5–1 C H A P T E R 5 Individuals in Organizations: Perception, Personality, and Cultural Differences Jon L. Pierce & Donald G. Gardner with Randall B. Dunham.
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5–5–11
C H A P T E R 5
Individuals in Organizations: Perception, Personality, and Cultural Differences
Jon L. Pierce &Donald G. Gardnerwith Randall B. Dunham
1.1. Define perception, describe the perceptual process, Define perception, describe the perceptual process, and explain how perception affects organizational and explain how perception affects organizational behavior.behavior.
2.2. Explain what a self-fulfilling prophecy is and its Explain what a self-fulfilling prophecy is and its importance to managers.importance to managers.
3.3. Describe the Johari window and how it is used to Describe the Johari window and how it is used to improve employee interactions.improve employee interactions.
4.4. Describe attribution theory and how it is used to Describe attribution theory and how it is used to circumvent perceptual problems in organizations.circumvent perceptual problems in organizations.
5.5. Define personality and how knowledge of employees’ Define personality and how knowledge of employees’ personalities may be used by managers to promote personalities may be used by managers to promote organizational effectiveness.organizational effectiveness.
6.6. Describe the relevance of the following personality Describe the relevance of the following personality traits to organization behavior: organization-based traits to organization behavior: organization-based self-esteem, locus of control, Machiavellianism, and self-esteem, locus of control, Machiavellianism, and the “Big Five.”the “Big Five.”
7.7. Define culture and explain its importance to the Define culture and explain its importance to the management of organizations.management of organizations.
8.8. Describe Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions.Describe Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions.
The Importance of PerceptionThe Importance of Perception
• PerceptionPerception The process by which we become aware of, and give The process by which we become aware of, and give
meaning to, events around us.meaning to, events around us. Perception helps define “reality.”Perception helps define “reality.”
Objective realityObjective reality—what truly exists in the physical —what truly exists in the physical world to the best abilities of science to measure it.world to the best abilities of science to measure it.
Perceived reality—what individuals experience Perceived reality—what individuals experience through one or more of the human senses, and the through one or more of the human senses, and the meaning they ascribe to those experiences.meaning they ascribe to those experiences.
Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s perceived reality does not match objective reality.perceived reality does not match objective reality.
1.1. SensationSensation An individual’s ability to An individual’s ability to
detect stimuli in the detect stimuli in the immediate environment.immediate environment.
2.2. SelectionSelection The process a person uses The process a person uses
to eliminate some of the to eliminate some of the stimuli that have been stimuli that have been sensed and to retain others sensed and to retain others for further processing.for further processing.
3.3. OrganizationOrganization The process of placing The process of placing
selected perceptual stimuli selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for into a framework for “storage.”“storage.”
4.4. TranslationTranslation The stage of the perceptual The stage of the perceptual
process at which stimuli are process at which stimuli are interpreted and given interpreted and given meaning.meaning.
Physical Characteristics of StimuliPhysical Characteristics of Stimuli•ContrastContrast
The difference between one The difference between one stimulus and surrounding stimulus and surrounding stimuli that makes that stimuli that makes that stimulus more likely to be stimulus more likely to be selected for perceptual selected for perceptual processing.processing.
•NoveltyNovelty When the stimulus an When the stimulus an
individual senses differs individual senses differs from stimuli experienced in from stimuli experienced in the past.the past.
•IntensityIntensity The forcefulness that The forcefulness that
enhances the likelihood that enhances the likelihood that a stimulus will be selected a stimulus will be selected for perceptual processing.for perceptual processing.
•ChangeChange The variety that causes a The variety that causes a
stimulus to be selected for stimulus to be selected for perceptual processing.perceptual processing.
Characteristics of the PerceiverCharacteristics of the Perceiver
• MotiveMotive Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s
current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g., current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g., hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of the stimulus.the stimulus.
• PersonalityPersonality An individual characteristic that creates an increased An individual characteristic that creates an increased
likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the characteristic will be noticed.characteristic will be noticed.
The Perceptual Process (cont’d)The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
• OrganizationOrganization The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into
a framework for “storage.”a framework for “storage.” Stimuli become associated when they:Stimuli become associated when they:
Are similar in Are similar in physical resemblance.physical resemblance. Occur in close physical (space) proximity.Occur in close physical (space) proximity. Occur in close time proximity.Occur in close time proximity. Are used for figure-ground differentiation.Are used for figure-ground differentiation. Are used together to achieve closureAre used together to achieve closure——a perception of a perception of
the whole or to piece together a message.the whole or to piece together a message.
• Field-ground differentiationField-ground differentiation The tendency to distinguish The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that and focus on a stimulus that is classified as figure as is classified as figure as opposed to background.opposed to background.
The Perceptual Process (cont’d)The Perceptual Process (cont’d)
• TransitionTransition The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are
interpreted and given meaning.interpreted and given meaning. Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective
• Primacy effectPrimacy effect The disproportionately high weight given to the first The disproportionately high weight given to the first
information obtained about a stimulus.information obtained about a stimulus.
• Recency effectRecency effect The disproportionately high weight given to the last The disproportionately high weight given to the last
information obtained about a stimulus.information obtained about a stimulus.
• StereotypingStereotyping The generalization (application) of a person’s prior The generalization (application) of a person’s prior
beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during encounters with members of that class of objects.encounters with members of that class of objects.
