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PowerPoint Lectures forBio logy, Seventh Edit ion
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Chapter 55
Conservation Biology and
Restoration Ecology
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Overview: The Biodiversity Crisis
Conservation biology integrates the following fieldsto conserve biological diversity at all levels
Ecology
Evolutionary biology
Physiology
Molecular biology
Genetics
Behavioral ecology
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Restoration ecology applies ecological
principles In an effort to return degraded ecosystems to
conditions as similar as possible to their
natural state
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Tropical forests
Contain some of the greatest concentrations ofspecies
Are being destroyed at an alarming rate
Figure 55.1
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Throughout the biosphere, human activities
Are altering ecosystem processes on which weand other species depend
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Concept 55.1: Human activities threaten
Earths biodiversity Rates of species extinction
Are difficult to determine under natural
conditions
The current rate of species extinction is high
And is largely a result of ecosystemdegradation by humans
Humans are threatening Earths biodiversity
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The Three Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity has three main components
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity in a vole population
Species diversity in a coastal redwood ecosystem
Community and ecosystem diversity
across the landscape of an entire region
Figure 55.2
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Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity comprises
The genetic variation within a population
The genetic variation between populations
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Species Diversity
Species diversity
Is the variety of species in an ecosystem orthroughout the biosphere
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An endangered species
Is one that is in danger of becoming extinctthroughout its range
Threatened species
Are those that are considered likely to become
endangered in the foreseeable future
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Conservation biologists are concerned about
species loss Because of a number of alarming statistics
regarding extinction and biodiversity
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Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson has identified
the Hundred Heartbeat Club Species that number fewer than 100
individuals and are only that many heartbeats
from extinction(a) Philippine eagle
(b) Chinese river
dolphin
(c) Javan
rhinoceros
Figure 55.3a
c
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Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Identifies the variety of ecosystems in thebiosphere
Is being affected by human activity
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Biodiversity and Human Welfare
Human biophilia
Allows us to recognize the value of biodiversityfor its own sake
Species diversity
Brings humans many practical benefits
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Benefits of Species and Genetic Diversity
Many pharmaceuticals
Contain substances originally derived fromplants
Figure 55.4
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The loss of species
Also means the loss of genes and geneticdiversity
The enormous genetic diversity of organisms
on Earth
Has the potential for great human benefit
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Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services encompass all the
processes Through which natural ecosystems and the
species they contain help sustain human life
on Earth
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Ecosystem services include
Purification of air and water
Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
Cycling of nutrients
Moderation of weather extremes
And many others
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Four Major Threats to Biodiversity
Most species loss can be traced to four major
threats Habitat destruction
Introduced species
Overexploitation
Disruption of interaction networks
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Habitat Destruction
Human alteration of habitat
Is the single greatest threat to biodiversitythroughout the biosphere
Massive destruction of habitat
Has been brought about by many types of
human activity
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Many natural landscapes have been broken up
Fragmenting habitat into small patches
Figure 55.5
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In almost all cases
Habitat fragmentation and destruction leads toloss of biodiversity
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I ntroduced Species
Introduced species
Are those that humans move from the speciesnative locations to new geographic regions
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Introduced species that gain a foothold in a
new habitat
Usually disrupt their adopted community
(a) Brown tree
snake, intro-
duced to Guam
in cargo
(b) Introduced kudzu thriving in South Carolina
Figure 55.6a, b
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Overexploitation
Overexploitation refers generally to the human
harvesting of wild plants or animals
At rates exceeding the ability of populations of
those species to rebound
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The fishing industry
Has caused significant reduction in populationsof certain game fish
Figure 55.7
Di ti f I t ti N t k
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Disruption of I nteraction Networks
The extermination of keystone species by
humans
Can lead to major changes in the structure of
communities
Figure 55.8
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Concept 55.2: Population conservation focuses
on population size, genetic diversity, and
critical habitat
Biologists focusing on conservation at the
population and species levels Follow two main approaches
S ll P l ti A h
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Small-Population Approach
Conservation biologists who adopt the small-
population approach
Study the processes that can cause very small
populations finally to become extinct
Th E ti ti V t
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The Extinction Vortex
A small population is prone to positive-
feedback loops
That draw the population down an extinction
vortex
Small
population
InbreedingGenetic
drift
Lower
reproduction
Higher
mortality Loss of
genetic
variabilityReduction in
individual
fitness and
population
adaptability
Smaller
population
Figure 55.9
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The key factor driving the extinction vortex
Is the loss of the genetic variation necessary toenable evolutionary responses to
environmental change
C St d Th G t P i i Chi k d th
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Case Study: The Greater Prair ie Chicken and the
Extinction Vortex
Populations of the greater prairie chicken Were fragmented by agriculture and later
found to exhibit decreased fertility
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As a test of the extinction vortex hypothesis
Scientists imported genetic variation bytransplanting birds from larger populations
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The declining population rebounded
Confirming that it had been on its way down anextinction vortex
EXPRIMENTResearchers observed that the population
collapse of the greater prairie chicken was mirrored in a reduction in
fertility, as measured by the hatching rate of eggs. Comparison of
DNA samples from the Jasper County, Illinois, population with DNA
from feathers in museum specimens showed that genetic variation
had declined in the study population. In 1992, researchers began
experimental translocations of prairie chickens from Minnesota,
Kansas, and Nebraska in an attempt to increase genetic variation.
