87 5. PHARMACOLOGICAL SCREENING OF GISEKIA PHARNACEOIDES 5.1 ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY STUDY 5.1.1 Introduction Medicinal plants play a key role in the human health care because of their efficacy, safety and lesser adverse effects. When herbal drugs are used as a therapeutic substance for treating various ailments, it becomes an essential requirement to fulfill the guidelines formulated by World Health Organization (WHO). WHO guidelines have given one of the important criteria to establish the safety profile of the herbal preparation (WHO report, 1991), Numerous plants have been screened for their various biological activities in an attempt to replace the standard drugs. However, the herbal preparations have shown to control different diseases (Argueta et al., 1994) such as diabetes (Virdis et al., 2003), cancer (Hecker, 1968), syphilis, asthma, chest infections, rheumatism (Correia, 1994), leprosy (Bunkill 1985); hypertention (Tchikaya et al., 2003), mouth ulcer and throat problems, gastrointestinal disorders (kudi et al., 1999; Akinpelu 2001 Goncalves 2005; Taylor 2005) etc. Most of these plant species have not been subjected to chemical, toxicological, pharmacological or clinical investigation and have been ignored by national health authorities for many decades. The lack of
81
Embed
5. PHARMACOLOGICAL SCREENING OF GISEKIA PHARNACEOIDESshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/4565/10/10_chapter 5.pdf · 5. PHARMACOLOGICAL SCREENING OF GISEKIA PHARNACEOIDES 5.1
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
87
5. PHARMACOLOGICAL SCREENING OF
GISEKIA PHARNACEOIDES
5.1 ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY STUDY
5.1.1 Introduction
Medicinal plants play a key role in the human health care because of
their efficacy, safety and lesser adverse effects. When herbal drugs are used
as a therapeutic substance for treating various ailments, it becomes an
essential requirement to fulfill the guidelines formulated by World Health
Organization (WHO). WHO guidelines have given one of the important
criteria to establish the safety profile of the herbal preparation (WHO report,
1991),
Numerous plants have been screened for their various biological
activities in an attempt to replace the standard drugs. However, the herbal
preparations have shown to control different diseases (Argueta et al., 1994)
such as diabetes (Virdis et al., 2003), cancer (Hecker, 1968), syphilis, asthma,
was collected from the local Horticulture Department.
(ii) Solution of GPP, GPC or GPM was prepared by dissolving each
of extract substance in propylene glycol. Different
concentration (25, 50, 100 and 200mg) of each of extract
solution was prepared by diluting the stock solution, in
propylene glycol, using normal saline. This serves as test drug.
(iii) The reference drugs- Piperazine citrate or albendazole was
prepared by dissolving them in normal saline at a concentration
of 15mg/ml.
147
(iv) A 10% propylene glycol in normal saline was used as
experimental control – treatment.
(v) Saline was prepared and used to treat the normal control
group.
Experiment
Pheretima pothuma was placed in petridish containing four different
concentrations (25, 50, 100 and 200mg) each of GPP, GPC and GPM
solutions. Each petridish was placed with 6 worms and observed for paralysis
or death (Nargund 1999; Vigar 1984). The mean time for paralysis was noted
when no movement of any sort could be observed, except when the worm was
shaken vigorously; time of death of worm (min) was recorded after
ascertaining that worms neither moved when shaken nor when given external
stimuli. In the same manner piperazine citrate or albendazole was included as
reference compound. These observations were compared with those of
controls.
5.6.3 Results
The crude extracts samples which were used to evaluate anthelmintic
activity, showed variable times at different concentrations and the mean time
values were calculated for each parameter (Kulkarni 1999) and presented in
Fig 41 and Table 20. The crude extract of GPP showed the significant
anthelmintic effect causing death of the worm at all the concentrations but the
time of death was different in each case. However, when we observed the
148
response of worms in case of paralysis, there was significant variation among
the results produced by the different extracts at different concentration like
25, 50, 100 and 200 mg/ml. The GPP showed more significant effect on
paralyzing the worms, in terms of paralysis time, at every concentration
compared to that of GPC and GPM. Similar observations were made in the
anthelmintic activity as well.
5.6.4 Discussion
The effect of extracts on the paralysis or helminthiasis of the worm,
according to the results (Table 20) may be indicated as GPP > GPC > GPM.
In particular, the GPP (Petroleum ether extract) exhibited an increased
paralytic as well as helminthiatic effect over albendazole at the given
experimental concentrateons (Table. 20). This may be due to the increased
level of extraction of tannins in the GPP followed by GPC and then GPM, as
the GPP is the low polar solvent and hence tend to extract more amount of
tannin. The data presented in the Table. 20 and the observations made there
of, lead to the conclusion that the different degree of helminthiasis of the
different extracts are due to the level of tannins present in the compounds.
