of Servant Leadership

1. Altruism: concern for others (followers) comes before the self

2. Simplicity: having one goal in mind—to serve others 3. Self-awareness: servant leaders take time to listen

to themselves and others and to reflect 4. Moral sensitivity: servant leaders are acutely aware

of the importance of pursuing ethical purposes that bring meaning and fulfillment to work

5. Ongoing development


Servant Leadership

Criticism of Servant Leadership

Cynicism: the first response when this model is presented; some equate servant leadership with passivity

A misunderstanding that equates service with weakness.

Misplaced goals: a problem for both servant leaders and followers

Members of some minority groups, particularly African Americans, associate the word servant with a history of slavery, oppression, and discrimination.


Servant Followership

Consultant and author Robert Kelley outlines 5 patterns for those who hope to become ideal servant followers: 1. Leading yourself: excellent followers know how to

lead themselves 2. Commit and focus: commit to ideas and causes

bigger than themselves 3. Develop competence and credibility: set high

personal standards; higher than the leader 4. Use your courageous conscience: serve as ethical

watchdogs 5. Disagree agreeably


Authentic Leadership

Proponents of Authentic Leadership Theory (ALT) identify authenticity as the “root construct” or principle underlying all forms of positive leadership.

The practice of authentic leadership leads to sustainable (long-term) and veritable (ethically sound) organizational performance.



4 Components of Authenticity

1. Self-awareness means being conscious of, and trusting in, our motives, desires, feelings, and self-concept.

2. Balanced processing describes remaining objective when receiving information.

3. Internalized moral perspective refers to regulating our behavior according to our internal standards and values, not according to what others say.

4. Relational transparency is presenting the authentic self to others, openly expressing true thoughts and feelings appropriate for the situation.



Applications of Authentic Leadership

Recognize the significance of authenticity Develop the four components of

authenticity Foster authenticity in others



Cautions of Authentic Leadership

Overstates the importance of authenticity Equates authenticity with morality Differing interpretations of authentic behavior Authenticity can be defined as a personal

characteristic or as a perception



For authenticity to have a positive influence on organizational behavior, observers must perceive that a leader’s behavior is authentic.

Authenticity then becomes a product of perception, not of personal beliefs and behaviors.

Being authentic is no longer enough. Leaders must also appear authentic.


Focus on Follower Ethics: Authentic Followership

Followers have the greatest impact on leaders when they develop psychological ownership, foster trust, and practice transparency.

Psychological ownership: Authentic followers feel like they “own” the organizations where they work and volunteer.

Trust: They build trust with their leaders by taking on challenges without being asked.

Transparency: By sharing their thoughts, values, and feelings, they help create transparent relationships with their leaders.


Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership

The aesthetic perspective emphasizes the sensory and emotional dimension of organizational life.

Successful leaders generate strong positive emotions and attributions. For example, President John F. Kennedy was youthful, energetic and glamorous.

Ethics is integral to aesthetic leadership.



University of Exeter leadership professor Donna Ladkin identifies three components that contribute to a beautiful leadership performance. The first is mastery. An ethical/beautiful leader is

competent and possesses the necessary skills and abilities to perform in a given moment.

The second component is coherence. The beautiful, ethical leader is authentic, acting in a way that is consistent with his/her message and purpose.

The third component is purpose. The beautiful leader serves the best interests of the community and improves the human condition.



Applications of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership:

Recognize the physical dimension of leadership

View leadership as a performing art Make aesthetic judgments



Cautions of Aesthetic (Beautiful) Leadership

Ignores the rational dimension of leadership

Definitions of beauty vary Performances can be dishonest


Leadership Ethics at the Movies: A Ripple of Hope

Discussion Questions:

Why did Kennedy decide to give the speech despite the warnings of police? What might have happened had he cancelled the rally or only given a brief formal statement announcing King’s death?

Why did Kennedy wait till this incident to talk publicly talk about the death of his brother?

What made his speech so powerful and beautiful?


Responsible Leadership

European researchers Nicola Pless and Thomas Maak believe that leaders can help their corporations become a force for global good through exercising responsible leadership.

Maak and Pless define responsible leadership “as a values-based and principle driven relationship between leaders and stakeholders who are connected through a shared sense of meaning and purpose through which they raise to higher ethical levels of motivation and commitment for achieving sustainable value creation and responsible change.”