RESULTSAfter translocation (blue arrow), the viability of
eggs rapidly improved, and the population rebounded.
CONCLUSIONThe researchers concluded that lack of genetic
variation had started the Jasper County population of prairie
chickens down the extinction vortex.
Numberofmalebirds
(a) Population dynamics
(b) Hatching rate
200
150
100
50
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
Eggshatched(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990 1993-97
Years
Figure 55.10
M inimum Viable Population Size
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M inimum Viable Population Size
The minimum viable population (MVP)
Is the minimum population size at which aspecies is able to sustain its numbers and
survive
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A population viability analysis (PVA)
Predicts a populations chances for survivalover a particular time
Factors in the MVP of a population
Effective Population Size
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Effective Population Size
A meaningful estimate of MVP
Requires a researcher to determine theeffective population size, which is based on the
breeding size of a population
Case Study: Analysis of Gr izzly Bear Populations
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Case Study: Analysis of Gr izzly Bear Populations
One of the first population viability analyses
Was conducted as part of a long-term study ofgrizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park
Figure 55.11
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This study has shown that the grizzly bear
population
Has grown substantially in the past 20 years
Num
berofindividuals
150
100
50
01973 1982 1991 2000
Females with cubs
Cubs
Year
Figure 55.12
Declining Population Approach
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Declining-Population Approach
The declining-population approach
Focuses on threatened and endangeredpopulations that show a downward trend,
regardless of population size
Emphasizes the environmental factors thatcaused a population to decline in the first place
Steps for Analysis and I ntervention
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Steps for Analysis and I ntervention
The declining-population approach
Requires that population declines be evaluatedon a case-by-case basis
Involves a step-by-step proactive conservation
strategy
Case Study: Decline of the Red Cockaded
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Case Study: Decline of the Red-Cockaded
Woodpecker
Red-cockaded woodpeckers Require specific habitat factors for survival
Had been forced into decline by habitat
destruction
(a)A red-cockaded woodpecker perches at the
entrance to its nest site in a longleaf pine.
(b)Forest that can
sustain red-cockaded
woodpeckers has
low undergrowth.
(c)Forest that cannot sustain red-cockaded
woodpeckers has high, dense undergrowth that
impacts the woodpeckers access to feeding grounds.Figure 55.13ac
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In a study where breeding cavities were
constructed
New breeding groups formed only in these
sites
On the basis of this experiment
A combination of habitat maintenance and
excavation of new breeding cavities has
enabled a once-endangered species torebound
Weighing Conflicting Demands
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Weighing Conflicting Demands
Conserving species often requires resolving
conflicts
Between the habitat needs of endangered
species and human demands
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Concept 55.3: Landscape and regional
conservation aim to sustain entire biotas
In recent years, conservation biology
Has attempted to sustain the biodiversity of
entire communities, ecosystems, andlandscapes
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One goal of landscape ecology, of which
ecosystem management is part
Is to understand past, present, and future
patterns of landscape use and to make
biodiversity conservation part of land-use
planning
Landscape Structure and Biodiversity
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Landscape Structure and Biodiversity
The structure of a landscape
Can strongly influence biodiversity
Fragmentation and Edges
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Fragmentation and Edges
The boundaries, or edges, between
ecosystems
Are defining features of landscapes
(a) Natural edges.Grasslands give way to forest ecosystems in
Yellowstone National Park.