Tannins, the secondary metabolite, occur in several plants have been
reported to show anthelmintic property by several investigators. (Yesilada et
al., 1993; Sezik et al., 1997; Niezen et al., 1995; Khan and Diaz-Hernandez,
1999; Athnasiadou et al., 2001; Waller et al., 2001 ; Niezen et al., 1998).
Tannins, the polyphenolic compounds, are shown to interfere with energy
generation in helminth parasites by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation
149
(Martin, 1997) or, bind to the glycoprotein on the cuticle of the parasite
(Thompson and Geary, 1995), and cause death. Coming to the chemistry of
nematode surface, it is a collagen rich extracellular matrix (ECM) providing
protective cuticle that forms exoskeleton, and is critical for viability. The
collagen is a class of proteins that are modified by a range co- and post-
translational modification prior to assembly into higher order complexes or
ECMs (Page and Winter 2003). The mammalian skin also consists largely of
collagen in the form of fibrous bundles. In leather making industry, vegetable
tannins are commonly used in the tanning operation of leather processing that
imparts stability to collagen of skin matrix through its reactivity and hence
make the collagen molecule aggregate into fibres. This results in the loss of
flexibility in the collagen matrix and gain of mechanical property with
improved resistance to thermal or microbial / enzymatic attack. Similar kind
of reaction is expected to take place between the nematode cuticle (the
earthworm) and the tannin of Gisekia pharnaceoides, possibly by linking
through hydrogen bonding, as proposed in this study. This form of reactivity
brings toughness in the skin and hence the worms become immobile and non
functional leading to paralysis followed by death.
STATISTICAL ANALYSES
The data were subjected to analysis of variance and the significant
differences among the mean compared with students `t' test using SPSS PC+
software.
150
REFERENCE
Abd-El-Aleem SA, Ferguson MW, Appleton I, Kairsingh S, Jude EB, Jones K, McCollum CN, Ireland GW. 2000; Expression of nitric oxide synthase isoforms and arginase in normal human skin and chronic venous leg ulcers. J Pathol ,191:434–42.
Akhtar, M.S., Iqbal, Z., Khan, M.N., Lateef, M., 2000. Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants with particular reference to their use in animals in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Small Ruminant Research 38, 99–107.
Albert, D., Zundorf, I., Dingermann, T., Muller, W.E., Steinhilber, D.,Werz, O., 2002. Hyperforin is a dual inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-1 and 5-lipoxygenase. Biochemical Pharmacology 64, 1767-1775.
Alderton WK, Cooper CE, Knowels RG. 2001. Nitric oxide synthes, structure, function and inhibition. Biochemistry Journal. 357:593 -615.
Ames, B.N., Shigenaga, M.K., Hagen, T.M., 1993. Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 90, 7915-7922.
Anonymous, 1953. British Pharmacopoeia. General Medical Council, the Pharmaceutical Press. 17, Bloomsbury square, London, W CI.P.
Argueta, A., Cano,A., Rodarate,M.E., 1994. Atlas de las plantas Medicinales de la Medicina Tradicional Mexicana. Instituto Natcional Indigenista, Mexico, DF, pp 1786.
Arnao M.B., Cano A. and Acosta M. 1998. Total antioxidant activity in plant material and its interest in food technology. Recent Research and Development in Agriculture and food chemistry 2: 893-905.
151
Aruoma O.I., Murcia A., Butler J. and Halliwell B. 1993. Evaluation of the antioxidant and prooxidant actions of gallic acid and its derivatives. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 41: 1880 – 1885.
Athnasiadou, S., I. Kyriazakis,F. Jackson, R. L. Coop. 2001. Direct anthelmintic effects of condensed tannins towards different gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep: In vitro and in vivo studies. Vet. Parasitol. 99, 205-219.
Auddy B, Ferreira M, Blasina F, Lafon L, Arredondo F, Dajas F, Tripathi P C, Seal T & Mukherjee B, 2003. Screening of antioxidant activity of three Indian medicinal plants, traditionally used for the management of neurodegenerative disease, J Ethanopharmacol, 84,132.
Aydin,S., Demir, T., Ozturk,Y., Baser,K.H.C., 1999. Analgesic activity from roots of Anagelica pubescens. Planta Medica 61, 2-8.
Ayello, E.A., 2005. What does the wound say? Why determining etiology is essential for appropriate wound care. Advances in Skin Wound Care 18, 98-109.
Bekerecioglu M, Tercan M, Ozyazan I 1998. The effect of Ginkgo biloba (Egb 761) as a free radical scavenger on the survival of skin flaps in rats. Scand J Plast Reconstr Hand Surg 32: 135–139.
Bittar, M., de Sousa, M.M., Yunes, R., Lento, R.A., Delle-Monache, F., Cechinel-Filho, V., 2000. Antinociceptive activity of I3, II8-Binaringenin, a bioflavanoid present in plants of the Guttiferae. Planta Medica.
Blois M.S., 1958. Antioxidant determinations by the use of stable free radical, Nature, 26, 1199.