Responsible leadership then manifests itself in the following roles:

The leader as steward The leader as servant The leader as coach The leader as architect The leader as storyteller The leader as change agent The leader as citizen



Applications of Responsible Leadership

Encourage corporate social responsibility Play the roles of the responsible leader Broaden your focus to outside the

organization



Cautions of Responsible Leadership

In the early stages of development Overlaps other theories Corporations are resistant to an expanded

social role Liberal bias Focuses exclusively on business leadership



Only responsible leadership incorporates globalization and stakeholder theory.

Responsible leadership theory is in the beginning stages of development, which accounts for many of its shortcomings.

Additional theoretical development may address what is perhaps the greatest concern about responsible leadership, which is whether this perspective can serve as a general theory of leadership ethics.


Taoism

Taoism (pronounced “Dowism”) is one of the world’s oldest philosophies, dating back to ancient China (600–300 B.C.).

The Tao is the shapeless, nameless force or “nonbeing” that brings all things into existence, or being, and then sustains them.

Ethical leaders and followers develop te, or character, by acting in harmony with the Tao, not by following rules and commandments.


Taoism

Taoists rely on images or metaphors drawn from nature and daily life to illustrate the characteristics of model leaders.

First image: An uncarved block of stone or wood is nameless and shapeless, like the Tao itself.

Second image: A child serves as another reminder that wise leaders don’t get caught up in the pursuit of power and privilege but remain humble


Taoism

Images (Cont’d) Third image: Water provides an important insight into

how leaders ought to influence others by illustrating that there is great strength in weakness.

Fourth image: Valley: Taoists highlight the importance of the yin, or feminine side of leadership, which is represented by the valley metaphor. Leaders should seek to be valleys (which reflect the yin) rather than prominent peaks (which reflect the yang).

Fifth image: the clay pot, which celebrates emptiness by elevating nothing to higher status than something.


Taoism

Applications of Taoism

Use “soft” tactics Focus on being, not doing Temper your use of power and privilege Follow nature’s example


Taoism

Cautions of Taoism

Denies reason Rejects codes and laws Is ambiguous about many moral issues Does not adequately explain evil


Taoism

Taoist principles provide an ethical framework for such important trends or themes in leadership studies as empowerment, innovation, teamwork, spirituality, and collaboration.

Taoism speaks most directly to the leader’s use of power and privilege.

The Taoist perspective also addresses environmental issues.


Taoism

There are some serious disadvantages to Taoist ethics:

In their attempt to follow nature, Taoists encourage leaders to empty themselves of, among other things, reason.

Although Taoism has much to say about the shadow of power and our relationship to the world around us, it is silent on many common ethical dilemmas.

One final concern should be noted: Taoism’s firm conviction that humans, in their natural state, will act morally seems to deny the power of evil.


Case Study: Transforming Clear Lake College

Discussion Questions: What elements of transactional and transforming

leadership did Sam exhibit? Was Sam a transformational or a pseudo-transformational

leader? How would you evaluate the actions of the college’s board

of directors? Have you ever had to confront a leader about her or his

behavior? What did you say or do? What was the outcome of the encounter? Would you do anything differently next time?

How do you determine when to remove a leader, particularly one who has a proven track record of success?


Case Study: From the Secret Service

Discussion Questions: Should Secret Service agents be held to a higher

ethical standard both on and off the job? Will the new rules and the appointment of a female

director prevent future scandals? What additional steps can the agency take to

change its culture? How can more women be encouraged to join Secret

Service protection teams? How can the agency reinforce the importance of its

mission?


Case Study: Patagonia

Discussion Questions: How does Yvon Chouinard function as a responsible

leader? Can you think of other business executives who also

meet the criteria for responsible leadership? Could leaders of publicly held corporations follow

Chouinard’s example? Should they try to do so? Does Patagonia put too much emphasis on the

environment? Who might be hurt by this commitment?

Should all states adopt benefit corporation laws? What are the potential benefits and costs of doing so?


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Documents

transformational elements

active transactional

term transformational

laissezfaire leaders

sage publications

range of leadership

transactional counterparts

tasks of followers