(b) Edges created by human activity.Pronounced edges (roads)
surround clear-cuts in this photograph of a heavily logged rain
forest in Malaysia.Figure 55.14a, b
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As habitat fragmentation increases
And edges become more extensive,biodiversity tends to decrease
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Research on fragmented forests has led to the
discovery of two groups of species
Those that live in forest edge habitats and
those that live in the forest interior
Figure 55.15
Corr idors That Connect Habitat F ragments
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Corr idors That Connect Habitat Fragments
A movement corridor
Is a narrow strip of quality habitat connectingotherwise isolated patches
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In areas of heavy human use
Artificial corridors are sometimes constructed
Figure 55.16
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Movement corridors
Promote dispersal and help sustainpopulations
Establishing Protected Areas
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stab s g otected eas
Conservation biologists are applying their
understanding of ecological dynamics
In establishing protected areas to slow the loss
of biodiversity
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Much of the focus on establishing protected
areas
Has been on hot spots of biological diversity
F inding Biodiversity Hot Spots
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g y p
A biodiversity hot spot is a relatively small area
With an exceptional concentration of endemicspecies and a large number of endangered
and threatened species
Terrestrial
biodiversity
hot spots
Equator
Figure 55.17
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Biodiversity hot spots are obviously good
choices for nature reserves
But identifying them is not always easy
Philosophy of Nature Reserves
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p y
Nature reserves are biodiversity islands
In a sea of habitat degraded to varyingdegrees by human activity
One argument for extensive reserves
Is that large, far-ranging animals with low-
density populations require extensive habitats
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In some cases
The size of reserves is smaller than the actualarea needed to sustain a population
Biotic boundary for
short-term survival;
MVP is 50 individuals.
Biotic boundary for
long-term survival;
MVP is 500 individuals.
Grand Teton
National Park
Wyoming
Idaho
43
42
41
40
0 50 100
Kilometers
Yellowstone
National
Park
Shoshone R.
Montana
Wyoming
Montana
Idaho
MadisonR.
GallatinR.
Figure 55.18
Zoned Reserves
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The zoned reserve model recognizes that
conservation efforts
Often involve working in landscapes that are
largely human dominated
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Zoned reserves
Are often established as conservation areas
(a)Boundaries of the zoned reserves are indicated by black outlines.
(b)Local schoolchildren marvel at the diversity of life in one of
Costa Ricas reserves.
Nicaragua
Costa
Rica
National park land
Buffer zone
PACIFIC OCEAN
CARIBBEAN SEA
Figure 55.19a, b
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Some zoned reserves in the Fiji islands are
closed to fishing
Which actually helps to improve fishing
success in nearby areas
Figure 55.20
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Concept 55.4: Restoration ecology attempts to
restore degraded ecosystems to a more natural
state
The larger the area disturbed
The longer the time that is required forrecovery
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Whether a disturbance is natural or caused by
humans
Seems to make little difference in this size-
time relationship
Recoverytime(years)
(logscale)
104
1,000
100
10
1
103 102 101 1 10 100 1,000 104
Natural disasters
Human-caused disasters
Natural OR human-
caused disastersMeteor
strike
Groundwater
exploitationIndustrial
pollution
Urbanization Salination
Modern
agriculture FloodVolcanic
eruptionAcid
rain
Forest
fire
Nuclear
bomb
Tsunami
Oilspill
Slash& burn
Land-
slide
Tree
fallLightning
strike
Spatial scale (km2)
(log scale)
Figure 55.21
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One of the basic assumptions of restoration
ecology
Is that most environmental damage is
reversible
Two key strategies in restoration ecology
Are bioremediation and augmentation of
ecosystem processes
Bioremediation
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Bioremediation
Is the use of living organisms to detoxifyecosystems
Biological Augmentation
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Biological augmentation
Uses organisms to add essential materials to adegraded ecosystem
Exploring Restoration
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The newness and complexity of restoration
ecology
Require scientists to consider alternative
solutions and adjust approaches based on
experience
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Exploring restoration worldwide
Truckee River, Nevada. Kissimmee River, Florida.
Equator
Figure 55.22
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Tropical dry forest, Costa Rica. Succulent Karoo, South Africa.
Rhine River, Europe. Coastal Japan.Figure 55.22
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Concept 55.5: Sustainable development seeks
to improve the human condition while
conserving biodiversity
Facing increasing loss and fragmentation of
habitats
How can we best manage Earths resources?
Sustainable Biosphere Initiative
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The goal of this initiative is to define and
acquire the basic ecological information
necessary
For the intelligent and responsible
development, management, and conservation
of Earths resources
Case Study: Sustainable Development in CostaRi
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Rica
Costa Ricas success in conserving tropical
biodiversity
Has involved partnerships between the
government, other organizations, and private
citizens
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Human living conditions in Costa Rica
Have improved along with ecologicalconservation
Infantm
ortality(per1,0
00livebirths)
200
150
100
50
0
1900 1950 2000
80
70
60
50
40
30
Year
Life expectancy
Infant mortality
Lifeexpectancy(years)
Figure 55.23
Biophilia and the Future of the Biosphere
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Our modern lives
Are very different from those of early humanswho hunted and gathered and painted on cave
walls
(a) Detail of animals in a Paleolithic mural, Lascaux, FranceFigure 55.24a
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But our behavior
Reflects remnants of our ancestral attachmentto nature and the diversity of life, the concept
of biophilia
(b) Biologist Carlos Rivera Gonzales examining a tiny tree frog in
PeruFigure 55.24b
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Our innate sense of connection to nature
May eventually motivate a realignment of ourenvironmental priorities