• Selective perceptionSelective perception The selection of things consistent with one’s own The selection of things consistent with one’s own
personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are inconsistent with that viewpoint; inconsistent with that viewpoint;
A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs that conflict with new information.that conflict with new information.
• Expectancy effectExpectancy effect The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that
when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to reflect their expectations in a situation. reflect their expectations in a situation.
Self Perceptions: The Johari WindowSelf Perceptions: The Johari Window
FIGURE 5FIGURE 5–5–5
Openly shared data
A’s unshared data
B’s blind spots
Unknowns in therelationship
Future potential
B’s unshared data
A’s blind spots
Known to A
Relationship from A’s position
Unknown to A
Un
kn
ow
n t
o B
Kn
ow
n t
o B
Re
lati
on
sh
ip f
rom
B’s
po
sit
ion
One way to conceptualize the possible combinations of what you know about yourself and what others know about you.
Source: This model is a modification of the “Johari Window, “ a concept presented in J. Luft. 1970. Group Processes. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books.
• Characteristics of the person perceivedCharacteristics of the person perceived Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe
personality traits to people because they share certain personality traits to people because they share certain characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with others.others.
• Characteristics of the organizationCharacteristics of the organization An individual’s association with an organization affects An individual’s association with an organization affects
the perception of that individual.the perception of that individual. Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how
other individuals are perceived within the organization.other individuals are perceived within the organization.
• Characteristics of the perceiverCharacteristics of the perceiver Attribution theory—explains how people assign Attribution theory—explains how people assign
responsibility and the cognitive processes by which responsibility and the cognitive processes by which they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the behavior of others.behavior of others.
Locus of causality—the attribution of the observed Locus of causality—the attribution of the observed behavior of others to internal or external causes.behavior of others to internal or external causes.
Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects of external causes when we judge other people’s of external causes when we judge other people’s actions. actions.
• Self-understandingSelf-understanding The acknowledgement that you and people who interact The acknowledgement that you and people who interact
with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.
• Conscious information processingConscious information processing Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual
process and consciously questioning process and consciously questioning the accuracy of what you perceive.the accuracy of what you perceive.
• Reality testingReality testing The comparison of developed The comparison of developed
perceptions about a stimulus object perceptions about a stimulus object to another (objective) measure of the object.to another (objective) measure of the object.
• Personality (individual differences)Personality (individual differences) The characteristics or traits that describe how people The characteristics or traits that describe how people
are likely to behave in a given situation.are likely to behave in a given situation. Determines how a person will react to a managerial Determines how a person will react to a managerial
practice.practice.
• Pitfalls in assessing personalityPitfalls in assessing personality Making hasty judgments about personalities.Making hasty judgments about personalities. Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm
Determinants of PersonalityDeterminants of Personality
• Nature (heredity)Nature (heredity) The assumption that part of personality is biologically- The assumption that part of personality is biologically-
based and predetermined.based and predetermined.
• Nurture (environment)Nurture (environment) The assumption that The assumption that
personality is shaped personality is shaped primarily by life primarily by life experiences, experiences, especially those especially those of early childhood.of early childhood.
Dimensions of PersonalityDimensions of Personality
• Self-esteem (self-concept)Self-esteem (self-concept) How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their
abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.
Other Dimensions of PersonalityOther Dimensions of Personality
• Locus of controlLocus of control The degree to which people believe their actions The degree to which people believe their actions
determine what happens to them in life.determine what happens to them in life. Internal locus of controlInternal locus of control—occurs when people believe —occurs when people believe
that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the determinants of their destiny.determinants of their destiny.
External locus of control—External locus of control—occurs when people believe that occurs when people believe that external factors such as luck, external factors such as luck, other people, or organizations other people, or organizations are the determinants of are the determinants of their destiny.their destiny.
Other Dimensions of Personality Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)(cont’d)• MachiavellianismMachiavellianism
Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional behavioral approach by individuals to organizational behavioral approach by individuals to organizational participation in meeting their personal objectives. participation in meeting their personal objectives.
The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner that will meet one’s own needs.that will meet one’s own needs.
The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its impact on others.impact on others.
Cultural Differences Among Cultural Differences Among Organizational MembersOrganizational Members
• Culture definedCulture defined How a society perceives the world How a society perceives the world
and how it should operate based and how it should operate based on the beliefs, values, attitudes, on the beliefs, values, attitudes, and expectations for behavior that and expectations for behavior that the society believes to be good, the society believes to be good, effective, desirable, and beneficial.effective, desirable, and beneficial.
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)
• Individualism-collectivismIndividualism-collectivism The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to
act as individuals, as opposed to a group.act as individuals, as opposed to a group.
• Power distancePower distance The acceptance of large differences The acceptance of large differences
in power between the most and least in power between the most and least powerful in society.powerful in society.
• Uncertainty avoidanceUncertainty avoidance The degree to which cultures differ The degree to which cultures differ
in the extent to which they tolerate in the extent to which they tolerate uncertainty.uncertainty.
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) cont’dcont’d• Masculinity-femininityMasculinity-femininity
The degree to which a society displays mostly The degree to which a society displays mostly traditionally male or traditionally female traits.traditionally male or traditionally female traits.
• Time orientationTime orientation The degree to which cultures The degree to which cultures
possess a short or long possess a short or long perspective on time.perspective on time.