Bondet.V., Brand –Williams.W and Berset C.1997. Kinetics and mechanisms of antioxidant activity using the DPPH free radical method. Lebensmitted Wissenschaft and Technologie 30: 609-615.
152
Brand –Williams W., Cuvelier M.E., and Berset C. 1995. Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. Lebensmitted Wissenschaft and Technologie 28: 25-30.
Bunkill., H.M., 1985. In: Farinhes, A.-D. (Ed), The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa, vol. 1, 2nd ed. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, pp 346-349.
Campbell I C & Abdulla E.M., 1995. Strategic approaches to in vitro neurotoxicology, in Approaches and methods: Neurotoxicology (Academic Press London) 495.
Cano A., Hernandez-Ruiz.J., Garcia-Canovas F., Acosta M. And Arnao M.B. (1998). An end-point method for estimation of the total antioxidant activity in plant material. Phytochemical analysis 9: 196-202.
Cao G., Prior R.L., Cutler R.G. and Yu B.P. 1997a. Effect of dietary restriction on serum antioxidant capacity in rats. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 25: 245-253.
Chatterjee, T.K., Chakravorty,A., 1993. Wound healing properties of the new antibiotics (MT81) in mice. Indian Drugs 30, 450 – 452.
Chen B, Deen W M. 2001. Analysis of the effects of cell spacing and liquid depth on nitric oxide and its oxidation products in cell culture. Chemical Research and toxicology 14: 135 – 147.
Chen Y, Zhen R, Jia Z, Ju Y. 1990. Flavinoids as super oxide scavengers and antioxidants. Free Radic Biol Med; 9: 19-21.
Chettibi S., Ferguson, M.W.J., 1997. Wound repair – an overview In: Gallin, J.I., Snyderman, R (Eds), Inflammation – Basic Princilpes and Clinical Correltes, Lippincot, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 865- 881.
Chopra, R.N., Nayar, S.L., Chopra,I.C., 1956. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. National Institute of Science Communication, New Delhi, India.
153
Clancy RM, Amim AR , Abramson SB. 1998. The role of nitric oxide in inflammation and immunity. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 41: 1141- 1151.
Coles, G.C., 1997. Nematode control practices and anthelmintic resistance on British sheep Farms. Veterinary Record 141, 91–93.
Corbett JA, MC Daniel ML. 1992. Does NO mediate autoimmune destruction of betacells? Diabetes 41: 897-890.
Correia, M.P., 1994. Dicionario de plantas Uteis do Brasil e das Exoticas Cultivadas, vol.63. Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal, Rio de Janeiro.1.
Corvazier E & Maclouf J, 1985.Interference of some flavanoids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with oxidative metabolism of arachidonic acid by human platelets and neutrophils, Biochim Biophys Acta 835, 315.
Cotran R S, Kumar V & Collins T, 1999. In Robbins pathological basis of diseases, 6th ed (Thomson Press (I) Ltd, Noida India) Association of clinical Biochemists of Indian publications, pp 577-580.
Dechameux T, Dubois F, Beauloye C, Wattiaux-de Conink S, Waniaux R. 1992. Effect of various flavanoids on lysosomes subjected to an oxidative stress. Biochem Pharmacol; 44: 1243 -1248.
Degif, T., Hahn,H.Z., 2001. Traditional treatment of skin disorders in Buta-jira, South Central Ethiopian Pharmaceutical Journal 19, 48-56.
Delorme, P., Jay. M., Ferry, S., 1977. I nventaire phytochimique des boraginaceae indigenes. Planta Medica 11, 5-11.
DiRosa,M., 1972. Biological properties of carrageenan. Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology. 66, 84-86.
154
DiRosa,M., Giround,J.P., Willoughby,D.A.,1971. Studies of the acute inflammatory response induced in rats in different sites by carrageenan and terpentine. Journal of pathology 104, 15-29.
Dorminguez E.T, Castro – Munozledo.F, Kuri-Harcuch, 2002. Growth factors and extracellular matrix proteins during wound healing promoted with frozen cultured sheets of human epidermal karatinocytes, Cell Tissue Res. 307 (1), 79 -89.
Draper H.H, and Hadley, M. 1990. Malondialdehyde determination as index of lipid peroxidation, Methods Enzymol. 186, 421 – 431.
Elisabetsky, E., Castilhos, Z.C., 1990. Plants used as analgesics by Amazonian caboclos as a basis for selecting plants foe investigation. International Journal of Crude Drug Research 28, 309-320.
Elizabeth K &Rao M N A, (1990). Oxygen radical scavenging activity of curcumin, Int J Pharm, 58 ,237.
Fabiyi, J.P. (1986) Production losses and control of helminths in ruminants of tropical regions. In: Parasitology – Quo radii? Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Parasitology, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, 435-442.
