Coordination and regulation: Endocrine systems Chapter 5
May 13, 2015
Coordination and regulation: Endocrine systems
Chapter 5
Our external environment often changes, but our internal environment must stay
constant, how can this be achieved?
The FluidsThe fluids in most mammals can be separated along the
following linesFluid
Intracellular
Cytosol
Extracellular
Plasma Interstitial fluid (aka
tissue fluid)
Cerebro-spinal fluid
Lymph
There is constant exchange between these fluids, so the makeup of one is often a very good indication of the makeup of the others
HomeostasisIn order to maintain function, our bodies are
required to operate within some very narrow limits
The mechanisms used to detect, react and restore homeostasis are:The Endocrine SystemThe Nervous System
Variables subject to homeostasis
NutrientsTemperature water Ions, such as Na+, Ca+,
Cl− pH (hydrogen ion
concentration)
Blood volumeBlood pressureOxygenCarbon dioxideRed blood cells.What can stop / prevent
homeostasis from being maintained?
InfectionTraumaToxic Substances
Auto-immune disease Inherited disordersExtreme conditions
Body systems involved in Homeostasis
Nervous
Endocrine (hormonal)
Respiratory
Circulatory
Digestive
Excretory
Integumentary (skin)
Hormones
Hormones maintain homeostasisStage 1: Detect
changeStage 2
Counteract change
This is most frequently accomplished via a negative feedback system
A (hopefully) useful analogy)SENSORS
detect if car speed is lesser or greater than 60kph
Going too fast
Going tooslow
Brake Accelerate
Go slowerGo faster
EFFECTORSincrease or decrease speed
Controlling Blood Glucose2 hormones produced in pancreas:GLUCAGON
Produced by alpha cellsStimulates liver to convert more glycogen to glucoseResults in more glucose being released in to bloodstream
INSULINProduced by beta cellsCauses the cells of the body to absorb glucose from the bloodResults in less glucose in the bloodstream
Blood glucose can be lowered by:
Blood glucose can be raised by:
Alpha cells decreasing production of glycogen
Alpha cells increasing production of glycogen
Beta cells increasing production of insulin
Beta cells decreasing production of insulin
DiabetesGlucose is usually reabsorbed from the filtrate
in the kidneysDiabetes can be detected through the presence
of glucose in a person’s urine.Diabetes mellitus (Type 1 diabetes) occurs as a
result of the body being unable to produce sufficient insulin.
Medication and exercise is required to control their blood glucose levels
Diabetics must keep a constant eye on their blood glucose levels
Not all feedback mechanisms are negative (but most are)
Cell CommunicationAdjacent cells can communicate through
communicating junctions (see chapter 2).How can cells that are further apart
communicate with each other?HORMONESHormones are produced by cells and can
then travel through the bloodstream, where they are picked up by the receptors of the intended cell
NOT ALL hormones go in to the bloodstream, some just go to the adjacent cell and others are excreted only in to the extracellular fluid.
Communication between adjacent cells
Cell CommunicationSome cells have receptors for only one type of
hormone, whilst others have two or moreSome hormones act only on one type of cell, whilst
some act on multiple typesSome hormones trigger different actions in different
cell types
Three types of HormonesAmino acid derivatives
Made in advanceStored in precursor form (in secretory vessicle)Leave cell via exocytosis (if a hormone) / simple
diffusion (if a precursor)Short life span
Steroid HormoneSynthesised on demand (from precursor in cell)Leave cell via simple diffusionLong life span
Protein hormones & peptide hormonesMade in advanceStored in precursor formLeave cell via exocytosisShort life span
Three types of Hormones
Cell Receptors & Transduction Pathway
Cell receptors can either be inside or outside the cell
Hydrophilic hormones will interact with receptors within the cytosol
The hormone will undergo the signal transduction process which will amplify the signal and transform it in to a chemical response
Hydrophobic hormones are unable to penetrate the membrane and must contact receptors on the surface of the cell membrane
In this case a secondary step of activating a G protein or other second messenger must take place before signal transduction can occur
The Next Steps
COMMON RESPONSES TO SIGNALSDNA is stimulated to begin the process of
protein productionor recipient cell is stimulated to release a
hormone
HORMONE ELIMINATIONWhen the hormone’s action is compled, it
does not linger in the body but is broken down and either recycled or excreted via kidneys or faeces.
Pheromones
Chemical signalling molecules excreted by animals or plants
Often used as sex attractantsAre species specific (see next point)Can only be detected and responded to if
the recipient has the appropriate receptorsCan be used to control insects
Males can be baited to insecticide trap, thereby breaking life cycle
Control movement and containment of biological control species (eg Cane Toads)
FAIL !!
Plant growth and development
Plant growth and development (formation of buds, expanding of leaves, lengthening of stems, ripening of fruits, etc) is influenced by internal and external factors.
Internal factorsHormones
External factors (egs)Light intensityDay lengthGravity
Plant HormonesSome stimulate growth & development, some
inhibit itTransported via the xylem, phloem or bothOnly small amounts required as response is
amplifiedEvident mainly in developing plantsCan act in different ways in different parts of the
plant5 distinct groups
AuxinsCytokyninsGibberellinsAbscisic AcidEthylene
AuxinsEnlargement and elongation of plant cellsEg of Auxin is in bambo – can grow up to
4cm per hour!!Produced in the growing tips of plants
IAA – Indoleacetic Acid (an Auxin)
Inhibits lateral growth and promotes apical dominance
Translaton: makes tree grow up instead of outBut wait – if you nip off the growth node
Uninhibited lateral growth takes precedence
This is a very useful technique used by gardeners
Tropisms and AuxinsExternal factors can affect hormone
productionThis is referred to as a tropism
Growing towards stimulus = positive tropismGrowing away from stimulus = negative
tropismeg Phototropism (growth towards light) is a
positive tropism
PhototropismIn even sun, auxin is evenly spreadIf sun is from one side, auxin moves to the
opposite side of the coleoptile (new shoot)Thereby making cells on the opposite side
elongate faster
GeotropismGeotropism is the movement with regard to
gravityAuxin always moves to the underside of the
plantThis promotes growth in coleoptile cells
and inhibits growth in root cellsSo coleoptile
grows against gravity (negative geotropism)
And Root grows with gravity (positive geotropism)
Gibberellins
Promote both cell elongation and reproduction
Also initiate seed germination andbud development
Initiate production of amylase
Breaks down starch in endosperm to glucose
Provides fuel for growth of embryo
Abscisic AcidInhibits growth and
closes stomata in fruit and leaves about to fall
Also used to close stomata in very hot conditions
Stomata closed by inhibition of potassium / sodium import in to guard cells
Before falling (called abscission), abscission zone is formed to form a protective layer against environment and bacterial infestation
EthyleneAirborne hormone that increases rate of respiration and
therefore quickens ripening of fruit and wilting of flowersRipening can be artificially controlled by regulating
exposure to ethyleneA few days after picking of flower / fruit, ethylene
production increases dramatically
Promote cell reproductionCytokinins
FlorigensIf they exist: control the flowering of plantsVery little is known about this mechanism
The burning of kerosene releases ethylene gas which would have made the fruit ripen more rapidly
Pair the plant hormone with its function
Auxin A) Promotes seed dormancy
Giberellins B) Promotes stem growth through cell elongation
Ethylene C) Promotes cell division
Abscisic Acid D) Stimulates seed germination
Cytokinins E) Increases rate of cellular respiration
B
D
E
A
C
C
D
Holiday Homework!!
Chapter 5 reviewQs 2-8
Biozonepp 56 - 60