Garcia, M.D., Fernandez,M.A., Saenz, M.T., Ahumada, M.C., 1995. Anti-inflammatory effects of different extracts and harpagoside isolated from Scrophularia Frutescens. II Farmaco 51, 443-446.
Garcia-Argaez, A.N., Ramirez, Apan T.O., Delgado, H.P., Velazquez, G., Martinez-Vazquez, M., 2000. Anti- inflammatory activity of coumrins from Decatropis bicolor on TPA ear mice model. Planta Medica 66, 279-281.
Garret D.C. 1964. The quantitative analysis of drugs. 3rd edition. Vol(3). Chapman and Hall, Japan 456 – 458.
155
Geerts, S., Dorny, P., 1995. Anthelmintic resistance in helminths of animals and man in the tropics. Bull. Seance. Acad. r. Sci.Outre-Mer Meded. Zitt. K. Acad. overzeese Wet. 41, 401– 424.
Gil M.I., Tomas – Barberan F.A., Hess – Pierce B., Holcroft D.M., and Kader A.A., (2000). Antioxidant activity of pomegranate juice and its relationship with Phenolic composition and processing. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 49: 2480-2485.
Glyglewski R., Korbut R, Robak J & Swis J, 1987. On the mechanisms of antithrombotic action of flavanoids, Biochem Pharmacol, 36, 317.
Goncalves, J.L.S., Lopes, R.C., Oliveira, D.B., Costa, S.S., Miranda, M.M.F.S., Romanos, M.T.V., Santos, N.S.O., Wigg, M.D., 2005. In-vitro anti rotavirus activity of some medicinal plants used in Brazil against diarrhea. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 99, 403-407.
Grisham MB, Heuil JD, Wink DA. 1999. Nitric oxide I. Physiological chemistry of nitric oxide and its metabolites: Implication in inflammation. American Journal of physiology; 276: 315-321.
Gutteridge J.M.C., 1985. Age pigments and free radicals: fluorescent lipid complexes formed by iron and copper containing proteins, Biochim Biophys Acta, 834, 144.
Gyuatt, H.L. and Evans, D. 1992. Economic considerations for helminth control. Parasitology Today 8, 397-402.
Hajhashemi, V., G hanadi, A., Pezeshkian, S.K., 2002. Antinoceptive and anti-inflammatoru effects Satreja hortensis L. extracts and essential oil. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 82, 83-87.
Halliwell B. and Gutteridge J M C.1990. Role of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human diseases. Methods in Enzymology 186: 1-85.
Halliwell, B., Gutteridge J.M.C., Cross, C.E., 1992. free radicals, antioxidants and human disease: where are we now? Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 119, 598-619.
156
Hecker, E., 1968. Co-carcinogenic principles from oil of Croton tiglium and other Euphorbiaceae. Cancer Research 28. 2338-2349.
Heidari, M.R., Darban. M., 1999. Evaluation of the analgesic effect of Mellissa officinalis extracts by tail-flick test in mice. Physiology and Pharmacology 3, 81-87.
Hemmani T & Parihar M.S., 1998. Reactive oxygen species and oxidative DNA damage, Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 42, 440.
Henry L E A, Halliwell B &Hall D O ,1976. The superoxide dismutase activity of various photosynthetic organisms measured by a new and a rapid assay technique, FEBS Lett, 66,303.
Hj Baie , Sheikh, K.A., 2000. The wound healing properties of Channa striatus – cetrimide cream – wound contraction and glycosaminoglycan measurement. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 73, 15 -30.
Ho, C. T.; Chen, Q.; Shi, H.; Zhang, K. Q.; Rosen, R. T. 1992.Antioxidative effect of polyphenol extract prepared from various Chinese teas. Prev. Med. 21:520–525.
Hu. C.Q., Chang, J.J., Lee, K.H., 1990. Antitumor agents, 115. Seselidiol. A new cytotoxic polyacetylene from seseli mairei. Journal of Natural Products 53, 932-935.
Ialenti A., Moncada S & Di Rosa M., 1993. Modulation of adjuvant arthritis by endogenous nitric oxide, Brit J Pharmacol, 110, 701.
Iqbal Z, Muhammad Lateef, Abdul Jabbar, Ghulam Muhammadb, Muhammad Nisar Khan. 2005, Anthelmintic activity of Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait. F. flowers in sheep. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 102 ,256–261
Iqbal, Z., Lateef, M., Ashraf, M., Jabbar, A., 2004. Anthelmintic activity of Artemisia brevifolia in sheep. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 93, 265–268.
157
Jannsen PAJ. Niemegeers CJE, Dony JGH. 1963; The inhibitory effect of fentanyl and other morphine like analgesics on the warm water induced tail with drawl reflex in rats. Arzneimittel-Fersch .13:502-507.
Jovanovic SV, Steenken S, Tosic M, Majanovic A, Simic MG, 1994 Flavanoids as antioxidants. J.Am Chem Soc; 116: 4846 -4851.
Kamalakkannan N& Stanley Mainzen Prince P. 2003. Effect of Aegle marmelos fruit extract on tissue antioxidants in streptozotocin diabetic rats, Indian Journal of Exp Biol, 41 :1288.
Kaneko T, Tahara S& Matsu M, 1996. Retarding effect of dietary restriction on the accumulation of 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine in organs of Fischer 344 rats during aging, journal of Free Radical Biology and Medicine 23, 76.
Katzung, B.G., 2001. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 8th edition. Appleton and Lange, USA, pp. 523-525, 602-605.
Khan, L., P.A. Diaz-Hernandez 1999. Tannins with anthelmintic properties international workshop on Tannins in livestock and Human Nutrition. Waite campus, University of Adelaide.ACIAR proceeding, 92, pp. 130-139.
Knighton .D.R., Hunt T.K, Thakral, W.H., Goodson, 1982. Role of platelets and fibrin in the healing sequence: an in vitro studt of angiogenesis and collagen synthesis, Ann. Surg. 196 ,379 -388.
Kudi, A.C., Umoh, J.U., Eduvie, L.O., Gefu, J., 1999. Screening of some Nigerian medicinal plants for antibacterial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 67, 225-228.
Lewis, W.H., Elvin Lewis, M.P.H., 1977. Medicinal Botany Plants Affecting Man’s Health. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
158
Li CQ, Wogan GN, 2005 Nitric oxide as a modulator of apoptosis. Cancer Letters 226:1-15.
Lin J.S., Smith V. and Olcott H.S. 1974. Loss of free radical signal during induction period of unsaturated lipids containing nitroxide antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 22: 682-684.
Lowery, O.H., Rosebrough, N.J., Farr, A.L., Randall, R.J., 1951. Protein measurement with the folin phenol reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry 193, 265 -275.
Luttingar D. 1985. Determination of antinociceptive activity of drugs in mice using different water temperatures in a tail-immersion test. Journal of pharmacological methods 13:351-357.
Manley, K. and Bellman, L. (Eds), 2000. Surgical Nursing : Advancing practice. Churchill living stone, London. 67.
Marcocci L, Packer L, Droy – Lefaiz M T, Sekaki A& Gardes – Albert M, 1994. Antioxidant action of Ginko biloba extract Egb 761, Methods of Enzymol, 234 ,462.
Marklund SL and Marklund G . 1974. Invervement of superoxide anion radical in the auto-oxidation of pyrogallol and a convenient assay for superoxide dismutase. Eur J. Biochem. 47: 469-474.
Martin A. 1996. The use of antioxidants in healing. Dermatol Surg; 22: 156 -160.
Martin, R. J. 1997: Mode of action of Anthelmintic drugs. Vet. J. 154, 11-34.
Marx J.L. Oxygen free radicals linked too many diseases. Science, 235, 529.
Melissa Calvin. 1998. cutaneous wound repair. In: Wounds. A compendium of clinical research and practice. 10, 12-32.
159
Meyre-Silva, C., Yunes, R., Santos, A.R.S., Magro, J.D., Monache, F.D., Cechinel-Filho, V., 1999. Isolation of a C-Glycoside Flavonoid with antinociceptive action from Aleurites moluccana Leaves. Planta Medica 65, 263-294.
Middleton E, 1984.The flavanoids, Trends Pharmacol Sci, 5, 335
Miller, N. J.; Rice Evans, C. A. 1997. Factors influencing the antioxidant activity determined by the ABTS•+ radical cation assay. FreeRadic. Res. 26:195–199.
Mills, S., Bone,K., 2000. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, pp. 23-24. 31-34, 229-231.
Mitsuya k., Mizuta T., Kohno M., Hiramattsu M. and Nori A (1990). The application of ESR Spin-Trapping technique to the evaluation of SOD- like activity of biological substances. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan 6: 187 – 191.
Mittal CK, Mittal R, Galiotos JK. 2003. Nitric oxide: Regulations and clinical Revalance. In : Trends in clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory medicine, 1st , 83-87.
Moody.J.O., Robert.v.a., Connolly.J.D., Houghton.J.P., (2006) Anti-inflammatory activities of the methanolic extracts and an isolated furanoditerpene constituent of Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre (Menispermaceae). Journal of Ethanopharmacology 104, 87-91.
Morgen P.W, A.G.Binnington, C.W.Miller, D.A.Smith, A.Valliant, J.F.Prescott,1994. The effect of occlusive and semi occlusive dressings on the healing of acute full thickness skin wounds on the forelimbs of dogs, Vet. Surg. 23. 494 – 502.
160
Moseley R, Hilton JR, Waddington RJ, Harding KG, Stephens P, Thomas DW. 2004. Comparison of oxidative stress biomarker profiles between acute and chronic wound environments. Wound Repair Regen;12: 419–29.
Mursof, E.P. and He, S.1991. A potential role of papaya latex as an anthelmintic against patent Ascaridia galli infection in chicken. Hemera Zoa 74, 11-20.
Nadkarni, A.K., 1954. Indian Materia Medica. Popular Prakashan, Bombay, India.
Nargund L.V.G., 1999. Anthelmintic activity of 8-Fluoro-9-substituted (1, 3)–1,3,4-triazoles on pheretima pothuma , Indian Drugs, 36(2), 137-139.
Nguyen T, Brunson D, Crepsi CL, Penman BW, Wishnok JS, Tannenbaum SR. 1992. DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in-vitro proceeding of national Academy of science USA. 89: 3030-3034.
Niezen, J. H., G. C. Waghorn, W. A. G. Charleston, 1998: Establishment and fecundity of Ostertagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus colubriformis in lambs fed lotus (Lotus pedenculatus) or perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne). Vet. Parasitol. 78, 13-21.
Niezen, J. H., T. S. Waghorn, W. A. G. Charleston, G. C. Waghorn 1995: Growth and gastrointestinal nematode parasitism in lambs grazing either Lucerne (Medicago sativa) or sulla (Hedysarum coronarium), which contains condensed tannins. J. Agric. Sci. 125, 281-289.
Nishikimi M., Rao N.A and Yagi K. 1972. The occurrence of superoxide anions in the reaction of reduced phenazine methosulphate and molecular oxygen. Biochemical and Biophysical Researcation Communication 46: 894 – 854.
Ohkawa H, Ohishi N and Yagi K. 1979. Assay for lipid peroxides in animal tissue by thiobarbituric acid reaction. Anal Biochem; 95: 351-358.
161
Ohshima H, Tatemichi M, Sawa T. 2003.Chemical basis of inflammation induced caranogenesis. Archieves of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 417: 3-11.
Okawa M., Kinjo J., Nohar T., and Ono M., 2001. DPPH radical Scavenging activity flavanoids from some medicinal plants Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 24: 1202-1205.
Omeye S.T, Turnball .J.D and Sanbrlich H.E., 1979, Selected methods for the determination of ascorbic acid in animal cells, tissues and fluids, Meth Enzymol. 62: 1-11.
Page A.P., Winter.A.D 2003. Enzymes involved in the biogenesis of the nematode cuticle. 53: 85-148.
Panichayupakaranant.P., Kaewsuwan .S., 2004. Bioassay – guided isolation of the antioxidant constituent from Cassia alata L.leaves. Songklanakarin J.Sci.Technol. 26, 103-107.
Parkinson JF, Mitrovic B, Merrill JE, 1997. The role of nitric oxide in multiple sclerosis. Journal of molecular medicine. 75: 174-186.
Patel RP. MC Andrew J, Sellak H, White CR, JOH, Freeman BA, 1999. Biological aspects of reactive nitrogen species. Biochemica et Biophysica Acta, 1411:385-400.
Pathak,D., Pathak, K., Sigla, A.K., 1991. Flavonoids as medicinal agents: recent advances. Fitoterapia 62, 371-388.
Pawlak W, Kedziora J, Zolynski K, Kedziora-Koranatowska K, Blazezyk J, Witkowski P. 1998. Free radicals generation by granulocytes from men during bed rest. J Gravit Physiol; 5 (1): 131-132.
Perrisoud D & Testa B, 1982. Hepatic Pharmacology: Mechanisms of action and classification of antinecrotic hepatoproductive agents, Trends Pharmacol Sci, 3, 365.
162
Pratt D.E, 1992. Natural antioxidants from plant material, in Phenolic compounds in foof and their effects on health II: Antioxidants and cancer prevention (Acs Symposium Series 507) edited by M.Hang, C.Ho& C.Lee (American chemical society; Washington DC) 54.
Rao YK, Fang SH, Tzeng YM. 2006. Anti-inflammatory activities of constituents isolated from phylanthus polyphyllus. Journal of Ehtanopharmacology. 103: 181-186.
Rashed, A.N., Afifi, A.M., 2003. Simple evaluation of healing activity of a crude extract of Portuloca oleracea linn. (growing in Jordan). In Mus musculus JVI-1. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 88, 131-136.
Ratty A.K., Sunamoto J & Das N.P., 1998. Interaction of flavanoids with 1,1,-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl free radical, liposomal membranes and soybean lipoxygenase-1, Biochem Pharmacol, 37, 989.
Ray Gibanananda &Husain Syed Akhtar, 2002. Oxidants, antioxidants and carcinogenesis, Indian J Exp Biol, 40, 1214.
Re R, Pellegrini .N, Proteggente A, Pannala A, Yang M & Rice- Evens C, (1999) Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical cation assay, Free Rad Biol Med, 26 ,1231.
Rice –Evans C., Miller N.J., 1997. Factors influencing the antioxidant activity determined by the ABTS•+ radical cation assay. Free Radical Reasearch 26:195-199.
Rice-Evens, C.A., Miller, N.M., Paganda, G., 1996. Structure – Antioxidant activity relationships of flavanoids and phenolic acids. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 20, 933—956.
Robak J and Gryglewski R.J. (1988). Flavonoids are scavengers of superoxide anions. Biochemical Pharmacology 37: 837-841.
Rojkind M, Dominguez-Rosales JA, Nieto N, Greenwel P. 2002. Role of hydrogen peroxide and oxidative stress in healing responses.2, 86-88.
163
Ross R,1993.The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: a perspective for the 1990’s, Nature 362, 801.
Rotruck JT, Pope AL and Ganther HE Swanson AB, Hafeman DG and Hoekstra WG.Selenium: 1973 .Biochemical role as a component of glutathione peroxidase. Science; 179: 588-590.
Rudolph. R , (1979). Location of the force of wound contraction, Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 4, 547 – 551.
Saboc Thiernermannc. 1994. Invited orion: Role of nitric oxide in hemorrhagic, traumatic and anaphylactic shock and thermal injury shock.2: 145-155.
Said, M., 1969. Hamdard Pharmacopoeia of Eastern Medicine. Hamdard National Foundation, Karachi, Pakistan.
Sainani G S, Manika J S & Sainani R G.1997. Oxidative stress: a key factor in pathogenesis of chronic disease, Med Update, 1, 1.
Sanchez- Moreno C, 2002. Methods used to evaluate the free radical scavenging activity in foods and biological systems, Food Sci Tech Int, 8 ,121-137.
Sarkar D, Dutta A, Das M, Sarkar K, Mandlac chatterjee M. 2005. Effect of aloe vera on nitric oxide production by macrophages during inflammation Indian Journal of pharmacology . 37(6).371-375.
Satrija F, P. Nansen , S. Murtini , S. He. (1995) Anthelmintic activity of papaya latex against patent Heligmosomoides polygyrus infections in mice Journal of Ethanopharmacology 48 ,161-164.
Satyavati, G.V., Raina, M.K., Sharma, M., 1976. Medicinal Plants of India, vol. I. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Dehli, pp: 167–170, 201–206.
164
Selvemini D, Wang ZQ, Wyatt PS, Bourden DM, Morino MH, Manning PT, Currie MG, 1996. Nitric oxide: A key mediator in the early and late phase of carrageenan induced rat paw inflammation. British Journal of pharmacology; 118(4): 829-838.
Sezik, E.,Yesilada, E., Honda, G., Takaishi, Y., Takeda, Y., Tanaka, T., Traditional medicine in Turkey. X . Folk medicine central Anatolia. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 75, 95-115.
Shirwaikar Annie, K. Rajendran and Dinesh. 2004. Invitro antioxidant studies of Annona squamosa, Indian J. Exp. Biol. 142. 803
Sinha AK 1972. Colorimetric assay of catalase . Anal Biochem., 47; 389-394.
Skaper SD, Fabris M, Ferrari V, Carbonare MD, Leon A. 1997. Quercetin protects cutaneous tissue associated cell types including sensory neurons from oxidative stress induces by glutathione depletion: cooperative effects of ascorbic acid. Free Radic Biol Med; 22 (4): 669-678.
Sobota,R., Szwed, M., Kasza, A., Bugno, M., Kordula, T., 2000. Parthenolide inhibits activation of signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) induced by cytokines of the IL-6 family. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 267, 329-333.
Sosa, S., Balick, M.J., Arvigo, R., Esposito, R.G.,Pizza, C., Altinier, G., Tubaro, A., 2002. Screening of the topical anti-inflammatory activity of some Central American plants. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 81, 211-215.
Sreejayan N and Rao MNA 1997. Nitric oxide scavenging by curcuminoids, J.Pharm. Pharmacol., 49: 105-107.
Stadelmann, W.K., Digenis, V.D., and Tobin, G.R. 1998. Impediments to wound healing . Am. J. Surg., 176, S 39-47.
165
Sunilkumar.S.P., Sivakumar . H.G. 1998. Evaluation of topical formulations of aqueous extract of Centella asiatica on open wounds in rats, Indian J. Exp. Biol. 36 ,569 -572.
Tapiero, H., Ba, G.N., Couvreur, P., Tew, K.D., 2002. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and eicosanoids in human health and pathologies. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy 56, 215-222.
Taun, T.L. and Nichter,L.S. 1998. The molecular basis of keloid and hypertropic scar formation. Mol. Med. Today., 4, 19.
Taylor, L.N.D., 2005. The healing power of Rainforest Herbs: A Guide to Understanding and Using Herbal Medicinals. Square One Publisher, Garden City Park. P.535.
Tchikaya, F.O., Datte,V.J., Bantsiele, G.B., Offoumou, A.M., 2003. Effects pharmacologiques de l’extrait aqueux de Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) sur la pression sanguine arterielle de Lapin et sur I’ artere aorte de cobaye. Revue de Medicine et Pharmacopea Afriaine 17, 41- 46.
Thiemermann C. 1997. Nitric oxide and septic shock, General pharmacology. 29: 159-166.
Thompson, D. P., T. G. Geary 1995: The structure and function of helminth surfaces. In: Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Parasites (J. J. Marr, Ed.), 1st ed. Academic Press, New York, pp. 203-232.
Tran VH (1997) Antioxidant and free radical scavenging effects of some polyphenolic extracts from medicinal plants on wound healing. Abstract, PAN/Asian European Tissue Repair Society Post-satellite Meeting, November 2–3, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Tran VH, Hughes MA, Cherry GW .1996. The effects of polyphenolic extract from Cudrania cochinchinenesis on cell response to oxidative damage caused by H2O2 and xanthine oxidase. Abstract 27, First Joint Meeting of Chinese and Europian Tissue Repair Society, September 22–27, Xi’an, China.
166
Treget, E.E., Nedelec.B Scott.P.G. and Granary. A. 1997. Hypertrophic scars keloides and contractures. The cellular and molecular basis for therapy. Surg. Clin. North Am., 27, 701-730.
Tsao,R., Akhtar, M.H., 2005. Nutraceutical and functional foods. I.Curre trend in phytochemical antioxidant research. Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment 3, 10-17.
Van den Worm, E., B eukelman, C.J., Van den Berg, A.J.J., Kores, B.H., Labadie R.P., Van Dijk.H., 2001. Effects of methoxylation of apocynin and analogs on the inhibition of reactive oxygen species production by stimulated human neutrophils. European Journal of Pharmacology 433, 225-230.
Vigar Z., 1984. Atlas of medical Parasitology, 2nd edn., Publishing house, Singapore, 216-218.
Viniger R, Schriber Wand Hugo R. 1969. Biphasic deneopment of carrageenan oedema in rats. Journal of pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics; 166:96-103.
Virdi,J., Sivakami, S., Shahani,S., A.C., Banavalikar,M.M.,Biyani,M.K., 2003. Antihyperglycemic effects of three extracts from Momordica charantia. Journal of Ethanopharmacology 88, 107-111.
Waller, P. J., G. Bernes, S. M. Thomsborg, A. Sukumar, S. H. Richter, K. Ingebrigtsen, J. Hoglund 2001: Plants as de-worming agents of livestock in Nordic countries: historical perspective, popular beliefs and prospects for the future. Acta Vet. Scand. 42, 31-44.
Wang, H.; Cao, G.; Prior, R. L. 1996. Total antioxidant capacity of fruits. J. Agric. Food Chem. 44:701–705.
WHO. 1991. Progress report by the director general, document No A44/20, 22nd march, World Health Organization, Geneva.
167
Willet, W.C., 1994. Diet and health-what should we eat? Science 26, 532-538.
Winter CA, Risley EA and Nuss GW 1962. Carrageenan induced in hind paw of the rats as an assay for anti-inflammatory drug. Proc.Soc. Exp.Biol. Med., 11: 544-547.
Wisemann H, Halliwell B. 1996. Damage to DNA by reactive oxygen species and nitrogen species: role in inflammatory disease and progression to cancer. Biochem J; 313: 17-19.
Ya C, Gaffney SH, Lilly TH, Haslam E. 1988. Carbohydrate – polyphenol complexation. In: Hemingway RW, Karchesy JJ, eds. Chemistry and significance of condensed tannins. New York: Plenum Press;
Yeo J.H., Lee, K.W., Kim, H.C., Lyun, Y., Kim, S.Y., 2000. The effect of PVA /chitosan/fibran blended spongy sheets on wound healing in rats. Biology and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 23, 1220 -1223.
Yesilada, E., Sezik, E., Honda, G., Takaishi, Y., Takeda, Y., Tanaka, T., 1999. Traditional medicine in Turkey. IX . Folk medicine in north – west Anatolia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 64, 195-210.
Yokozawa T., Chen C.P., Dong E., Tanaka T., Nonaka G.I., and Nishioka I. 1998. Study on the inhibitory effect of tannins and flavanoids against the 1,1-diphenyl -2-picrylhydrazyl radial. Biochemical Pharmacology. 56: 213-222.
Yoshida T., Mori K., Hatano.T., Okumura T., Uehara I., Komagoe K., Fujita Y. and Okuda.T., 1989. Studies on inhibition mechanism of autoxidation by tannins and flavanoids. V.Radical – Scavenging effects of tannins aand related polyphenols on 1,1-diphenyl -2-picrylhydrazyl radial. Chemical Pharmaceutical Bulletin 37: 1919-1921.
Youdim K.A & Joseph J A, 2003. A possible emerging role of phytochemicals in age – related neurological dysfunctions: a multiplicity of effects, Free Rad Biol Med, 30, 583.